Education technology

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY With recent developments and advances, technology in educational is virtually a new source of concern for educators, teachers and students. As with the repaid development areas, there as problems-both Internal and external ones-to be confronted and resolved. Technology is being successfully utilised in resolving many of our problems: hence its success is generalized to the teaching- learning situations. Bogus law assumes a stance of alarm in his study of cybernetic system, design and social change. With the shortcomings minimized or forgotten, the general success with technology in other fields develops pressure for school personal to accept technology by acquescences of the new technology which is based upon advocacy to a greater extent that it is based on supporting evidence. Thelen asserts that change goes through three distinct phases in education: (1) enthusiasm (2) vulgarization and spread and (3) Institutionalization. These may be applied to education technology in this manner: Enthusiasm, whereby each tool or technology is introduced with boisterous excitement by the advocates: (1) Vulgazization and spread, which is period of rationalization used to install the technology in the classroom as to do-it-yourself innovation and finally: (2) Institutionalization sets in: that is, traditional practices have been redefined to make them fit the rubrics of the innovation. (3) Meaning and Definition of Technology H.J. Leavit defines technology as a problem solving invention. The development of technology is essentially related to attempt to be rationale and to effect greater efficiency. McGrath has expanded the definition to included methods and strategies of teaching, library inventories and even text books. Technology is a means component: however, observation of practice and other evidence lead to the conclusion that frequently the advocates and the users tend to view them as ends. It is possible to classify technology for education into two categories: (1) systematic progarmmes (2) support/transport items. A systematic programme is conceived as a complete package of programme structured toward an end (a single text book or a CAI progamme). Support/transport items consist of technology of support such as projects, transparencies or film and transport including CCTV (closed circuit television), ITU (instructional television) and language laboratory. The computer alone is support/transport item. Further, this computer can be used as a tool to generate an evaluation of the mentioned systemic programme. One of the most complex and difficult task in education is the designing of the programmes. Our eagerness is to adapt to this newly advocated technology, we have not rationally and objectively sorted out the concept and knowledge-based items which lend themselves to computer programmes. Likely the same conditions describe other programmes in teaching machines. A similar but more common situation attends the use of television in education. Advocacy and the apparent use of it for the sake of use describe even current practice in far to many instances. Educational television (ETV) was the first development. These telecasts usually complete with commercial telecasting. Instructional television (ITV) is a later development which is usually a closed-circuit telecast. The essential differences attending ETV and ITV should generate a number of research questions. The telecasts reach a captive audience and programming is structured toward specific ends. They could range from concept appropriateness to the implications of their use on teachers and pupils behaviour. Origin of Educational Technology In spite of the psychological restechnology is creeping towards our economic and productive spheres of life. Radio has gone to villages, television too has come and industries are demanding large number of persons trained for specific technical jobs. Some of the industries have started their own apprentice courses. These training establishments in industries which are not familiar with industrial technology but also have arisen from its demand, are trying to adopt new educational technology in their training system. Before the sixties, the term educational technology was largely associated with audiovisual aids and teaching materials for classroom instruction. For most of the teachers and teacher-educators, by and large, the term conveyed a meaning of technology in education. The articles of Stanley Edward started creating interest in programmed learning. B.F skinner and S. Edwards emphasized the practical utility of programmed learning. Gradually the concept of technology of education has emerged in the field of education. Thus, the concept of 'educational technology' has developed during last few years. It is a new area in the discipline of education like: educational psychology, educational philosophy, educational measurement and evaluation. It makes a functional analysis of teaching learning process and locates the various components which operate at the stage of input to that of the output. Recently, National Council of Educational Research and Training realized its importance in the area of education and has established a centre of 'Educational Technology' (CET). The scientific inventions have influenced every aspect of human life, even our kitchen has been mechanised. Why is this? Because our education process could not remain untouched by these inventions. Teaching machines, radio, television, tape recorder, computer and language laboratory are now being used frequently in our teaching process. These machines are employed in all the phases of human knowledge: preservation, transmission andadvancement. A large number of students sitting at a distant places can be benefited by an effective teacher by using radio and television in the teaching process. This mechanization of teaching process has emerged new area of educational technology in education. Meaning of Educational Technology Educational Technology can be conceived as s science of techniques and methods by which educational goals can be realized. It is not primarily concerned with the task of prescribing the goals. Although, it does help in specifying the goals and translating them into behavioural terms. it is not one particular method of achieving educational goals like that of Montessori or strategy of developing self instructional material, propounded by B.F. Skinner. It is on the other hand a science on the basis of which various strategies and tactics could be designed for the realisation of specified goals. The process of teaching then, in this frame of reference involves arranging for the input and designing of situation of process through which a student learns to perform in a desired of specified manner. The desirability of a certain performance may be prescribed by sociologists, politicians, philosophers, legislators and other leaders of the society who take comprehensive view of the nation in society in prescribing the goals for education. The educational technology comes to see whether by a given process of situation the specified goals can be achieved and if so to what extent and if not what changes should be made in the process in order to achieve the specified goals? In this regard 'Educational Technology" involves four steps: Second Meaning of Educational Technology The second meaning of educational technology is the mechanization of educational process. The mechanization is being done in all the three phases of human knowledge very rapidly: Preservation of knowledge, Transmission of Knowledge and Advancement of Knowledge. The first phase of human knowledge is to preserve it. Prior to printing machines, most of the knowledge was memorized orally and transmitted by teachers to their students. But now the knowledge is being preserved in books by the use of printing machines. An effective teacher can preserve as a whole (voice, expression, actions and content by the use of tape recorder, video-tape, film, etc). In this way, educational technology is extension of teacher. The new generation can see and hear to an eminent teacher even after his death with the help of these machines. The second phase of human knowledge is to transmit the knowledge to new generation. A limited number of students can be benefited by the classroom teaching, but a large number of students sitting at far distant places can be taught with the help of radio and television. In this way educational technology has reversed the process of teaching. With the introduction of educational technology the teacher has started to knock the door of students. It is generally said that the educational technology knocks at the door. The open university, correspondenceeducation, distance education and continuing education are the major contributions of this innovations. The third phase of human knowledge is to advance the knowledge. The function of research process is to advance new knowledge. The scientific researches are encouraged in the present time because their findings are based on the collection and analysis of data. The computer services are employed in analysing the data. The computer and electronic machines yield more dependable results. Thus, the education process is being mechanized and this aspect of educational technology refers to 'hardware approach.' B.F. Skinner has said that our kitchens are more mechnized that education. Third Meaning of Educational Technology The basic question is to understand the meaning of educational technology where does it fit in the art-versus-science debate. It may be seen as a mediator, necessary for blending the science of learning with the art of teaching. These are the two major processes of education. B.F. Skinner states that no teacher can provide the frequency of reinforces or the necessary contingencies for optimal learning and that a teacher needs machines aid for this job. He is in agreement with this view of the mediating role. If technology is to serve a blending function for a science of learning and for art of teaching, it may also be seen as an attempt to apply the science of education. Silverman (1968) called this viewpoint 'Constructive Educational Technology'. It is the basic educational application dealing with: Another viewpoint Silverman on educational technology is called 'Relative Technology'. This is borrowing and applying technology that merely deals with procedures and devices which gathers material. The view point is more restricted one, for the technology here does not develop its own techniques and principles: it performs a rather simple service function in education. The educational technology borrows machines: radio, television, tape recorder, videotape from engineering and principles from physical science and behavioural sciences for developing, the teaching and training process of education. The technology of education and training provides the necessary frame work for planning and organizing resources so as to realize specific learning objectives. Assumptions about the Definitions of Educational Technology Before starting a definition of educational technology it is important to present basic assumptions: Definitions of Educational Technology The term 'educational technology' has been defined by several persons but most important definition are given below: G.O.M. Leith has given a comprehensive definition of educational technology: "Educational Technology is a systematic application of scientific knowledge about teaching learning and conditions of learning to improve the efficiency of teaching and training. In the absence of scientifically established principles, educational technology implements techniques of empirical testing to improve learning situations". The scientific knowledge of teaching learning refers to the following important features: Systematic study of teaching. - Objective knowledge of teaching. - Structure of teaching and its components. - Teaching tasks are goal oriented, and - Cause and effect relationship is established among the components of teaching. - The behavioural sciences do not still permit to take all these features in the knowledge of teaching with all satisfaction. According to B.C.Mathis: "Educational Technology refers to the development of a set of systematic methods, practical knowledge for designing, operating and testing schools". B.C.Mathis has emphasized the development of teaching methods and skills for testing the students performance. He has not given any stress on learning objectives. Robert A. Cox has defined the term 'educational technology' in the following manner: "Educational Technology is an application of scientific process to man's learningconditions to what has come recently to be called Educational or Instructional Technology." In this definition R.A. Cox has given major stress on the application learning conditions for child's development. He has ignored the input and output system of education. According Takshi Sakamato: "Educational Technology is an applied or practical study which aims maximum educational effect by 'controlling' such relevant facts as educational purposes, educational contents, teaching material, methods, educational environment, conduct of studies behaviours of instructors and interrelation between students and instructors." This definition seems to be comprehension. Takshi considers the major components of teaching learning process. He gives emphasis on input, output and process aspects of education. E.E. Haddan has given a functional definition of educational technology: "Educational technology is that branch of educational theory and practice and which is concerned primarily with the design and use of message which control the learning process:" Haddan's definition involves both the aspects-theory and practice and stresses on the application for effective communication in the learning process. According to Robert M. Gagne: "Educational technology can be understood as meaning the development of a set of systematic techniques, and accompanying practical knowledge for designing testing and operating schools as educational systems." In this definition Gagne has pointed out two aspects of educational system-development of teaching techniques and designing measuring instrument for testing student's performance. He considers process and output aspects but done not refer to the learning objectives. According to W. Kenneth Richmond (1970) : "Educational technology is concerned to provide appropriately designing learning situations which holding in view the objectives of the teaching of training bring to bear the best means of instruction." Richmond has started three characteristics of educational technology in this definition: Designing appropriate learning situations. - Realizing objectives of teaching or training. - Bring best means of instructions. Unwin (1968) has also defined the term educational technology in the following manner: "Educational technology is concerned with the application of modern skills and techniques to requirements of education and training. This includes a facilitation of learning by manipulation of media and methods, and the control of environment so far as this reflects on learning." In this definition Unwin has pointed out the following characteristics or educational technology: Application of modern skills and techniques in view of the objectives. - Facilitation of learning by media and methods. - Control of environment for effective learning. I.K. Davies has defined the term Educational Technology in the following manner "Educational technology is concerned with the problems of education and training context, and it is characterised by disciplined and systematic approach to the organization of resources for learning." This definition includes the problems of education and training but earlier definitions do not consider the problems of training. Davies has emphasised on the approach to the organization of learning resources. Indian educationist S.S. Kulkarni has defined the term educational technology in the following manner: "Educational technology may be defined as the application of the laws as well as recent discoveries of science and technology to the process of education." In this definition Kulkarni has pointed out that educational technology improves the education process by employing laws and principles of sciences and technology. He has ignored the input and output aspects of education. According to Shib K. Mitra: "Educational technology can be conceived as a science of techniques and methods by which educational goals can be realized." This definition seems to be comprehensive and communicates the true meaning of the term educational technology. The development of techniques and methods in educational technology are meant for realizing the goals of education. It may be noted by considering the above definitions that educational technology has the following characteristics: It involves input, output process aspects of education. It stresses upon developing methods and techniques for effective learning. It is an application of scientific knowledge to education and training. It includes the organization of learning, conditions for realizing goals of education. It emphasised designing and measuring instruments for testing learning outcome. It facilitates learning by control of environment, media and methods. On the basis of foregoing meaning and definitions the terms may be stated as: "Educational technology implies a behavioural science approach to teaching and conceptsdevelopment in psychology, sociology, communications, linguistics and other related fields. It also attempts to incorporate the management principles of cost materials. It involves media, methods, equipments and resources." Misunderstandings regarding Educational Technology There are several types of misunderstandings regarding the term 'educational technology'. The discussion about what is and is not implied by the term may be quite meaningful. Educational technology can be distinguished from: (1) Engineering Technology and Educational Technology: These are quite different from one another but engineering technology is supplementary to education. It is concerned with manufacturing devices-hardware for education like audio-visual aids, radio, television, etc. while educational technology concerns with planning, organizing teaching and designing testing for learning outcomes. The use of hardware approach to teaching and training may be called educational technology one. (2) Audio- Visual and Educational Technology : It audio-visual aids are used for achieving the objectives of education, these can be termed as hardware approach to educational technology. Generally audio-visual aids are used to make the lesson interesting and to involve more sense in learning process, then it may not be called educational technology. The audio-visual are mainly concerned with the process aspect of educational technology. (3) Programmed Instruction and Educational Technology : Programmed instructions is a strategy of teaching and learning and self-instructional texts or audio-tutors. It is a part but not the whole educational technology. It may be termed as 'software approach' or instructional technology. (4) Problems of Education and Educational Technology : Most of thepersons think that educational technology provides the solution to the problems of education. It is a panacea for educational problems. It does not provide the solution for all types of problems, but it helps in the development of teaching and training process of education. The problems of teaching learning may be solved effectively by educational technology. (5) Teacher and Educational Technology : It is an usual comment about educational technology that it will replace the human teacher and will create unemployment for teachers in our country. (6) Educational Psychology and Educational Technology : The principles of psychology which are applied to education, are the content of Educational psychology as well as educational technology. It creates confusion among the students of education. It is important to note when psychological principles are applied to improve the teaching learning process, are termed as educational psychology. The principles of psychology are applied to teaching learning process to achieve some specific objectives of education then it is known as educational technology. When scientific principles and behavioural principles are applied to educational activities for attaining specific objectives, it is the content of Educational Technology. This type of misunderstanding is the great hindrance to popularize and introduce this concept in our educational system. No technology can produce new thing because output depends upon the nature of input. Therefore, input aspect is more important and it depends upon a teacher. The instructional material cannot be prepared by educational technology. Thus, no technology of education can replace the human teacher from the process of education. It helps only in achieving the cognitive educational objectives, whereas affective and conative educational objectives are equally important for the all round development of a child. Now, it is quite evident that it will not replace the human teacher but will help him in improving teaching learning process. Educational technology is mainly concerned goals. It provides the scientific foundation to educational process. Objectives of Educational Technology The following are the major objectives of educational technology which are realized in all teaching learning situations. To determine the goals and formulate the objectives in behavioural terms. 1.To analyse the characteristics of the learner. 2.To organize the content in logical or psychological sequence. 3.To mediate between content and resources of presentation. 4.To evaluate the learner's performance in terms of achieving educational objectives. 5.To provide the feedback among other components for the modification of learning. 6.These, objectives of educational technology have been formulated in a communication context, within which all teaching and learning may be viewed. The objectives tend to occur in most applications in the approximate sequence provided here. Types of Educational Technology Lumsdaine (1964) has suggested that may he three educational technologies: (1) Educational Technology (2) Educational Technology (3) First Educational Technology or Hardware Approach It is known as hardware approach to education or audio-visual aids. Its origin lies in theapplication of physical science of engineering to education and training system. It has the major assumption that the technology of machine is the only mechanical aid to be deliberately designed and invented to fulfil an instructional requirements. All others audio-visual aids are designed and manufactured for improving communication system not for educational one, but now we are using them (radio, television, tape, recorderplayer, etc.) for instructional purposes. Initially these machines were developed for market rather than education. In this way, the process of teaching learning has been gradually mechanized through the use of teaching meachines, language laboratory, radio, television, tape-recorder, videotape and projectors. The mechanization is being introduced by preservation transmission and advancement of human knowledge. The teacher can deal with large and large group of students by his discourse on radio and television, indeed, the educational and training system are able to deal with an increased number of students and the cost per student has been reduced by the hardware approach to education. Silverman (1968) called this type of educational technology 'Relative technology'. This refers to borrow and to apply technology, machines and devices in the process of teaching and learning. This educational technology performs a simple service function in education. Second Educational Technology or Software Approach This educational technology is called 'Software approach' or instructional technology. It refers to the application of teaching learning principles to the direct and deliberately shaping of behaviour. Its origin lies in the application of behavioural science to the problems of learning and motivation. whereas mechanization of teaching learning is seen purely as a problem of presentation. This view of educational technology is closely associated with the modem principles and theory of teaching, model of teaching, theory of instruction, theory of teacher-behaviour and principles of programmed learning. It is characterized by task analysis,writing objectives in behavioural terms, selection of appropriate teaching strategies, reinforcement for correct responses and constant evaluation. Silverman (1968) termed this educational technology as 'Constructive educational technology' in this technology some constructive work is to be performed. It is the basic educational application dealing with: (1) the analysis of instructional problems, (2) the selection or construction of measuring instruments required to evaluate instructional outcome, and (3) the construction or selection of strategies and tactics to produce the desire educational outcome. In concentrates on the analysis, selection and construction of whatever is necessary to meet educational needs. These two meanings of educational technology, the first concerned with teaching aids like teaching machines and the second wish learning aids like programmed instructions are functionally related to each other. Third Educational Technology or instructional Designs This new technology is known by several names. It is essentially anew management approach, influencing management decision making in business, industry, government, military and the education. One term that has gained reasonable standardization is 'system analysis'. This technology has influenced the educational administration and organization to the great extent, It refers to the analysis and development of systems. One assumption is that no comprehensive system development can take place without prior system analysis. The term system analysis includes utilization of scientific mathematical techniques applied to organizational operations and problems of management as a part of decision making activities. During the last few years educational administrators have become sensitive to thepotential use of the new system technology in the educational operations. It has brought to educational management a scientific-quantitative approach for solving educational administrative problems. The third educational technology is not only the System Analysis or Management Technology, but involves three instructional designs: (1) Training Psychology, (2) Cybernetic Principles or Theory of Reinforcement, and (3) System Analysis. Aspects of Educational Technology Educational technology has three major aspects: Input, Output and Process. Input- It involves the entering behaviour of the learner. It includes previous achievements, abilities of student and level of motivation. 1. It concerns with the comprehension level of the learner. 2. It involves the skill of teaching and awareness of teaching and training methods. 3. It considers availability and skill for teaching aids. 4.Teaching Learning Process: It involves the means and devices of learning experiences. To generate situation for presenting the subject-matter systematically. 1.To select and use appropriate teaching strategies and tactics for desired learning structures. 2.To employ appropriate teaching aids for desired behavioural change. 3.To identify and use suitable communication techniques for the comprehension of the subject-matter. 4.To use suitable schedules of reinforcement for effective learning. 5.To establish rapport with students for effective teaching. 6.To evolve appropriate school environment by development good relations among students. It includes mainly the terminal behaviour of the activities. To identify the characteristics of content. 1.To clarify the objectives achieved through the content. 2.To analysis the stimuli. 3.To determine the characteristics of students desired activities. 4.The detailed description o these aspects is the content matter of educational technology. Steps of Educational Technology Educational technology has more applied features. In educational technology four steps are to be followed: First Step: In this step teaching learning process is analysed in behavioural terms and all the relevant elements are identified which are necessary for initiating teaching to achieve the goals of education. Second Step: Under this step those activities and elements are determined which are helpful in relating other relevant elements and reduce the probability of repetition of some elements in teaching. Third Step: In this step the effects of teaching are evaluated. It examines the appropriateness of different activities and elements of teaching in terms of achieving objectives of education. Forth Step: The major function of this step is to provide the feedback for improving teaching learning activities. The results of evaluation guide the teacher to modify his teaching activities for optimal realization of objectives. The educational technology claims to develop the teaching, learning, testing and training activities in terms of achieving educational goals. Current State of the Technology Performance Problem-solving Analysis Technology. 1. Performance Specification (Task Analysis) Technology. 2.Instructional Technology. 3.Need assessment (System design) Output: (a) Target audience analysis. (b) Formulation of objective, evaluation instruments. (c) Learning problems analysis- Strategies (Method relation) (d) Performance (job) aid (guidance versus recall) (e) Self guided construction (Personalized system of instruction PSI) (f) Self instructional programmes (Programmed text) 4. Motivational Technology Attitude change interventions. (a) Behaviour modification. (b) Contingency management. (c) Feedback system/ technique. 5. Environment/job Design Technology various techniques 6. Evaluation Technology External evaluation (a) Internal evaluation (b) Various techniques of evaluation (c) Forms/Type of Educational Technology The scientific inventions and technological developments have influenced every walk of human life. There is rapid mechanization in the field of industries, defence, trade, administration, etc. The educational process does not remain untouched by theses advances. Ithas resulted the introduction of technology in the field of education. There are several educational technologies and there is great overlap among them. Hence it creates sucontion among the students. The meaning, assumptions, content and characteristics of major educational technologies have been discussed below: Teaching Technology. 1. Instructional Technology. 2. Behavioural Technology. 3. Instructional Designs. 4. The major features of these technologies are as follow: 1. Teaching Technology Teaching is a social and professional activity. It is process of development. Teaching is a system of action which induce learning through interpersonal relationship. Teaching technology is an application of philosophical, sociological and scientific knowledge to teaching for achieving some specific learning objectives. Teaching is a purposeful activity. The ultimate goal of teaching is to bring alround development of a child. The knowledge and practice which help in realizing the goals, is the content matter of teaching technology. Teaching is art as well as science because teaching can be studied objectively and scientifically. Teaching has the scientific foundation. This has evolved the concept of 'teaching technology'. I.K. Davies, N.L. Gage,, Robert Gagne, Burner and Robert Glaser have contributed significantly in this area of education. Silverman has termed it as constructive educational technology. Assumptions: The content of 'Technology of Teaching' is based on the following assumptions: Teaching is scientific process and it has two major components: content and communication. 1. The desired learning structure may be generated with the help of appropriate teaching situations. 2. A close relationship may be established between teaching and learning. 3. The teaching activities can be modified and improved. 4. Teaching skills can be developed with the help of feedback devices. 5. The learning objectives may be achieved by performing teaching activities. Contents: I.K. Davies and Robert Glaser (1962) have developed the content of Technology of Teaching and classified into four elements. The following four steps Davies present the structure of the content. 1. Planning of Teaching: The first step includes content analysis, identification of objectives and writing objectives in behavioural terms. 2. Organization of Teaching: The second step content of teaching strategies and tactics for achieving the objectives of teaching. The rules of instruction are identified under this step. 3. Leading of Teaching: In the third step appropriate communication strategies of teaching are identified. The techniques of motivation are employed for leading the behaviour of the student. The knowledge regarding rapport between teacher and student is considered under this step. 4. Controlling of Teaching: The last step concerns with evaluation of teaching. The main focus of this step is to assess the learning objectives in terms of student's performance. The decision is taken about the realization of teaching objectives. The learner's performance provides the basis to the feedback for teachers and students. Robert Glaser has also provided four steps of teaching as a Basic Teaching Model: Instructional objectives. (a) Entering behaviours. (b) Instructional procedures. (c) Performance assessment. (d) In addition to these steps, teaching models, teaching theories and paradigms teaching strategies and tactics are also included in content of teaching technology. Characteristics of Teaching Technology The following are the main features of 'Teaching Technology'. All the three types of objectives: cognitive, affective and psychomotor can achieved by this technology. 1. The content structure can be related to communication structure achieving the learning objectives. 2. The philosophical, sociological, psychological and scientific knowledge can be applied to teaching process. 3. The teaching can be organized from memory level to reflective level. 4. The teaching process can be made effective with the help of teaching technology. 5. The teaching theories can be formulated by the use of teaching technology. 6. The pupil teachers and in service teachers can improve their teaching are make it more purposive by the use of the teaching technology. 7. Teaching technology implies the input, process and output aspects side by side. 2. Instructional Technology The instruction has significant role in human learning because most of the human learning is accomplished through instruction while animal learning through conditioning. The systematic actions which induce learning are known as instruction. The instructions stand fordevelopment of knowledge and beliefs. Instructional technology means a net work of techniques of devices employed to accomplish certain defined set of learning objectives. Instructional technology implies an application of psychological , sociological and scientific principles and knowledge to instructions for achieving the specific objectives of learning. B.F. Skinners, Robert Glaser, Norman A. Crowder, Mager and Gilbert have contributed significantly in the area of instructional technology. The origin of instructional technology is based upon psychological laboratory experiments. The most important example of instructional technology is 'programmed instruction'. The programmed instruction and instructional technology can be used interchangibly. S.M. McMurin (1970) has defined the term instructional technology comprehensively: "Instructional technology is systematic way of designing, carrying out and evaluating the total process of learning and teaching in terms of specific objectives based on research, on human learning and communication and employing a combination of human and nonhuman resources to bring about more effective instruction. Assumptions: The instructional technology involves the following assumptions: Content: The instructional technology involves the strategies and tactics which can be used outside and inside the classroom teaching. Teaching is an instruction but the instruction is not the teaching. The instructional technology consists of the following contents: Meaning and Definition of Instructional Technology. 1. Definition of Programmed Instruction and its origin. 2. Meaning assumptions and structure of linear programming and its principles. 3. Definition, assumptions, principles and structure of branch programming. 4. Meaning, assumptions, principles and instruction of mathematical programming. 5. Learning Controlled Instructions and computer assisted instructions. 6. Development of Programmed Instruction material (a) Planning (b) Writing frames (c) Evaluation. 7. Adjustive devices for controlling individual differences. 8. Ruleg and Egrule system. 9. Priming and promoting devices. 10. In addition to this, theory of instruction, principles of instruction, concept operant conditioning, theory of learning, operant condition, model of teaching and schedules of reinforcement are also included in instructional technology. Characteristics of Instructional Technology. The following are the major characteristics of instructional technology: 3. Behavioural Technology Psychology is science of behaviour. It studies the nature and structure behaviour of the organism. The learning is the modification of behaviour through activities and experiences. The educational activities designed to bring desirable change in the behaviour of the students. The psychology deals with every type of human behaviour. Thus, the behaviour technology has the wider field than educational technology. It covers the area of industry, defence, commerce, communication, administration, health, motivation, training, education, teaching and instruction. These areas require the specific type of behaviour. B.F. Skinner has referred to the term behavioural technology in his book 'Technology and Teaching'. The teaching and instructional activities are organized to achieve specific learning objectives by bringing the desirable behavioural change among the students. Thus the teaching and instructional technology are the two forms of behavioural technology. But in thefiled of education, it refers mainly to the teacher's behaviour. The behavioural technology is an application of scientific knowledge or modifying the teacher's behaviour. This is also termed as training technology. Amidon, Ned A. Falnders, B.F. Skinner, Ober and Anderson have contributed significantly in the area of behavioural technology. It is limited to the teacher's behaviour and teaching behaviour. Assumptions: The behavioural technology is based upon the following assumptions: Teacher-behaviour is observable. 1. Teacher-behaviour is measurable and quantifiable. 2. Teacher-behaviour is relative. 3. Tecaher-behaviour is social and psychological. 4. Teacher-behaviour is modifiable. Content: Behavioural technology has a wide field but the contributions of Ryan, Skinner, Flanders and Amidion are considered. The theory and practice of classroom teacherbehaviour are included in behavioural technology. It consists of the following content matter: The behavioural technology does not confine only to study the classroom teacher behaviour but mechanism of feedback devices for modification of teacher behaviour are also employed for developing teaching skills and competencies. Characteristics of Behavioural Technology It has the following important features: It has the focus to achieve the psychomotor objectives. The specific teaching skills can be developed. 1. The classroom behaviour components and flow of behaviour can be studied and suggestions can be given for desirable change. 2. The knowledge and practice of behavioural technology may be an important instrument for training college to produce effective teacher. 3. The proper reinforcement can be provided to pupil-teachers during teaching practice. 4. The content and communication aspects can be removed by the use of feedback devices. 5. The individual differences of pupil-teachers can be considered at the time of providing the training of teaching. 6. The teaching performance can be evaluated objectively and systematically. 7. The behavioural technology may be helpful in developing the theory of teaching. 4. Instructional Designs This is fourth type of educational technology. It involves three major concepts. Training Psychology, Cybernetic Psychology and System Analysis. The meaning assumptions, structure and applications of these concepts have been described the next chapter. Scope of Educational Technology Educational Technology has evolutionized the educational system. It has greatly influenced the teaching-learning process. We have been discussing too much about the 'theories of learning' in the field of education, but these theories can not provide the substantial solution of teaching problems. Now, there is shift from theories of learning to theories of teaching as a result of educational technology. The great importance of educational technology is in the formulation and development of teaching theories. In addition to that, following are the major advantage of educational technology: Working Group of Educational Technology: The Ministry of Education of India sets up a working group in December 1977 on Educational technology in order to identify the role of technology in education. The main task of this group was to determine the priority fields in education and to locate their financial aspects. The group was asked to consider the following issues of education: It is evident from the content that educational technology plays a significant role in the development of teaching, learning and training, It functions as a bridge between science of learning and art of teaching.