1
THE STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY Chapter One Pages 1-26 Learning Objectives: 1. Why do we may claim that psychology is a science? 2. What is the subject matter of psychology? 3. Who were Descartes, Locke, and Darwin? 4. Describe psychology’s roots. 5. Describe functionalism. 6. Describe behaviorism and psychoanalysis as approaches to psychology. 7. Describe humanism and Gestalt psychology. 8. Describe the different areas of psychology I. Preview A. A working definition of psychology is necessary. B. Modern psychology can be better understood by examining how psychology has changed through history. C. Psychology consists of many concerns and interests of modern man. D. The methods used by psychologists define psychology. II. What is Psychology? A. Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. B. Psychology is a science. 1. A science is an organized body of knowledge. a. mathematics b. astronomy c. chemistry 2. Psychology’s body of knowledge has been gained through scientific methods. a. Scientific methods are procedures involving observation, description, and repetition.
1
2
b. The scientific method observes basic processes. i. Observations are made about anything. ii. Explanations (hypothesis) are made, then tested. 3. Psychologists apply the results of scientific investigation to real world situations. a. criminal behavior b. sexuality c. drugs/alcohol C. The subject matter of psychology consist of internal and external “stuff”. 1. Psychologists study behavior (external stuff). a. Behavior is what we do. b. Psychologists must verify behaviors. 2. Psychologists study the internal activities. a. These activities include thoughts and feelings. b. Mental processes are such as perceiving, thinking, understanding, and remembering. c. Feelings are moods of an emotional reaction. COGNITIVE PROCESSES III. Psychological Approaches Past and Present No two psychologists are exactly the same. 1. beliefs 2. training 3. prejudice B. The roots of psychology can be found in poetry, religion, philosophy and science. 1. People have always looked for answers to the big questions; What is the purpose of my life? Why do I feel this way? Can I change? Why do people suffer and die? a. Descartes (1596-1650), a French philosopher, saw the body as a complicated machine, subject to natural laws, and able to be studied like anything else in nature. i. He believed the body and mind although separate interact with each other. ii. Because they interact, the mind can be studied. iii. Decartes called this mind-body relationship interactive dualism.
2
3
b. British philosophers focused on how the contents of the mind are acquired through experience. i. John Locke (1632-1704) believed people are born with empty minds or blank slate (tabula rasa). ii. Throughout life the mind is filled with ideas, thoughts, and memories that lead to certain kinds of behaviors. 2. Science progressed during the nineteenth century. a. Charles Darwin confirmed that humans are part of the animal world. i. The evolution of man is no different than anything else in nature. ii. Survival of the fittest means those that can successfully adapt to their environment. C. Psychology begins: The early years. 1. Wundt (1832-1920) founded the first psychological laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany in 1879. a. Wundt was interested in describing the contents of consciousness using strictly scientific methods. b. Wundt’s variety of psychology was called structuralism because of his interest in the structural elements of the mind. 2. William James (1842-1910), a philosopher at Harvard, disagreed with the structuralists’ view. a. James defined psychology as the “science of mental life.” b. James believed the mind could not be broken into parts. He believed the functions of the mind should be the focus of study, a philosophy called functionalism. (practical applications) c. The functionalists introduced the study of animals, children, tests, and surveys to psychology. d. James published Principles of Psychology in 1890 and went to help establish the philosophy of pragmatism. 3. Behaviorism is an approach to psychology emphasizing observable, measurable behavior.
3
4
a. Watson (1878-1958) at Johns Hopkins University developed the approach to psychology known as behaviorism. i. He argued that psychology must concentrate on the observable. ii. He felt that behavior was the appropriate subject matter of psychology. b. B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) developed the behaviorist approach. i. He attempted to demonstrate that behavior may be predicted by studying relationships between responses and their consequences. ii. He focused only on observable actions. iii. He argued that psychology should be defined as the science of behavior. 4. Psychoanalysis traces its roots to Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). a. This approach to psychology emphasizes the influence of the unconscious mind and instincts. b. Freud had a significant impact on how we think about ourselves. i. psychoanalysis does not rely on the scientific method ii. Freud’s insights and theory resulted from his study of his patients and himself. iii. From Freud comes psychology’s concern with diagnosis and treatment. 5. Humanistic psychology’s is an approach emphasizing the person as the most important element and their ability to reach their potential. a. This movement arose as a reaction against behaviorism and psychoanalysis. b. The founders were Rogers (1902-1987) and Maslow (19081970).
4
5
D. Current Approaches (p. 8) Today psychology uses an eclectic approach. 1. Biological 2. Humanistic 3. Psychoanalytic 4. Cognitive 5. Behavioral E. Psychology in the Real World: What Psychologists do. (p. 9) 1. Biological psychology is concerned with the interactions between the body and behavior. 2. Developmental psychologists study the physical and psychological development of the individual from birth to death. 3. Educational psychology is devoted to learning and memory. 4. Clinical psychology, the largest sub field, deals with the diagnosis and treatment of persons similar to what physicians do. 5. Counseling psychology involves treating individuals with less severe disorders. 6. Health psychology studies the relationship between psychological variables and physical health. 7. Cognitive psychology involves the investigation of the basic processes of the mind. 8. Social psychology studies how the behavior of an individual is effected by others.
III. Ethics In Psychological Research A. Ethical considerations are an important part of gathering of information. B. Human risk must be assessed. 1. Subjects’ confidentiality must be guaranteed. 2. Participation must be voluntary.
5
6
3. Subjects must give their informed consent. 4. Subjects should be debriefed after the research. C. Animal guidelines are also strict. 1. Animals should receive proper care. 2. Discomfort, illness, and pain should be minimized. 3. Subjecting animals to stress and pain is acceptable only if no other procedure is available. IV. Important Themes and General Principles A. Do no harm. 1. Questions about nature and nurture are not either/or questions. 2. Thoughts, feelings and behaviors result from an interaction of genetic influences (nature) and environmental influences (nurture). B. People are different. 1. Environments and experience plus genetic material makes each individual unique. 2. Psychological statements are general statements. C. People’s perception of reality varies. 1. Phenomenology is the study of events as they are experienced by the individual. 2. Individuals experience life differently. 3. Expectations and desires often drive perceptions of reality. D. Psychology is relevant to our daily lives because it has practical applications in the real world. 1. Behavior- destructive, dependent, angry 2. Family- marriage, children, death 3. Self- love, trust, meaning The Research Methods of Psychology Learning Objectives 1. Define naturalistic observation, and problems with using it. 2. Explain how surveys and case histories are used in psychology. 3. Discuss advantages and disadvantages of surveys and case histories.
6
7
4. Understand the process of doing an experiment, and be able to identify and define independent, dependent, and extraneous variables. 5. Discuss the ethical considerations that are unique to psychological research for both human and animal participants. 6. Describe general themes and principles that appear repeatedly throughout the study of psychology.
I. Observational methods in Psychology A. Naturalistic observation involves watching behaviors as they naturally occur. (p.15) 1. Observer bias may decrease objectivity. 2. Watching may change subjects’ behavior. 3. The behaviors may not occur when desired. 4. Naturalistic observation does not explain behaviors, but only describes them. B. Surveys collect information from a large number of subjects by interview or questionaire. (p.16) 1. Surveys ask a representative sample of people the same questions. 2. Surveys can provide a general database of people’s attitudes, preferences, or behavior about a topic or event. 3. The representativeness of the survey sample is important, and size really does matter. C. A case history provides in-depth information on one or a few persons studied over a long period. (p.15) 1. It uses various techniques, such as interviews or tests, to gather data. 2. Its major advantage is that it provides much detail. 3. The major disadvantage the information is about a small number of people sometimes one.
7
8
II. Experimental Methods in Psychology 1. Experiments involve relationships between events that can be manipulated and measured. a. Independent variables are the conditions the experimenter manipulates. i. lighting ii. temperature iii. room 2. Dependent variables depend on the independent variable. a. test scores b. alertness c. comfort level 3. Extraneous variables are all other variables that might influence. a. earthquakes b. typhoons c. power outages 4. The experimental group receives the “treatment”. 5. The control group does not receive the experimental treatment. It remains normal and unaffected by the “treatment”.
8