A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history Introduction

A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history 2/24/2004 A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history Introduction Scope and topics to be covered 1. Historical outline of the Near East: from 0 C.E. to 1600 C.E. (areas of Persian, Roman/Byzantine, and Islamic domination) 2. The foundation of modern Christian theology (Christians vs. Nasara) 3. The Bible (Old Testament vs. Torah, Gospel vs. Injil) 4. Historical outline of Christian Europe: from 1054 C.E. to 1914 C.E. (Christian sectarianism) Foreword “Praise be to God whom I praise and whose aid I implore. We take refuge in God from our own sins and from the evil of our acts. He whom God guides none can lead astray; and whom He leads astray none can guide. I testify that there is no God but He alone. He is without partner. The finest speech is the Book of God. He to whom God has made it seem glorious and made him enter Islam after unbelief, who has chosen it above all other speech of men, does prosper. It is the finest speech and the most penetrating. Love what God loves. Love God with all your heart and weary not of the Word of God and its mention. Harden not your hearts from it. Out of everything that God creates, He chooses and selects. The actions He chooses He calls good deeds; the people He chooses He calls ‘the chosen’; and the speech He chooses He calls good words. From everything that is brought to man, there is the lawful and the unlawful. Worship God and associate nothing with Him. Fear Him as He ought to be feared. Carry out loyally towards God with what you say with your tongues. Love one another in the Spirit of God. Verily God is angered when His covenant is broken. Peace be upon you.” [Second khutba of Prophet Muhammad, salla Allahu aleihi wa salem] 1 A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history 2/24/2004 1. Historical outline of the Near East: from 0 C.E. to 1600 C.E. [Sources: 1. Krieger, L.S., Neill, I., and E. Reynolds. 1997. World HistoryPerspectives on the Past, 5th edition. D.C. Heath and Company, a division of Houghton Mifflin Company; 2. Asad, Muhammad. 1975 (reprint). Islam at the Crossroads. Arafat Publications. 160 pages. 3. Kelly, J.N.D. Early Christian Doctrines. 2nd edition. Harper & Row Publishers, N.Y. (Oxford Univeristy lecturer in Patristic Studies).] Rough Religious Timeline 2000 B.C. Abraham (pbuh) is prepared to sacrifice his son. 1200 B.C. (?) Moses (pbuh) sent to redeem the children of Israel 950 B.C. Solomon (pbuh) builds the first temple in Jerusalem. 587 B.C. King Nebuchandnezzar of Babylon burns the Temple. 541 B.C. Some Hebrews return to Jerusalem and build a second Temple. 0 C.E. Birth of Jesus (pbuh). 30 C.E. Jesus (pbuh) teaches God’s message to the “Sons of Israel.” 33 C.E. Jesus (pbuh) is taken up to heaven by God. 70 C.E. The Romans destroy the Temple. 90 C.E. As Christian era begins, a new ritual develops, the Eucharist. 325 C.E. Nicean Council convened by Emperor Constantine* *”Anyone who affirms that the Father pre-existed the Son, or that the Son is a creature produced out of nothingness, or is subject to moral change or development, is formally declared a heretic.” 367 C.E. First official list of 27 books in the New Testament. 381 C.E. Doctrine of “One God in Three Persons” formally ratified. 570 C.E. Muhammad (pbuh) born in Mecca. 610 C.E. Muhammad (pbuh) claims to receive first revelation of Qur’an. 623 C.E./ 0 A.H. Muhammad (pbuh) and his Companions emigrate from hostile Makkah to friendly Madinah. 633 C.E. Muhammad (pbuh) dies in Medina. Ancient Persian empire: 600 B.C. to 330 B.C. Zorastrianism, ancient Babylon, and the Jews Zoroaster lived around 600 B.C. Nebuchadnezzar ruled Babylon from 605 to 562 B.C., and sacked Jerusalem and the temple of Solomon in 586 B.C., taking Jews into captivity. Persian empire, founded by Cyrus in 550 B.C., lasted about 200 years. 2 A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history 2/24/2004 Cyrus allowed Hebrews to return to Jerusalem in 538 B.C. to rebuild the city, at which time many portions of the Bible were first put to writing. Darius inherited the Persian empire, and made it a bureaucratic success with 20 governing provinces. Alexander the Great conquers Persia (Darius III) in 330 B.C. Hellenism, a mix of Greek and Eastern customs in born. Rome at its height: 0 C.E. to 200 C.E. ”While in the Islamic [State] there was no privileged nation…the idea underlying the Roman Empire was conquest of power and the exploitation of other nations for the benefit of the mother country alone. The famous “Roman Justice” was justice for Romans alone. The Romans never in reality knew religion. Their traditional gods were a pale imitation of Greek mythology. In no way those gods were allowed to interfere with “real” life. This was the soil out of which Western civilization grew…” (Asad, 1975) Rome as the crucible of modern Christianity Jews and all of Syria and Palestine came under Roman control around 65 B.C. Rome took over the semi- independent Jewish kingdom and made it the Roman province of Judea in 6 C.E. Roman law, peace, and common culture united the empire. Pax Romana was an ideal opportunity to spread a new religion. Paul influenced the growth of Christianity (see part 2) and resulting in established Christian churches in every major city from Jerusalem to Rome. Roman troops put down a rebellion in 66 C.E. by the Zealots, and destroyed the temple rebuilt 500 years earlier. Byzantine Empire inherits from declining Rome in the east: 200 C.E. to 563 C.E. Constantine’s victory two miles outside Rome was credited to the cross. Constantine accepts Christianity, putting an end to persecution of Christians. Constantine takes control of the western, then eastern empire, and moves the capital from Rome to Constantinople (330 C.E.) Christianity becomes the state religion of the Roman Empire (395 C.E.). Barbarians sack Rome (Visogoths, 410 C.E.; Vandals, 455 C.E.). Papacy remains intact in Rome, governing the Christian Church. Persian empire is a shadow of its former greatness In the centuries that followed Alexander the Great, the Persian and Byzantine empires exhausted themselves fighting each other, until the rise of Islam. 3 A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history 2/24/2004 Rise of the Islamic State: 622 C.E. to 1055 C.E. Foundation of Islamic State in Madinah: 622 C.E. (1 hijri) Prophe t Muhammad, sallallahu aleihi wa sallam, founded the Islamic state in Madinah after the Hijra from Makkah in 622 C.E. (1 hijri) Calipha Rashidun: 632 C.E. to 661 C.E. Abu Bakr (raa) – consolidated the example of the righteous Caliph, ordered compilation of Qur’an Umar Ibn al Khattab (raa) – under Umar, Syrian, Egypt, and most of Persia was conquered. Uthman bin Affan (raa) Ali ibn Abi Talib (raa) Ummayyad caliphate: 661 C.E. to 750 C.E. Husayn, grandson of Prophet Muhammad, saw, was killed North African succumbed to Islam Spain conquered (718 C.E.) Muslims turned back at Tours, France (732 C.E.) Muslims pushed to the Indus River valley Abbasid caliphate: 750 C.E. to 1055 C.E. Shi’ites denied authority of Umayyad and helped Abassids gain power, but were not well tolerated by Abbasids. Persians supported the Abbasids, descendents of Abbas, uncle of Prophet Muhammad, salla allahu aleihi wa sallam. Abassid’s moved the capital east to Baghdad. Andalus broke away from the Abbasid caliphate when the Abbasid’s came to power. The Abassid caliphate lost parts of Morocco (788 C.E.), Tunisa (800 C.E.), Persia, and Egypt (868 C.E.). In 945, a local Persian ruler (?) ended the caliph’s political power. Although caliph was still the religious leader of Islam, the power of the Abassid’s was broken. Selcuk Turks Large numbers of Turks moved into Islamic State around 970 C.E. First group of migrating Turks were known as Selcuk, after the family name. By 1000, Selcuks had converted to Islam, joining the Sunni Muslims, but they warred with other Muslims, capturing Baghdad in 1055 C.E. and ending the Abassid caliphate. Within 20 years, Selcuk Turks overwhelmed the Byzantines to occupy all of Asia Minor, coming close to Constantinople. Crusaders marching against Islam: 1096 C.E. to 1270 C.E. • In 1095 C.E., the Selcuk Turks had recently stormed Baghdad, taken Jerusalem, and conquered all of Asia Minor from the Byzantine Greeks. The Byzantine emperor appealed for assistance against the Turks. 4 A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history • • • • • • • • • 2/24/2004 • • Pope Urban II made a speech promising remission of sins and permanent glory in Heaven to those who would rescue the royal city, Jerusalem. In 1099 C.E., 12,000 knights captured besieged Jerusalem, massacred thousands of Muslims. Jews were herded into a temple and burned to death. Their “success” gained them a narrow strip of land 400 miles wide, from Edessa to Jerusalem. Edessa subsequently reconquered by the Muslims (Selcuk Turks). For the next two centuries, there were eight official Crusades (four major Crusades) and countless unofficial ones. The second Crusade (1147 C.E. to 1149 C.E.) was organized to recapture Edessa, but was defeated. After the second Crusade, in 1187 C.E., Europeans were shocked to learn that Jerusalem had fallen into Muslim hands again, with the leader Saladin. Thus, the Church appealed for a third Crusade, called the King’s Crusade. King Richard and Saladin respected each other and in 1192 C.E. agreed to a 3-year truce (Jerusalem remained under Muslim control, but unarmed Christian pilgrims could freely visit the city’s holy places. During the fourth Crusade (1202 C.E. to 1204 C.E. ), knights never made it to “rescue” of Jerusalem. Crusaders attacked Venice trading rivals in exchange for supplies, then sacked Constantinople, controlling it for 57 years. Greeks restored Byzantine Empire in 1261 C.E., but the breach between the Eastern Orthodox Church and Roman Catholic Church widened into an ugly and permanent split. The end of the Crusades signaled that the Middle Ages were drawing to a close. In 1291 C.E. Muslims recaptured the last of the Christian strongholds, in Acre. 1200 C.E. to 1400 C.E. Muslim conquest of India Mahmud (997C.E.), Muhammad Ghuri (1191C.E.) two Turkish sultans conquered much of India, with Muslims ultimately ruling from Delhi. Independent Hindu kingdoms survived only in Deccan, to the south. The conquest of Muslim Turks may have saved India from the Mongols, as the Muslim rulers were strong enough to turn them back. Ghengis Khan and the Mongols Ghengis Khan dies in 1227 C.E., but his conquests continued after his death His sons and grandsons were responsible for the massacre of millions and the destruction of some of Asia’s greatest cities, including Baghdad, Kiev (Russia), and China’s Sung dynasty). Baghdad was a wealthy city, with three round walls surrounding a perfectly round city. The center was the famous Green Dome of the caliph’s palace. Four broad avenues thrust into the heart of Baghdad, dividing the city into four equal quarters. Prosperous trade initiated the first use of “checks” by Muslims. 5 A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history 2/24/2004 Spread of Islam to Malaysia and Indonesia Before 1200, traders and settlers peacefully exported Indian and Hindu traditions into Southeast Asia. Between 1200’s to 1400’s, Muslim trades from Arabia and India brought their religion to the area. Islam became an important religion, along with Hinduism and Buddhism. Weakening Muslim India Timur the Lame, Tamerland (1398C.E.), descended from Genghis Khan, rode out from Turkestan to conquer as far as Delhi, India. His empire died with him (unlike Ghenghis Khan). The Turkish sultans who ruled the following century were weaker than their predecessors, and no single ruler was able to dominate India. 1400 C.E. to 1600 C.E. Mughals in India In 1526, Babur, another Turkish-Mongol conqueror, ended the Delhi sultanate for good after 320 years (1206-1526), founding the Mughal Dynasty, which became a byword for wealth and imperial splendor. Babur’s grandson, Akbar, was tolerant to Hindus, so much so that by the time of his death, he ceased to believe in Islam as the only true faith. Fall of Andalus (Muslim Spain) Well before the first Crusades, the pope had urged Christian knights to drive the Muslims (Moors) out of Spain. The centuries-long effort became known as the Reconquista. Ferdinand and Isabella conquered the last Muslim kingdom, Granada, in 1492. The Inquisition was reinstated to extract confessions or conversions from Jews and Muslims. If they did not convert, they were burned at the stake. Jews were expelled from Spain at this time, along with Muslims, with most exiles going to areas under the Ottoman Empire. The expulsion was a disaster for Spain, as it lost most of its Muslim and Jewish business and trade leaders. Rise of the Ottoman Islamic State Ottomans appeared on the borders of a weakening Byzantium Osman (1290-1326) was the first of 36 Ottoman sultans who ruled for 600 years. In 1354, Ottomans invaded the Balkana and circled Constantinople, but were nearly destroyed by Tamerlane in 1402. In 1453, Muhammad II conquered Constantinople, ending the 1,123 year-old Byzantine empire, sending shock wave across the Christian world. Ottoman State emerged as a great imperial power. In 1529, Ottomans were finally halted at Vienna. 6 A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history 2/24/2004 Muslims in America before Columbus [Sources: 1. Kennedy, Brent. 1994. Melungeuns: The Resurrection of a Proud People. Mercer University Press. 2. Quick, Abdullah Hakim. 1990. Deeper Roots: Muslims in the Caribbean before Columbus to the Present. AICCLA. 3. Diouf, Sylviane A. 1998. Servants of Allah: African Muslims Enslaved in the Americas. New York University Press. 4. Krieger, L.S., Neill, I., and E. Reynolds. 1997. World HistoryPerspectives on the Past, 5th edition. D.C. Heath and Company, a division of Houghton Mifflin Company.] Early Muslim-African expeditions to South America: World map (known world 957C.E./346A.H.) shows advanced knowledge of geography 500 years before Columbus (Quick, 1990), although Western Hemisphere is not known. Mali (“where the king lives”, Mandingo) became a powerful empire dominating Western Africa. Timbuktu became a famous center of Muslim learning in Africa. Mansa Musa of Mali (western Africa), 1255 C.E., and other African kings were reported by Quick (1990) to have equipped enormous exploratory fleets to the New World, many of which never returned. Language and other artifacts cited by Quick (1990) provides evidence of sustained, long-standing contact between African Muslims and native Americans (including North America) centuries before Columbus. Muslims fleeing Spanish “reconquista” of Andalus: Muslims and Jews were expelled from Andalus in 1492. Some Muslims emigrated and colonized the New World in advance of Columbus. Muslims provided most of the navigation or training or scientific equipment that made possible the wave of 16th century world exploration. Quick (1990) cites a report from Columbus, who observed upon his arrival in West Indies a ship looking like a Spanish galleon with ladies dressed in veils in the tradition of the Moors. Kennedy (1994) cites genetic evidence of present-day “Melungeuns” to the race of 15th century emigrants from Muslim Spain who fled direct persecution to the new world. Kennedy (1994) also cites a report from an English naval officer in the 16th century of white men living far inland having beards and falling to their faces several times each day in prayer. These Muslim immigrants subsequently inter- married with native Americans and were slowly forced, by white expansion, into the Appalachian Mountain areas of the rural southern states of today. Presently- identified Melungeuns, many of them now Christian, have similar genetic make- up to mid-Eastern peoples, including Turks. Kennedy (1994) cites a story of an American “Melungeun” in 1981 in Blacksburg, Virginia, who was beaten up because he was thought to resemble an Iranian. Spanish “reconquista” of Americas: Spain reached Americas. Portugal claimed Brazil. Pope drew a line of demarcation (longitude) dividing Spanish and Portuguese claims. Areas west of line were given to Spain. Areas to east, including present-day Brazil, were given to Portugal. According to Quick (1990) Spanish colonization of New World was, in effect, an extension of the reconquista of the Iberian peninsula (i.e., Muslim Andalus). 7 A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history 2/24/2004 The entire continent of Central and South America was subquently divided by the Pope (between Spain and Portugal) along a specific line of latitude, after bitter rivalry between the two countries. Meanwhile, the Portuguese explored West Africa at the urging of Prince Henry and finally reached India in 1498, securing the trade route and winning control of Indian Ocean from the Muslims. Later, France and England would found vast empires in North America. The following were factors encouraging European exploration (Krieger et al., 1997): • Search for spices and profits • Desire to spread Christianity (convert non-Christians and reconquer northern Africa) • Ability to use new technology (ship-building, and Muslim astrobabe and compass) Muslim slaves in the Americas: Portuguese began the slave trade in 1441 C.E. with slaves from Madeira, the Azores, and Cape Verde. The growth of slave trade from Africa was linked to the growth of European colonies in the Americas (mines, plantations, etc. needed labor). Muslim- African slaves (including the Mandingos) were banned by Spanish later in the slave era because of their dignity, adherence to their religion, and propensity for rebellion. Diouf (l998) mentions that there were no less than five pieces of anti-Muslim legislation. Why? Because Spanish Crown feared the expansion of Islam in America and deadly rebellion fomented by Muslim slaves and maroons (some successful). In 1550C.E., new instructions were given to the Casa de Contratacion again prohibiting blacks from the Levant and Guinea because they were “mixed with the Moors”. However, the edict was not respected (Diouf, 1998). The Mandikas were one of the most “notorious” of African Muslim slaves. Many of the slaves were literate, and some highly educated of noble families. Literate slaves often were used for plantation record-keeping, with notes written in Arabic. Several narratives survive of African slaves who won their freedom through writing home to family to redeem them. Abolitionists at the time incorrectly characterized these “educated and noble” Africans as “Arabized princes”, rather than slaves. Apologists of today incorrectly stereotype African slaves as “native” African animists, without religion of the true God. In fact, Diouf (1998) states that the percentage of Muslim slaves can never be accurately known, but among certain tribes of exported slaves, reliable estimates can be made. As late as the 1930’s, social workers on the southern U.S. coast were receiving written interviews of slave descendents with Muslim-derived names and faint memories of Muslim practices, long-abandoned. 8 A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history 2/24/2004 2. The foundation of modern Christian theology (Christians vs. Nasara) [Sources: 1. Maqsood, Ruqaiyyah Waris. 2000. The Mysteries of Jesus: A Muslim Study of the Origins and Doctrines of the Christian Church. Sakina Books, Oxford, UK. 2. Kelly, J.N.D. Early Christian Doctrines. 2nd edition. Harper & Row Publishers, N.Y. (Oxford Univeristy lecturer in Patristic Studies). 3. Asad, Muhammad. 1975 (reprint). Islam at the Crossroads. Arafat Publications. 160 pages.] “The end of the life of Jesus (peace be upon him), [called Isa, by Muslims] on earth is as much involved in mystery as his birth, and indeed the greater part of his private life, except the three main years of his ministry. It is not profitable to discuss the many doubts and conjectures among the early Christian sects and among Muslim theologians. The Orthodox Christian Churches make it a cardinal point of their doctrine that his life was taken at the Cross, that he died and was buried, that on the third day he rose in the body with his wounds intact, and walked about and conversed, and ate with his disciples, and was afterwards taken up bodily to heaven. This is necessary for the theological doctrine of blood sacrifice and vicarious atonement of sins, which is rejected by Islam. But some of the early Christian sects did not believe Jesus (pbuh) was killed on the Cross. The Basilidans believed that someone else was substituted for him. The Docetae held that Christ never had a real physical or natural body, but only an apparent or phantom body, and that his Crucifixion was only apparent, not real. The Marcionite Gospel (about A.C. 138) denied that Jesus (pbuh) was born, and merely said he appeared in human form. The Gospel of St. Barnabas supported the theory of substitution at the Cross. The Qur’anic teaching is that Christ was not crucified nor killed by the Jews, notwithstanding certain apparent circumstances which produced the illusion in the minds of his enemies; that disputations, doubts, and conjectures on such matters are vain; and that he was taken up to God.” [Footnotes by the translator, Abdullah Yusuf Ali, on verses 4:157-158.] Bismillah (In the name of God) 155. (They have incurred divine Displeasure): in that they Broke their Covenant; That they rejected the Signs Of God; that they slew The Messengers in defiance Of right; that they said, “Our hearts are wrappings (Which preserve God’s Word; We need no more)” – nay, God hath set the seal on their hearts For their blasphemy, And little is it they believe156. That they (Jews) rejected Faith; That they uttered against Mary A grave false charge (that she was unchaste); 9 A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history 2/24/2004 157. 158. That they said (in boast), “We killed Christ Jesus The son of Mary, The Messenger of God” – But they killed him not, Nor crucified him, But so it was made To appear to them, And those who differ Therein are full of doubts, With no (certain) knowledge, But only conjecture to follow, For of a surety They killed him notNay, God raised him up Unto Himself; and God Is Exalted in Power, Wise – [Qur’an 4:155-158 “The Women”] Isa, aleihi salam, comes with a message for Bani Israel – supported by Christian scripture In the Bible (New Testament), a Samaratin woman asks for help from Jesus (pbuh). The account says he (Jesus) says to the woman “I have been sent only to the house of Israel”. The woman, as the story continues , pleads, saying that even the dog gets crumbs from his master’s table. In the narration, Jesus takes pity and grants her request for a miracle, and God surely knows best. Therefore, it is supported in the existing Bible that the mission and message of Isa (as) was for Bani Israel only. 48. 49. 50. 51. Bismillah And He (God) will teach him (Jesus (pbuh)) the Book and Al-Hikmah (i.e. the Sunna, the faultless speech of the Prophets, wisdom etc.), (and) the Torah and the Evangel. And will make him [Jesus (pbuh)] a Messenger to the Children of Israel (saying): “I have come to you with a sign from your Lord, that I design for you out of clay, as it were, the figure of a bird, and breathe into it, and it becomes a bird by God’s permission; and I heal him who was born blind, and the leper, and I bring the dead to life by God’s permission. And I inform you of what you eat, and what you store in your houses. Surely, therein is a sign for you, if you believe. And I have come confirming that which was before me of the Torah, and to make lawful to you part of what was forbidden to you, and I have come to you with a proof from your Lord. So fear God and obey me. Truly! God is my Lord and your Lord, so worship Him (Alone). This is the Straight Path. [Qur’an 3:48-51 “Family of Imran”] 10 A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history 1. Isa (as) calls for worship of the One True God 2/24/2004 Bismillah And when Jesus (pbuh) came with (Our) clear Proofs, he said: “I have come to you with Al-Hikmah (Prophethood), and in order to make clear to you some of the (points) in which you differ, therefore fear God and obey me, ”Verily, God! He is my Lord (God) and your Lord (God). So worship Him (Alone). This is the (only) Straight Path ”. But the sects from among themselves differed. So woe to those who do wrong (by ascribing things to Jesus (pbuh) that are not true) from the torment of a painful Day (i.e. the Day of Resurrection)! [Qur’an 43:63-65 “The Gold Adornments”] Bismillah 116. And (remember) when God will say (on the Day of Resurrection): “O Jesus (pbuh), son of Mary! Did you say unto men: “Worship me and my mother as two gods besides God?” He will say: “Glory be to You! It was not for me to say what I had no right (to say). Had I said such a thing, You would surely have known it. You know what is in my inner-self though I do not know what is in Yours, truly, You, only You, are the All-Knower of all that is hidden and unseen. 117. “Never did I say to them aught except what You (God) did command me to say: ‘Worship God, my Lord and your Lord’, And I was a witness over them while I dwelt amongst them, but when You took me up, You were the Watcher over them, and You are a Witness to all things. 118. “If You punish them, they are Your slaves, and if You forgive them, Verily You, only You are the All-Mighty, the All-Wise”. [Qur’an 5:116-118 “The Table Spread”] 2. Isa (as) confirms the Torah and gives glad tidings of a Messenger to come after him Bismillah And (remember) when Jesus, son of Mary, said: “O Children of Israel! I am the Messenger of God unto you confirming the Torah (which came) before me, and giving glad tidings of a Messenger to come after me, whose name shall be Ahmed. But when he (Ahmed, i.e. Muhammad, pbuh) came to them with clear proofs, they said: “This is plain magic.” [Qur’an 61:6 “The Ranks”] 3. The closeness of Muhammad to Isa (as) According to a hadith from the collection of Sahih Al- Bukhari, Vol. 4, Hadith No. 651: Narrated Abu Huraira, r.a.: I heard Allah’s Messenger (pbuh) saying, “I am the nearest of all people to the son of Mary, and all the Prophets are paternal brothers, and there has been no Prophet between me and him (i.e. Jesus, pbuh).” Isa (as) is taken to heaven by Allah (30-33 C.E.?) – mentioned in Christian scripture In the Bible (New Testament) Jesus (pbuh) is reported to have ascended to heaven with several prophets to accompany him. This event is reported to have occurred in the presence of three of Jesus’ disciples (Peter, 11 A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history 2/24/2004 John, and James?). These three disciples are reported to ask Jesus if they should put up tents for the other prophets. Saul of Tarsus, a Hellenized Jew, begins to preach his “gospel” of Jesus, eventually converting the whole of the Roman Empire (395C.E.) Paul of Tarsus, who likely never met Jesus (pbuh), claimed to have a vision after being struck by lightening off his horse. Thereafter blinded, then cured, he sometime later became an ardent proponent of what is often called Pauline Theology. Paul has been given the title “Greatest Salesman on Earth”, as well as “2nd most influential person in history” (behind Muhammad, saw, and in front of Isa, as) Paul taught that: • Jesus was son of God who died for people’s sins • People were saved by faith in and grace of Christ as redeemer • Christianity was open to anyone, Jew or non-Jew In the extant Bible (New Testament) Paul acknowledged James, but he is represented as an obstacle to the “true” Christian faith by Paul. Paul also warns in his New Testament “letters” for his believers to be on guard, and not to accept any other teaching than Paul’s, saying “if an angel from Heaven should preach to you a Gospel contrary to that which we preached to you, let him be accursed.” To Paul, knowledge of the historical Jesus was irrelevant, what mattered to Paul was the mystical communion with the “Risen Christ”. Maqsood (2000) asks the question, was there anyone to vouch for Paul apart from Paul? Followers of Isa remain in Jerusalem, worshipping in the temple (under leadership of James) until Roman destruction of Jerusalem in 70CE. The existing Bible (New Testament) says little about the leadership of James, called the brother of Jesus, after Jesus’ Ascension to Heaven. However, Clementine Homilies or Pseudoclementines (not accepted by orthodox Christianity, and therefore unknown by most Christians) tell another story, that it was James bar Zebedes, called the brother of Jesus, who became the organizer of the first Christian headquarters at Jerusalem. Professor Robert Eisenman, in his book on James, suggests that all early Christian documents be examined, not just official canonical books of present Bible. [Eisenman, R. 1997. James the Brother of Jesus]. In Pseudoclementines, James is praised for his saintly and ascetic life. James is a key figure and greatly admired. Eisenman states that the Pseudoclementines text actually serves as a parallel to the existing Acts of Apostles in the New Testament. One importance of these texts, is that existing New Testament gives impression that Paul was most influential figure of the early Church, and that his exposition of doctrine was the accepted norm. Closer examination reveals this was far from the case. Christians vs. Nasara The Christians in the Qur’an are of two sorts: those who commit shirk, and those who are highly commended. Kamal Salibi, in one of his books (The Bible Came from Arabia, The Secrets of the Bible People, or Conspiracy in Jerusalem) suggests that the latter type of Christians, called Nasara or Nazarenes, where Christians of Banu Isra’il origin, who had quite different attitudes to the al-Yahud community of Ezra. They did not call their founder Jesus or Jeshu (standard Christian Arabic Yasu’), but Isa, which is an entirely different name, although both Isa and Jeshu can be rendered in Greek as Iesous. The Christians were considered to be in grave error because they maintained that God was not One but a Trinity. The true believers made common cause with emerging community of Islam and were absorbed into it: 12 A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history 2/24/2004 “You will find the closest in affection to those who have accepted the faith (Islam) to be those who say ‘We are Nasara”; this is because there are priests and monks among them, and they are not arrogant. When they listen to what has been revealed to the Messenger (Muhammad), you see their eyes overflow with tears as they recognize the truth; they say: ‘Lord, we believe; write us down among the witnesses.’ God rewards them for what they say; in gardens beneath which rivers flow, where they will live forever. This is the reward for those who work goodness (5:82-5). The surviving knowledge of the Nazarene Messiah, whose earthly aims were totally irrelevant to Paul, is due to the Nazarenes, who presented what Paul called “another Jesus”, which is the Jesus accepted to this day by Muslims as one of the greatest of all Messengers of God. These preservers of the reality of the Messenger were the true ‘pillars of the church’, James, called the brother of Jesus, Cephas (Simon Peter) his chief disciple, and John. Naturally, these monotheist Christians maintained that they were the true repositories of Jesus’ teaching, and as late as the 2nd century it was reportedly still possible to discern between heavily-edited written gospels in favor of oral tradition passed down from those who had actually met the disciples of Jesus (Maqsood, p. 107). In Hebrew, the ‘Keepers of the Covenant’ is Nozrei ha-Brit. From this term derives the term Nozrim, and this is one of the earliest Hebrew designations for the sect subsequently known as the Nazoreans or Nazarenes, in other words the Christians. Council of Nicea and Doctrine of Trinity The existing Bible (New Testament) says little about the leadership of James, called brother of Jesus, after Jesus’ Ascension to Heaven. However, the Clementine Homilies or Pseudoclementines (not accepted by orthodox Christianity, and therefore unknown by most Christians) tell another story, that it was James bar Zebedes who became the organizer of the first Christian headquarters at Jerusalem. Professor Robert Eisenman, in his 1997 book called James the Brother of Jesus, suggests that all early Christian documents be examined, not just official canonical books of present Bible. Clementine Homilies are known to have circulated freely among the early Church, and must have provoked the anger of the Pauline Christians. Of course, most modern Christians have never heard of them, or of other books such as these, since they were not chosen for inclusion in the ‘New Testament’ by the 4th century Trinitarian bishops who controlled that process. By the time of the Council of Nicea (325C.E.), there was still not yet a Trinity as such: at this stage the Holy Spirit was not even considered to be a separate entity. Those who believed that Jesus was NOT equal to God actually came back into favor for a time; but the later emperor Theosidius decided against them. He imposed the Nicene Creed as the standard for all his realm, and convened the Council of Constantinople in 381C.E. to clarify the formula; and that council decided to make the Holy Spirit another separate entity in the Godhead, instead of just the ‘action’ of God, and to place the spirit on the same level as God and Christ. So, in 381C.E., for the first time, there was officially a Trinity. In 387C.E., Jerome, a Trinitarian hard-liner, translated in Bethlehem the scriptures (of his choice) into Latin, thereby establishing the text known as the Vulgate. Once this became accepted, all the books not included in his selection had even less influence. Yet even then Trinitarianism was not widely accepted, even though those who opposed it brought upon themselves more persecution. Followers of Isa remain in Jerusalem, worshipping in the temple (under the leadership of James) until Roman destruction of Jerusalem in 70CE. [Cont. from part I] In Gospel of Matthew, in the New Testament, words are given to Jesus (pbuh) about the Law of Moses that Paul abolished (i.e., circumcision, eating unclean meats). 13 A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history 2/24/2004 “I have not come to abolish the Law and the prophets, but to fulfil them. For truly I say to you, till heaven and earth pass away, not the jot nor the tittle will pass from the law until all is accomplished…” In the Clementine Homilies (not part of Bible), reported words from Peter: “Observe the greatest caution, and believe no teacher, unless he brings from Jerusalem the testimonial of James, the Lord’s brother, or of whomsoever may come after him. For no-one unless he has gone up thither, and there has been approved as a fit and faithful teacher for preaching the word of the Messiah… is by any means to be received. Let neither prophet nor apostle be looked for by you at this time besides us. For there is one true Prophet, whose words we twelve Apostles preach! The Clementine Homilies question bluntly whether any supernatural vision should take precedence over the personal training given to Peter. “Why should Christ have remained with his disciples and instructed them for one year, if it were possible to be made a teacher at once, by a vision? If however, it is true that you have been made an apostle, after having been instructed by him in a brief and momentary manifestation, then preach his words, love his apostles, and do not fight against one who has lived in his society.” Another Clementine Homily advises, “Remember to shun any apostle or teacher or prophet who does not first accurately compare his preaching with that of James, who was called brother of my Lord, and to whom was entrusted to administer the church of the Hebrews in Jerusalem… Interestingly, in the New Testament, in the first letter of John it states that “..any person who said he knew Jesus but ‘disobeyed his commands is a liar, and the truth is not with him.” According to Maqsood (2000), in the pseudo-epistle of Peter to James prefixed to the Clementine Homilies, the unnamed enemy who had falsified the doctrine preached by Peter is clearly Paul: “I see already the beginning of the evil; for some of the Gentiles have rejected the doctrines taught by me, which are in harmony with the Law, and have adopted a fantastic doctrine and opposition to the Law from the man who is my enemy. Nay, some have attempted, even during my lifetime, to wrest my words by various false interpretations, to the subversion of the Law, as if I also were really of the same opinion!” Paul’s doctrine severs Christianity from Judaism Paul’s doctrine of justification by faith in Jesus alone made him an implacable enemy of the Jewish people, who refused to accept the premises of his argument; and it also brought him under suspicion of many of the Christians of his day, making him to a certain extent an outsider. We therefore should speak in terms of the Jewish-Christian belief taught by Jesus (pbuh) and continued by James and Peter and the “helpers” of Jesus versus the Pauline-Christian theology, as spread by Paul. According to Maqsood (2000), most importantly, Pauline Christianity severed itself from Judaism, giving what ultimately became modern Christianity its fist real independent theological basis. Why did Peter and James’ doctrine, trained at Jesus’ very feet, NOT win out over the doctrines of Paul? If it had not been for the traumatic historical events of 60-70C.E., the teachings of the Mother-Church might well have prevailed, and those of Paul might have perished with him; but in those traumatic years the Jews rebelled against their Roman masters and bloody war engulfed the country. The Romans ruthlessly crushed the revolt, and Jerusalem (including the second Temple) was utterly destroyed. The JewishChristian Church (of James and Peter) was so involved with Essenism and Zealotism, that when Jerusalem fell, its influence collapsed. Their influence virtually disappearing after three centuries. Paul’s Trinitarian theology, centered far from Jerusalem, emerged triumphant: sufficient proof in the eyes of posterity that it was no mere corruption of the primitive tradition, but the logical and historical development of what had been inadequately grasped by the ‘simple’ disciples with their humble origins and lack of “high” Greek culture. Anti-Pauline writings current in the churches were either ‘lost’ or suppressed by Paul’s supporters. 14 A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history 2/24/2004 In the late 4th century, Jerome (a Trinitarian) established the Latin text known as the Vulgate from sources of his choice. Once this became accepted, all the books not included in his selection had even less influence. In these years, much material that was not considered to be orthodox was deliberately destroyed, or falsified by Christian censorship, a censorship that was officially authorized in the reign of Constantine I, and reinstituted later. The present-day New Testament came into being as we have it today as late as 397C.E., when the Council of Carthage, after much wrangling and disagreement, fixed the number of books at sixty-six. What is evident is that the process of the selection of books was determined simply by the victory of one Christian party over another. The Gospel (New Testament) accorded to Luke begins by saying that “..many have undertaken to compile a narrative of the things which have been accomplished among us….”, so there were many writings available. Had a different party won, then the ‘New Testament’ would have been different, too. Therefore, Pauline Theology of the first century ultimately gave rise to the Trinitarian Christianity of the fourth century. “Perhaps the most important intellectual factor which prevented Europe’s religious regeneration was the current conception of Jesus Christ as the Son of God. Philosophically- minded Christians, of course, never took this idea of sonship in its literal sense; they understood by it a manifestation of God’s Mercy in human form. For the overwhelming majority of Christians [however] the expression “son” had and has a very direct meaning, although there was always a mystical flavor attached to it. …This belief naturally led to an anthropomorphisation of God Himself who assumed the shape of a benignant old man with a white flowing beard… [Asad, 1975] Where did Paul get his doctrine? (the 6 million dollar question) A highly significant fact, written by Kamal Salabi in his book “Conspiracy in Jerusalem”, is that when Paul decided to become a follower and apostle of Jesus, he did not go to find his information about him in Jerusalem among the original apostles who still lived there: rather, according to his own report he went directly to Arabia instead. ‘I did not confer with flesh and blood, nor did I go up to Jerusalem to those who were apostles before me, but I went away into Arabia; and again I returned to Damascus…” However, the Book of Acts in the New Testament makes a point of ignoring all this, giving a quite different account. So what has happened to the visit to Arabia? It is Barnabas who initially vouches for Paul and defends him to the apostles. According to Acts, Paul stayed in Tarsus until Barnabas was sent by James to preach to the Gentiles in Antioch. Barnabas went to Tarsus to look for Paul and fetch him back and help him. ‘Isa ibn Maryam active in early 4 th century B.C.? (different person from Jesus of Palestine?) Kamal Salibi hypothesized that the Isa of the Qur’an really not the Christian Gospel Jesus at all, and was called Isa for the simple reason that this was who he was: a prophet who had been revered in Arabia from his own time, some period well before the birth of the Gospel Jesus, until the century when Islam was revealed. Salabi cites the fact that the Qur’an does not refer to Isa as a carpenter, or having a human father or brothers and sisters. It does not specify the period of Isa’s mission or associate it with Palestine, and does not name any individual disciple or associate. Qur’an does not claim that Isa led a religious or political riot anywhere, and denies that he was crucified or put to death in any manner. Indeed, the names Yasu’ and ‘Isa are entirely different names in Aramaic. Salabi further hypothesizes that the Isa ibn Maryam of the Quran was active in the late fifth or early fourth century B.C., and that Zechariah was a priest at the time of Ezra in 457B.C. In short, Salabi suggests there was a ‘Christianity’ in Arabia, the religion of the Nasara, which was several centuries older than the one related to the historical Jesus of the Gospels, monotheistic, which survived until the coming of Islam. Salabi claims this is the true Christianity as understood by Muslims; its founder ‘Isa ibn Maryam, was the ‘true Jesus’. The other brand of Christianity that elevated the man called Jesus who died on the cross, was false, and in grave error. The Jesus of Palestine was said to be a descendent of David, not of Aaron, and belonged to the tribe of Judah, not the tribe of Levi (Mary is described in Qur’an as from the family of Aaron, a Levite). The question is left, if this is true, where did the Gospel writers get their information 15 A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history 2/24/2004 which really concerned Prophet ‘Isa, and which were incorporated into their material? They would have to come from a text or tradition which appeared in more ancient times. This leads to Salibi’s next hypothesis. Paul’s trip to Arabia Christian scholars have long been perplexed that Paul’s writings show the historical Jesus as only a shadowy figure, reduced to unimportance by Paul’s vision of the “living Christ”. Paul seems to have regarded only his death and resurrection as being especially significant, for theological reasons. Paul denounced and even damned the religious teachings of the Jerusalem leaders where they differed from his own. Paul said in his letter to Timothy that the gospel preached in Jerusalem was ‘legend” (Greek muthos), and even more fearfully, Jewish legend. Salabi suggests that the ‘Arabia’ he visited was the Hijaz, and that he learned something of the life of Jesus which the Jerusalem apostles never spoke of, and he brought back “books of parchment” with him. According to Salabi, the Aramaic Injil of Isa still existed in the Hijaz of the 7th century C.E. (i.e., the injil used by Waraqa), and identical to the Quranic Isa. The Qur’an presents the story of Isa as the true Jesus of the one and only authentic Injil, insisting that the man who died on the cross was someone else. When Paul went to Arabia and secured copies of sacred writings, apart from those related to the prophet Isa, Paul must have found members of the sect of the god al-Isa. These were the writings that he brought back with him, the ‘books of parchment’ which he kept strictly to himself while he lived. He, and others after him, used those texts in addition to the Old Testament, to develop his image of Jesus as the eternal Son of God and living Christ. What might those texts have been? The cult of Al-Isa was a known fertility deity in the regions of Hijaz and Asir. Paul may have also incorporated Dhu Khulasa, the god of redemption, whose principal sanctuary in the 7th century was at another Ka’aba, al-Yamaniyah (Southern Ka’ba), which Prophet Muhammad (saw) sent supporters to destroy. In the Dhul Khulasa cult, the god dies only to return to life, thereby bringing redemption for mankind. For his death to be mystically significant, it cannot be natural-he has to be betrayed and killed by an adversary, normally a close associate. Therefore, the god’s resurrection represents the triumph of good over evil, of life over death, and light over darkness. All these precedents force a fundamental question. Why should people who wished to accept Baalmythology and the theology of mystical salvation have gone to such trouble to invent yet another new version (i.e., official Christianity), when the old ones already offered such abundant possibilities? Could it be that Jesus, as constructed by the Churches, really was no more than the product of previous myths? Stories of dead people returning to life occur regularly in history, but accounts of them do not usually suffice to found a religion. In the case of Christianity, could it be that the story survived because it became fused with the myth? So, according to Salibi, the Jesus who was believed to have died on the cross was transformed into the ultimate manifestation of the god al-‘Isa of Arabia who died and rose from death to give true life to the world forever. The intriguing question is whether the fusion between ‘Isa and Jeshu was made by Gospel writers in good faith, in ignorance of the facts. Or was it accomplished by these largely unknown men in full knowledge of the truth, with the intention to deceive? However, at the beginning of the 21st century CE, scholars with courage to challenge inherited opinions are considering a disturbing but increasingly solid possibility: that the Jewish-Christian Church of James and Peter had been the correct and true faith all along, in the sense that it preserved the teachings and practice of Jesus himself, and that Trinitarian theology emanating from Paul’s teaching is a tragic and fateful error and heresy. 16 A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history 2/24/2004 3. The Bible [Sources: 1. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761566700/Bible.html 2. Maqsood, Ruqaiyyah Waris. 2000. The Mysteries of Jesus: A Muslim Study of the Origins and Doctrines of the Christian Church. Sakina Books, Oxford, UK.] The term “bible” comes from Greek word biblia or “books”. Who is the author? In one sense the religious community is the author of Scripture, having developed it, cherished it, used it, and eventually canonized it (that is, developed lists of officially recognized biblical books). The Bible truly is the foundation document of Judaism and Christianity. Translations of the Bible, such as the Authorized Version (or King James Version, 1611) and Martin Luther’s translation of the Bible into German (first completed in 1534) not only influenced literature but also shaped the development of languages. Contrast this to Islamic sources: “I have left amongst you that which, if you hold fast to it, shall preserve you from all error, a clear indication, the Book of God and the word of His Prophet. Oh people, hear my words and understand.” [Final khutba of Prophet Muhammad, salla Allahu aleihi wa salem]. Bismillah “And there are, certainly, Among the People of the Book, Those who believe in Allah, In the revelation to you, And in the revelation to them, Bowing in humility to Allah: They will not sell The signs of Allah For a miserable gain! For them is a reward With their Lord, And Allah is swift in account. O ye who believe! Persevere in patience And constancy; vie In such perseverance; Strengthen each other; And fear Allah; That ye may prosper.” [Surah Al-Imran, 3: 199, 200] Jewish and Christian Bibles (Old Testament vs. Torah) The term Old Testament (from the Latin word for “covenant”) came to be applied to those Scriptures on the basis of the writings of Paul and other early Christians who distinguished between the “Old Covenant” that God made with Israel and the “New Covenant”, as taught by Paul, to be established through Jesus Christ 17 A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history 2/24/2004 (Hebrew 8:7). Because the early church believed in the continuity of history and of divine activity, it included in the Christian Bible the written records of both the Old and the New covenants. Jewish Bible The Jewish Bible is the Hebrew Scriptures, 39 books originally written in Hebrew, except for a few sections in Aramaic. Kamal Salabi in one of his books (The Bible Came from Arabia , The Secrets of the Bible People, or Conspiracy in Jerusalem) notes that a clear distinction is made in the Qur’an between the Israelites (Banu Isra’il) and the Jews (al-Yahud). The Israelites are depicted as the past ‘chosen’ people who were preferred of God in their time, whose history was recorded in the Hebrew Bible until the 4th or 5th century B.C. (Cyrus the Persian allowed Hebrews to return to Jerusalem in 538 B.C. to rebuild Jerusalem at which time many portions of the Bible were first put to writing). In contrast, the Jews (alYahud) are spoken of as an existing religious community, specifically the followers of Biblical monotheism and the laws of Moses as interpreted and developed by rabbinical tradition in post-exilic times, and who paid particular deference to Ezra (Uzayr). The Jewish Bible is divided into three parts: 1) Torah (Law or Books of Moses), also called the Pentateuch (Greek penta, “five”; teuch, “book”), collectively, first five books of the Old Testament, that is, Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. 2) Nebiim (Prophets, divided into earlier and Latter Prophets), and 3) Ketubim (Writings, including Psalms, wisdom books, and other diverse literature). Christian Bible The Christian Bible is in two parts, the Old Testament plus the 27 books of the New Testament. According to the 1993 book, “The Five Gospels: The Search for the Authentic Words of Jesus,” “The level of public knowledge of the Bible [today] borders on the illiterate... church and synagogue have failed in their historic mission to educate the public in the fourth “R”, religion.” The authors continue, “Many English-speaking people are not even cognizant that the original languages of the Bible were Hebrew (Old Testament) and Greek (New Testament). As a consequence [of the version authorized by King James in 1611], the English Bible has rapidly become the only version of the Bible known to most English-speaking people, including many clergy. Many Americans do not know there are four canonical gospels, and many who do, can’t name them. The public is poorly informed of the assured results of critical scholarship, although those results are commonly taught in colleges, universities, and seminaries.” If the above assertions are true, for such a group of people there is little likelihood they will be able to ask the tough questions needed to critically examine the source of their religious doctrine. In all likelihood, many may well be ignorant of what Christian doctrine proposes to teach them. Aside from those individuals who have made their faith an integral and dynamic part of their lives, religious ignorance and apathy have become the tragedy of Christianity in the West. 18 A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history 2/24/2004 Christian Old Testament The Old Testament is by no means a unified book in terms of authorship, date of composition, or literary type; it is instead a veritable library. The Old Testament is found structured in two different forms, the Roman Catholic and Protestant. The Christian Old Testament organizes the books according to their type of literature: the Pentateuch, corresponding to the Torah; historical books; poetical or wisdom books; and prophetical books. Some have perceived in this table of contents a sensitivity to the historical perspective of the books: first those that concern the past; then, the present; and then, the future. The Protestant and Roman Catholic versions of the Old Testament place the books in the same sequence, but the Protestant version includes only those books found in the Bible of Judaism. Roman Catholic Old Testament: Bible of Judaism + seven other books and additions to books (called deuterocanonical books by Catholics, but Aprocrypha by Protestant. Apocrypha (Greek apokryphos, “hidden”), was coined by the 5th-century biblical scholar Saint Jerome for the biblical books received by the church. Protestant Old Testament: limited to 39 books of the Jewish Bible Biblical vs. Quranic inspiration and textual criticism Early Christianity inherited from Judaism and took for granted a view of the Scriptures as authoritative. No formal doctrine of the inspiration of Scripture was initially propounded, as was the case in Islam, which holds that the Qur'an (Koran) was revealed directly by the Angel Gabriel (Jibreel) to Prophet Muhammad (saw). Christians generally believed, however, that the Bible contained the word of God as communicated by his Spirit—first through the patriarchs and prophets and then through the apostles. The writers of the New Testament books, in fact, appealed to the authority of the Hebrew Scriptures to support their claims concerning Jesus Christ. The actual doctrine of the inspiration of the Bible by the Holy Spirit and the inerrancy of its words arose during the 19th century in response to the development of biblical criticism, scholarly studies that seemed to challenge the divine origin of the Bible. This doctrine holds that God is the author of the Bible in such a way that the Bible is his word. Many theories explaining the doctrine have been suggested by biblical scholars and theologians. The theories range from a direct, divine, verbal dictation of the Scriptures to an illumination aiding the inspired writer to understand the truth he expressed, whether this truth was revealed or learned by experience. Contrast above theories of Biblical inspiration to the Qur’an, which is for Muslims of every school the divine word of God revealed directly to the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) by the Angel Gabriel over a 23year period. While the Qur’an was being revealed to the Prophet (pbuh), verses were stored in the collective memory of large numbers of his (saw) Companions, as well as being written down. Due to the large number of memorizers of the Qur’an, it was not possible to alter the original form of the revelation until today. In addition to the Qur’an, explanations of various Quranic verses and a vast array of legal and other rulings by the Prophet Muhammad (saw) were also committed to memory, but at the order of the Prophet (saw), they were not immediately written down, so as not to be mixed or confused with direct Quranic revelation. These orders, practices, approvals, and disapprovals of the Prophet (saw) are known collectively as Hadith or Sunnah. According to S.M. Madni Abbasi, in the 1983 preface to the well-known book of hadith called Riyadh-usSaleheen, “Formal compilations of these sayings or “hadith” literature were begun about 100 years after the death of Muhammad (pbuh) in the 7th century by the Caliph Umar bin Abdul Aziz. At this time strict rules for determining and verifying sources of hadith were laid down, with the chain of narrators subject to the most exacting tests of historicity and verification. This objective and scientific textual research has since been called Islamic criticism or enquiry. It is unique in world history.” Six main collections of hadith include: Sahih al Bukhari, Sahih Muslim, Sunan Abu Daud, Jami al Tirmidhi, Sunan al Nasai, and Sunan Ibn Majah. 19 A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history 2/24/2004 New Testament (Gospel vs. Injil) There are 27 books in the New Testament, including: the four Gospels; the Acts of the Apostles, a history of early Christianity; Epistles, or letters, of Paul and other writers; and an apocalypse, or book of revelation. Some books identified as letters, particularly the Book of Hebrews (by Paul), are theological treatises. The Injil, spoken of in the Qur’an, is understood by Muslims to be the message given to Prophet Isa, aleihi salam, for bani Israel, as a similar book was given to Prophet Musa, aleihi salam. Although the book given to Isa is no longer available, the Qur’an documents that Isa, aleihi salam, was indeed given an Injil. The scholar, Waraqa ibn Nawfal, a relative of the Prophet Muhammad’s wife, Khadija, was one of the first to recognize and acknowledge the truth of the Prophet’s mission (saw). The 9th century scholar al-Bukhari preserves the memory that Waraqa used to write Hebrew (‘Ibri - Hebrew or Aramaic). His Gospel, which obviously existed in Arabia before coming of Islam, was most probably written in Aramaic. Salabi hypothesizes that, in the Gospel of the Nazarenes, the Gospel used by Waraqa, the Jesus was the Quranic ‘Isa, not the Jeshu of Paul and the Greek Gospels (i.e., they were two different persons). If the hypothesis of Salabi is correct, the Gospel of the Arabian and Abyssinian Nazarenes would have been much older than the surviving canonical Gospels, perhaps dating as far back as the 4th or 5th century B.C. Salabi suggests that what prompted Paul to make a visit to Arabia following his conversion experience was that he knew, or suspected, that the son-of-David Jesus of the Roman cross in Jerusalem was not the same as the Prophet ‘Isa (as). Regardless of the validity of Salabi’s hypothesis, the Isa of the Qur’an stands as the criteria for Muslim critical scholarship. Injil is often translated as Gospel, which can be a cause for great confusion when discussing Islam with non-Muslims. Why? Christians hold the Gospels to be the extant writings (four books) attributed to Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. However, Christian scholars acknowledge that their authorship is unknown. In any case, the four Gospels in the New Testament are not the Injil of Isa, aleihi salam, as they are accounts written and/or copied by men some 50-100 years after the time of Isa’s ascension to heaven. The Gospels of the Bible contain words attributed to Isa (as), many of which are in accordance with Quranic accounts. However, these portions of the Gospels, if written in red text, would correspond to perhaps three or five percent of all Gospels. According to Ibn Ishaq, the earliest biographer of the Prophet (saw), when relevant verses of the Qur’an were read to the Christian ruler of Abyssinia, the Negus, “By God, the Negus wept until his beard became wet. His bishops also wept upon hearing what was recited to them, until their scriptures became soaked. The Negus then said: “This and what Jesus taught must come from the same niche of light!” The evangelization of Abyssinia to Trinitarian Christianity was credited at the time of 300C.E.-380C.E., after conversion of Roman (Byzantine) Empire. However, Christianity already existed there in its older Nazarene form. The new Trinitarian preaching was only successful in Abyssinia and Arabia to the extent that it could secure adequate political and material backing from Byzantium. The older faith was not eradicated; and the diehard Nararenes stuck to their old ways. The Christian Abyssinians maintained the practices of ritual circumcision, the keeping of Saturday as the Sabbath, and the adherence to much of the law of the Torah. In the wake of Trinitarian Christianity, the Nazarenes reaffirmed the truth of their original Gospel with the coming of Islam, and they recognized ‘Isa as their Jesus. What is the Q source? [from Christian Biblical criticism] The ancient Church Fathers were all unanimous that Matthew was written before the other synoptic gospels, yet over 600 of Mark’s 661 verses appear either exactly or almost exactly word for word in either Matthew or Luke, or both. This was either the result of a miracle, or Matthew and Luke were both copying, the latter point of view being the one favored by scholars. Therefore, Mark must have been written before both of them, unless Mark was copying either Matthew or Luke, which is unlikely, as Mark’s accounts are much longer, more vivid, and full of what seem to be eye-witness details. If Mark was 20 A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history 2/24/2004 copying Matthew and Luke, it seems surprising he would leave out all the birth and resurrection narratives, and virtually all of Jesus’ teaching, as he does. Scholars set all three “synoptic gospel” texts side by side for comparison and found that around 200 verses were identical or nearly identical in Matthew and Luke which were not in Mark at all. Again, this was either a miracle, or both Matthew and Luke were copying something else: another written document. This then is what scholars mean by Q (figure 1). However, whether Mark copied from Q or not, it is important to note that since Mark commences with the ministry of John the Baptist and ends with the burial of Jesus, and these narratives in Matthew and Luke come from different sources, then neither Q nor Mark included narratives of Jesus’ miraculous birth of resurrection narratives, the key requisites of Trinitarian theology. “Q” source (no birth or resurrection accounts) “Mark” (no birth or resurrection accounts) Mk Mk Mk Mk Mk Mk Q Q “Luke” “Matthew” Mk Mk Mk Mk Mk Mk Mk Mk Mk Mk Mk Mk M/L M/L M/L M/L Figure 1. Identical Synoptic Gospel verses vs. “Q’ source (eg., Mk=100 verses of Gospel of Mark). The disquieting conclusion for Trinitarians, according to B.L. Mack in his 1993 book, The Lost Gospel, “the remarkable thing about the people of Q is that they were not Christians (as we understand the term now). They did not take the teachings of Jesus as an indictment of Judaism. They did not regard his death as a divined, tragic, or saving event. And they did not imagine that he had been raised from the dead to rule over a transformed world. They did not gather to worship in his name, honor him as a god, or cultivate his memory though hymns, prayers or rituals. They did not form a cult of the Christ such as the one that emerged among the Christians communities familiar to the readers of the letters of Paul. This discovery upsets the conventional picture of the origins of Christianity" (B.L. Mack, Lost Gospel, 1993, p 4-5). Gospels of Thomas and Barnabas In the book, The Five Gospels: The Search for the Authentic Words of Jesus (1993), authors R. Funk and R. Hoover of The Jesus Seminar cite the discovery of the Gospel of Thomas in 1947 as a reason for their fresh “color-coded” translation of the existing gospels (including Thomas), called the Scholars Version. Words accepted by the Biblical scholars as coming from Jesus (pbuh) are printed in red. Words attributed to Jesus by his admirers (or in a few cases his enemies) are considered inauthentic and left in bold black. Text with weaker evidence is printed in a lighter, weaker shade. Therefore, the reader is able at a glance to tell which words are likely (according to the vote of the Fellows of The Jesus Seminar) to have been spoken by Jesus and which not. As an example, the various versions of the Gospel of John where access to God is through Jesus alone (I am the way, the truth, and the life, i.e., the sol-called I AM sayings) is deemed to be a formulation of the early Christian community. Biblical text where the power of prayer is in the name of Jesus alone, without reference to trust or conviction, is considered unauthentic by the Fellows. The Jesus Seminar was sponsored by the Westar Institute, a scholarly think-tank in Sonoma, California, with support from Polebridge Press, the publisher, a division of Macmillan Publishing Company, NY. According to the authors “Critical scholarship is regularly under attack by conservative Christian groups. At least one Fellow of the Jesus Seminar lost his academic post as a result of his membership in the group. Others have been forced to withdraw as a consequence of institutional pressure…Public attack on members of the Seminar is commonplace, coming especially from those who lack academic credentials.” 21 A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history 2/24/2004 The Scholars Version of the five gospels produced by The Jesus Seminar is not bound by the dictates of Church Councils, and therefore includes the Gospel of Thomas along with the four canonical gospels. The Gospel of Mark is listed first, as it is believed by scholars to have been written first. The Gospel of Thomas is a collection of 114 sayings of Jesus, listed serially, each introduced with a simple phrase, “Jesus said,”, or “he said.” In other words, there is little or no narrative framework, i.e., a sayings gospel. The Coptic manuscript of Thomas was written about 350C.E. Greek fragments of Thomas have been dated to around 200C.E., based on writing style analysis. Thomas probably assumed its present form by 100C.E., although an earlier edition may have originated as early as 50-60C.E. Parchments were discovered near the town of Nag Hammadi in Upper Egypt in 1945 by an Egyptian farmer looking for natural fertilizer in a cave. Instead they found an earthen jar with a cache of thirteen leather-bound codices (papyrus books) containing more than 50 individual tracts of various origin, including a short excerpt from Plato’s Republic . The Gospel of Thomas, a text that had been lost for 1000 years was among them. A small Greek fragment about 3”x6” was found in the late 1800s in an ancient dump about 150 miles down the Nile from Nag Hammadi, and matched in the 1950s to the recently found Coptic version of the Gospel of Thomas. Together, these documents make up the only surviving examples of this important early Christian document. Some sayings relevant to a Muslim study of Christianity that are attributed to Jesus in the Gospel of Thomas (not all of which accepted as authentic by the Fellows of The Jesus Seminar) include: “If you love me, you’ll obey my instructions. At my request the Father will provide you with yet another advocate, the authentic spirit, who will be with you forever. The world is unable to accept (this spirit) because it neither perceives nor recognizes it. You recognize it because it dwells in you and will remain in you…..” “…I have told you these things while I am still here with you. Yet the advocate, the holy spirit the Father will send in my stead, will teach you everything and remind you of everything I told you...so the world may know I love the Father, I act exactly as my Father instructed me.” [According to the Fellow of The Jesus Seminar , the chief responsibility of the “advocate” is to remind the believers of what Jesus said, p.452]. “Be passerby.” (this short saying occurs only in the Gospel of Thomas and dictates a counter-cultural, other-worldly lifestyle very similar to authentic sayings attributed to Prophet Muhammad, pbuh;). “If you have money, don’t lend it at interest. Rather, give it to someone from whom you won’t get it back.” (see parallels in Matthew and Luke, as well as the strong Qur’anic injuction in Surah tul-Lail (The Night) to give without expectation of return, except God’s reward; 92:17-21). (17) But those most devoted to Allah shall be removed far from it (i.e., the Fire),(18) Those who spend their wealth for increase in self-purification, (19) And have in their minds no favour from anyone for which a reward is expected in return, (20) But only the desire to seek for the Countenance of their Lord Most High; (21) And soon will they attain (complete) satisfaction. The Gospel of Barnabas, unknown by many Christians, is a large and detailed version of the gospels, probably longer than all four canonical gospels combined. The claim is made that the Gospel of Barnabas was found in a grave reported to be that of Barnabas, the disciple of Jesus (pbuh) who in the Bible had a disagreement with Paul, and subsequently parted ways. The current English version was reportedly translated in the 1970s from a Italian manuscript reportedly obtained from the personal library of the Pope 22 A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history 2/24/2004 at the Vatican in Rome and held by a Baron of Germany for a long period of time. The vivid accounts of the Gospel of Barnabas, provide a fresh and detailed recount of most of the stories and parables in the canonical gospels, along with many other notable sayings and parables attributed to Jesus (pbuh). Scholarly interest in the Gospel of Barnabas is merited because of textual similarities between it and the Dead Sea Scrolls (Maqsood, 2000). Yet another original manuscript of the Gospel of Barnabas is thought to be in the possession of the Pope in Rome, unavailable to the public. The Gospel of Barnabas is clearly considered heretical by orthodox Christianity as it details a version of the life of Jesus (pbuh) as a human prophet of God, commanding worship of God alone, and upholding the Law of Moses. More damaging to Christian belief is that the Gospel of Barnabas claims that that the plea of Jesus (pbuh) recounted in the canonical gospels to save him from his enemies (in the Garden of Gethsemene) is answered by God (as God hears the pleas of His righteous servants), and Jesus (pbuh) is saved from death by crucifixion. Whether the Gospel of Barnabas is a forgery or not, it presents a compelling and well-written alternative to the canonical view of the life of Jesus (pbuh), presenting Jesus (pbuh) as a preacher in the way of Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Muhammad (peace be upon them all), never claiming more than to be sent by God with a message that his people must obey, and God knows best. What is significance of the Dead Sea Scrolls? Hidden in caves for 2000 years, Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered by Muhammad al-Dhib in 1947, and have been dated to the period of Jesus’ lifetime. They promised to be a unique source of insight into Christian origins, but instead have been haunted by controversy. According to Maqsood (2000), the settlement of the scrolls was a community called Qumran, people thought to be extremist Jewish mystics related to the Essenes. It was hoped there would be references to Jesus. But after the first flush of excitement, not a word was found about Jesus or John the Baptist at all (who was thought to have been adopted by the Essenes). Although there are references to baptism, communion meals, groups of twelve disciples, mention of Jesus is conspicuously absent! Then excitement was rekindled with references in the Dead Sea Scrolls to an eminent leader called the Teacher of Righteousness. Some speculated that Jesus was the Essene Master, along with a host of splendid imaginative theories. However, proof was not forthcoming in other documents, as publication and translation of the texts was under control of Roman Catholic scholars. The discoveries made by 1956 were far from what Trinitarian Christians had hoped to find. Frustrated scholars seriously wondered if there was a conspiracy of silence or a cover-up in progress, and why? Did text reveal that Jesus was not the Son of God, but a Zealot revolutionary fighter after all? At the same time, tragic losses of valuable material were irreparably damaged and other texts mysteriously disappeared before scholars could get their hands on them. One collection of material was spirited out of the area during the 1967 war and offered to a European government for three million pounds. The date of the scrolls would be significant. If the Teacher of Righteousness lived in an earlier century, he could not have been Jesus. This was important, because the scrolls NEVER depict the Teacher of Righteousness as a divine incarnation, and proof that the Teacher was Jesus would be very embarrassing for the Church. The Roman Catholic team insisted that the scrolls were from a period well before the Christian era, and although showing that the teaching of the Gospel was perhaps not as original or unique as previously thought, they could not compromise the personal significance of Jesus. But was the team correct about the date? What if Jesus was the Teacher after all? This would vindicate the faith of the First Church under the leadership of James, who never claimed that Jesus was divine, but rather a beloved leader and Messiah, a Messenger of God. It became clear that the Qumran documents would bring us very close to the Jewish-Christian scene, and that the conservative Catholic experts were not so anxious to probe or publicize. However, the Teacher of Righteousness was not necessarily identified with Jesus, as it implied the Teacher’s ministry was a long one. 23 A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history 2/24/2004 On further investigation, there are references to a second significant person, a Davidic Messiah, which surely would have been Jesus. Perhaps, then, the Teacher of Righteousness is James, a known and esteemed leader of many followers for many years. The Damascus Document, one of the most important scrolls speaks of a Righteous Remnant, Jews who remained true to the Law, as opposed to those who bowed to Rome. Damascus is where the Teacher of Righteousness would enter into a renewed covenant with God. However, the Damascus spoken of is not in Syria, but almost beyond doubt refers to the community at Qumran (perhaps hadith dealing with return of Isa to Damascus also refer to Qumran). Evidence in the scrolls also shows a serious split amongst the members, as some had betrayed the sect and deserted to “the Liar”. Opinions of scholars now swung away from Qumran being an Essene sect to accusing the Qumran community of being exclusive and hard-hearted, whereas Jesus had been outgoing, merciful, and had a message for all. Now if Damascus really meant Qumran, then Paul’s expedition suddenly makes sense. Unlike Syrian Damascus, Qumran did lie in territory under the high priest’s jurisdiction, and it would have been entirely feasible for the high priest in Jerusalem to have dispatched his enforcers to Qumran, a mere twenty miles away. In autumn 1991, the monopoly of the Roman Catholic team was at last broken when Huntington Library in California announced it would make its collection of Dead Sea Scroll photos public, as well as a facsimile edition by the Biblical Archeology Society in Washington. It soon became obvious that the Dead Sea Scrolls were from a band of Zealots, who were the Messianic movement in Palestine responsible for the revolt against Rome that led to the destruction of the Temple in 70C.E. They showed that Christianity was in Palestine, and that it was virtually impossible to distinguish ideas of James from this group. It would not be recognized as present-day pacifist, polite, tolerant Christianity. According to Maqsood, it was a Palestinian Christianity that was zealot, nationalistic, and apocalyptic. The Liar mentioned in the text, is said to come from within the community. He had been given refuge by them and was accepted as a member in good standing, so his defection made him a traitor and an enemy. The date of the scroll can be set specifically to the Herodian epoch as it alludes to Roman troops making sacrificial offerings to their standards, a practice dating to 70C.E. In pre -imperial times, Romans sacrificed to their gods, not to the standards, which were tokens of the ‘deified’ emporers. The Qumran community in the scrolls never referred to themselves as Essenes, but as Keepers or Doers of the Covenant, or the Perfect of the Way. The Habbakuk commentary calls them the Osei ha-Torah, or ‘Doers of the Law”. The collective of Osei is Osim, which is similar to Essene. Epiphanus speaks of a heretical Judaic sect near the Dead Sea called the Ossenes. In Hebrew, Keepers of the Covenant is Nozrei ha-Brit, from which is derived Nozrim, one of the earliest Hebrew designations for the sect subsequently known as the Nazoreans or Nazarenes (modern Arabic/Islamic designation – Nasara), in other words, Christians. Baigent and Leigh (1991), in their book, Dead Sea Scrolls Deception, conclude that the Qumran community of Nazarenes was a desert parallel to the early Church based in Jerusalem, comprised of Nazarenes who followed James, called the brother of Jesus. As corroborating evidence, in Acts (New Testament), the members of the early Church are specifically referred to as ‘Followers of the Way’, a phrase that is identical with Qumran usage. Above findings challenge inherited opinions with increasingly solid possibility that the Jewish-Christian Church of James and Peter had been the correct and true faith all along, in the sense that it preserved the teachings and practice of Jesus himself, and that Trinitarian theology emanating from Paul’s teaching is an error and in fact a great heresy. Muslims, observing this transformation, ask the frank and inevitable question: whether to be a true Christian one should in fact be a Muslim! 24 A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history 2/24/2004 4. Historical outline of Christian Europe: from 1054 C.E. to 1914 C.E. [Sources: 1. Krieger, L.S., Neill, I., and E. Reynolds. 1997. World History-Perspectives on the Past, 5th edition. D.C. Heath and Company, a division of Houghton Mifflin Company; 2. Asad, Muhammad. 1975 (reprint). Islam at the Crossroads. Arafat Publications. 160 pages.] High Middle Ages: 1000 C.E. to 1300 C.E. After decline of Church during early Middle Ages (learning sank, clergy morals were questionable, Vikings plundered monasteries, etc.), Church’s power rose, with more men and women becoming monks and nuns. Strong popes challenged emperors and kings. Reformers ended some feudal abuses, including, • Future popes would be chosen by cardinals, not the king. • Marriage of priests was ended, although it was common practice • Buying of Church offices was rampant. Pope Gregory VII (reformer) ordered all priests to abandon their wives and children. Popes ruled a spiritual empire, as seen by the Crusades, could have a powerful impact. The Church could also collect taxes, using some moneys for sick and poor. From 1100’s to 1200’s, popes ruled the Church like a kingdom, with bishops similar to lords. Popes went to war against heresy. Inquisition, beginning in 1225 C.E., was tasked with finding and judging heretics. Churches rose in style Between 1000 C.E. and 1100 C.E., towns in Europe began to build massive stone churches, culminating in well-known Gothic architectural style. Learning revived and spread Kings began to grow more powerful, and needed officials for law and record-keeping. Scholars gathered at universities (original meaning, a group of scholars). All European scholars spoke Latin. Rediscovery of Greek writings from Muslim libraries in Toledo, Spain and Justinian’s Byzantine code of laws from Constantinople. Since Greek learning was considered pagan, Chris tians were not sure if they could reconcile human reasoning with faith in the Bible . In the mid-1200s, Thomas Aquinas (a Dominican monk) linked faith and reason in his work, Summa Theolagiae. His 21 volumes showed the “truth” of the Church’s answer to 63 philosophical questions. Split between east and west (between Roman Catholic pope and Eastern Orthodox patriarch) The political break (eastern and western empires) that had occurred long before finally became a spiritual break when the Christian Church split in two. In 1054 C.E., the Pope in Rome and the Patriarch in Constantinople excommunicated each other. Icons were used in the Eastern Orthodox church for centuries. In the 700’s C.E., several popes tried to end the use of icons, leading to centuries of schism and distrust which resulting in widening, irreconcilable differences, including; Eastern Orthodox Church (Byzantine Christians) had services in native Greek, Coptic, Ethiopian, or Russian language, while Roman Catholic Church used Latin only. Eastern Orthodox Church allowed priests to marry, while the Roman Church did not. Most importantly, the Eastern Orthodox Church did not accept the Petrine Doctrine that states that Peter is the first bishop of Rome and disciple of Jesus, starting a chain of authority to the bishop of Rome from that time forward, until today. 25 A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history 2/24/2004 Roman Catholic claim is that Jesus passed the leadership of Church to Peter, who was first “bishop” of Rome (he died in Rome). Paul also died is Rome. Both reportedly died as martyrs at hands of Romans. Therefore, Roman Church claims: 1. Pauline Theology (redemption and salvation through death and resurrection of Christ). 2. Petrine Doctrine, i.e., an uninterrupted line of “bishops” from Jesus, to the present. 3. Nicene Creed (father and son are one “substance”). The Eastern Orthodox Church accepts the first and third, but not the second. Consequently, while the Roman pope claimed to be the head of the entire Christian Church, independent of the state (until today), the Eastern Orthodox Church accepted the temporal authority of the state, but not the spiritual authority of the Roman pope. From section on Crusades: During the fourth Crusade (1202 C.E.), knights never made it to the “rescue” of Jerusalem. Crusaders attacked Venice trading rivals in exchange for supplies, then sacked Constantinople, controlling it for 57 years. Greeks restored Byzantine Empire in 1261 C.E., but the breach between the Eastern Orthodox Church and Roman Catholic Church widened into an ugly and permanent split. The Origin of European Nations: 1150 C.E. to 1580 C.E. England and France developed as nations The Church faced a crisis in the 1300’s • • • • • • • • • • • Feudal loyalies were being replaced by national loyalties. Pope Boniface VIII tried to force rulers of Europe to obey him, specifically not to tax Church property. In 1303 C.E., the French King Philip IV, who needed tax revenue for his war with England, sent a small army to Italy to kidnap the pope, who died of shock one month later. Never again did a pope force a monarch to obey him, and papacy declined (1303 C.E. to 1417 C.E.). First French pope, Clement V, moved home of popes to Avignon, France for 67 years, living in opulence and luxury (papal extravagance included reports by visitors of gold and silver plates, pillows lined with ermine skins, brokers and clergy weighing and counting money in heaps before them). In 1378 C.E., Pope Gregory XI died while visiting Rome. Cardinals met and chose an Italian, Urban VI, who chose to stay in Rome. However, 13 French cardinals chose another pope! Now there were two popes, each declaring the other a false pope! French supported French pope, while English, Germans, and Italians favored Urban VI. The schism lasted until after both died, from 1378 C.E. to 1417 C.E., at the Council of Constance (City in Germany). At time of Council of Constance there were three popes, all of which stepped down for Pope Martin V. The end of the “Great Schism” left Christians wondering who was true religious authority, the pope? Church council? or the Bible? 26 A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history 2/24/2004 John Wycliffe sows the seeds of Protestantism (early 1400’s) Jesus Christ was head of Church, not the pope. Clergy should not own land or wealth; poverty was better than riches. The Bible alone, not the pope, was the final authority for Christian life. Wycliffe’s answer to Biblical reference was to produce an English translation of the New Testament. He was charged with heresy, but the people rioted in London streets, protecting him until his peaceful death in 1384 C.E. The Plague: 1300’s Black Death from fleas on rats and unsanitary living conditions in the 1300’s killed one-third of Europe’s population. New weapons of warfare after the Hundred Years’ War France and England found over land on continent from 1337 C.E. to 1453 C.E. , ended by famous Joan of Arc. Feudal warfare was finished as new weapons were used: • Longbow defeated French knights in heavy armor • Cannon made castles obsolete. Seeds of nationalism grew in Europe with new monarchs Charles VII in France (1453 C.E.) and son Louis XI weakened power of great lords. Henry VII in England (1485 C.E. to 1509 C.E.) made himself the richest man in England from feudal dues. Isabella and Ferdinand in Spain conquered Granada, last of Muslim kingdoms, in 1492 C.E., reinstating the Inquisition, forcing evacuation of more than 150,000 Muslims and Jews who did not openly convert. 2000 men and women were reportedly executed between 1478 C.E. ad 1490 C.E. (1 person every 3 days). Renaissance and Exploration: 1300 C.E. to 1600 C.E. “The Middle Ages had laid waste Europe’s productive forces. Sciences were stagnant, superstition reigned supreme, the social life was primitive and crude to an extent hardly conceivable today. At that point the cultural influence of the Islamic world – at first through the adventure of the Crusades in the East and the brilliant universities of Muslim Spain in the West, and later through the growing commercial relations established by the republics of Genoa and Venice – began to hammer at the bolted doors of European civilization. Before the dazzled eyes of the European scholars and thinkers another civilization appeared – refined, progressive, full of passionate life and in possession of cultural treasures which Europe had long ago lost and forgotten. “ “The effect of these influences on Europe was tremendous. With the approach of Islamic civilization, a new intellectual light dawned on the skies of the West and infused it with fresh life and thirst for progress. It is no more than a just appreciation of its value that European historians term that period of regeneration the Renaissance – that is, “re-birth.” It was, in fact, a re-birth of Europe.” [Asad, 1975]...but ensuing re-birth was unIslamic. Renaissance began in northern Italy France and England were locked in the 100 years war at the time. Dante Alighieri wrote the Divine Comedy, considered the first of Renaissance literature, as a long poem about a journey to the seven levels of heaven and hell. The work borrowed heavily from the authentic Muslim hadith of Isra wa Miraj (Night-journey and Ascension to Heaven). 27 A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history 2/24/2004 The values that shaped the Renaissance contrasted with the “Dark Ages”; • Celebration of individual fame as a final reward (portraits, autobiography, etc.) • Love of classical learning (humanists loved Roman and Greek writings) • Enjoyment of worldly pleasures (luxuries, fine music, tasty foods, fancy clothing, perfumes, etc.) European exploration encouraged by many factors Portuguese explored West Africa at urging of Prince Henry and finally reached India in 1498, securing the trade route and winning control of Indian Ocean from the Muslims. Portuguese began the slave trade in 1441 C.E. with slaves from Madeira, the Azores, and Cape Verde. The growth of slave trade from Africa was linked to the growth of European colonies in the Americas (mines, plantations, etc. needed labor). Spain reached Americas. Portugal claimed Brazil. Pope drew a line of demarcation (longitude) dividing Spanish and Portuguese claims. Areas west of line were given to Spain. Areas to east, including present-day Brazil, were given to Portugal. France founded a vast empire in Americas. England founded 13 colonies in America. Jamestown, chartered in 1606 C.E., was the first successful English colony, followed by Plymouth, Massachusetts, in 1620 C.E., a group seeking freedom to practice religious beliefs. The Puritans established a larger colony nearby in Massachusetts Bay. In 1609, the Dutch founded New Netherlands in New York, allowing settlers to worship as they please, but were taken over by the English, who came to own territory from the Carolinas to New England. The following were factors encouraging European exploration: • Search for spices and profits • Desire to spread Christianity (convert non-Christians and reconquer northern Africa) • Ability to use new technology (ship-building, and Muslim astrobabe and compass) In 1520 C.E., a Portuguese explorer, Francisco Alvarez, was amazed to find Christians worshipping in handsomely decorated churches, build around 1200 C.E. Axum, in ancient times, was capital of a kingdom located in rugged plateau region of Ethiopia; and was a rich and powerful trading nation, exchanging wares for gold, ivory, and spices. King Ezana of Axum, in present-day Ethiopia, became Christian in 324 C.E., and rulers thereafter remained Christian (?) The Negus of Abyssinia may have been king of this land or the more northern ancient kingdom of Kush. During Muslim rule, Ethiopia remained unconquered and/or unconverted in advance of Islamic armies (?) Reformation and Scientific Revolution: 1450 C.E. to 1650 C.E. Protestantism change the way many Christians thought of God, heaven, and the soul. The Scientific Revolution changed the way Europeans thought about Earth and the universe. 28 A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history 2/24/2004 Martin Luther begins a religious revolt: 1521 C.E. Luther, a black-robed friar (1483 C.E. to 1546 C.E.), directly challenged pope as head of a united Church. Luther accused pope, bishops, and archbishops of straying dangerously far from the teachings of Jesus (example, selling pardons for sins to raise money for church). German people considered Luther a national hero. The Catholic church considered him a dangerous heretic. All his books were ordered burned (1521 C.E.) by the young Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V (present-day Germany). However, Luther remained untouched in Germany for 25 years, such was his popular support in Germany. Abuses among clergy were, with Renaissance popes in Rome patronizing the arts and other worldly concerns. Some village priests had wives. Pope Alexander VI (1492 C.E. to 1503 C.E.) had five children, born before he became pope. People had come to expect higher standards of moral living and learning from priests and church leaders. Luthers teachings rested on three main ideas: • Salvation by faith alone (faith in God, i.e., Jesus, was the only way to salvation, not what Catholic Church called “good works”). • Bible as the only authority for Christian life (Church teachings should be clearly based on words of the Bible). • The priesthood of all believers (people did not need priest to interpret the Bible). [This, in effect, provides the fertile soil for Christian sectarianism.] Printing press spreads new ideas: 1440 C.E. to 1450 C.E. • • • • • • Gutenberg printed a Bible around 1455 C.E. Printing presses opened in all major cities. By 1500 C.E., books were cheap enough for most Europeans to buy them. Printing press prepared the way for religious revolution, as many writers criticized the corruption of Renaissance popes. Desiderius Erasmus (1466 C.E. to 1536 C.E.) of Holland wrote a savage satire about Pope Julius II. Printing press encourage popular piety as religious engravings and woodcuttings depicted religious figures of Jesus and others Biblical persons. Printing press made Bible available to all who could read, rather than depending on priests to interpret the scriptures for them. Protestantism Other reformers took up even before Luther’s death in 1546 C.E., including, John Calvin of France and John Knox of Scotland. Soon Catholic Church was being challenged in many parts of Europe, especially England. Henry VIII broke with the pope, when pope turned down his request for divorce (because their were no male heirs forthcoming. English Parliament legalized the divorce and in 1533 C.E., Henry VIII married Anne Boleyn. 29 A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history 2/24/2004 In 1534 C.E., Henry’s break with pope was complete when Parliament voted to aporove the Act of Supremacy making the king “..the only supreme head in earth of the Church of England”. John Calvin formalized Protestant ideas including predestination in the city of Geneva, Switzerland, making the city a “city of saints”. John Calvin regulated the lives of everyone in the city (no bright clothing, no playing cards, no public inns open after 9pm). Anyone preaching a different set of doctrines might be burned at the stake. John Knox was impressed by Geneva’s community and let him to overthrow, in 1567 C.E., the Catholic queen of Scotland, Mary Stuart, in a nearly bloodless revolt, putting her son on the throne, thereafter making Calvinism Scotland’s official religion. Protestant churches spread widely, with Sweden, Norway, and Denmark taking Lutheranism as official religion of the country. Swiss, French, and Dutch reformers embraced Calvin’s ideas. In 1523 C.E., Sweden’s revolt brought a new king and an end to papal power in Sweden, which seized Church lands. Catholic Church reforms Ignatius begins the Jesuits around 1522 C.E. Pope made Jesuits a new monastic order devoted to purity of the soul in 1540 C.E. Jesuits have absolute discipline and obedience, going anywhere in the world to serve the pope. Jesuits focused on three goals; 1) founding superb schools thRoughout Europe, 2) convert non-Christians to Catholicism, and 3) prevent Protestantism from spreading. Reforming popes led the Church in the 1500’s, Paul III and Paul IV, with two goals; 1. Strengthen and purify the Catholic Church for its own sake. 2. Combat Protestantism. In 1545 C.E., Council of Trent in northern Italy was held of Catholic bishops and cardinals, finally agreeing on the following doctrines: • Pope’s interpretation of the Bible was final. Any Christian who substituted his own interpretation was a heretic. • Christians were not saved by faith alone, as Luther argued, but were saved by faith and by good works. • The Bible and Church tradition shared equal authority for guiding a Christian’s life. • Indulgences, pilgrimages, and venerations of holy relics were all valid expressions of Christian piety (but the false selling of indulgences was banned). Peace of Augsburg, 1555 C.E., permitted German princes to choose either Lutheranism or Catholicism. Calvinism and other forms of Protestantism were outlawed in the Holy Roman Empire. Charles V, Holy Roman emperor, was deeply attached to feudalism, chivalry, and the Catholic Church, and had hoped to preserve these institutions. Instead, he abdicated and retired to a monastery in Spain. 30 A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history 2/24/2004 Scientists challenge old assumptions Copernicus and Kepler studied the universe. Copernicus views of the solar system were based on logic, not direct observation. Kepler used scientific observations of a Danish astronomer, Tycho Brahe, to propose three laws of planetary motion, including: 1. Planets revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits, refuting belief that planets moved in perfect circles. 2. Planets move more rapidly as their orbits approach the sun. 3. Time taken by planets to orbit the sun varies proportionately with their distance from the sun. Galileo analyzed the natural world, 1581 C.E.. built a telescope to see ships 50 miles away, and started observing planets and the moon. His observations underscored the idea that the same physical laws operated throughout the universe. Therefore, Galileo was said to have “…found the key that was eventually to unlock the riddle of the universe.” Copernicus’ ideas were banned by Catholic Church in 1616 C.E. and Galileo summoned to Rome to stand trial in 1633 C.E., as he was charged by the Jesuit leaders with doing more harm to the Church “than Luther and Calvin put together”. He confessed his ideas as errors and heretical, under the threat of torture. Spanish Empire and shifting European power: 1500 to 1650 C.E. Spanish built a Catholic bulkwork, at home and abroad Spain battled for Catholicism against the Muslim Ottoman Turks and the Protestants. Philip V achieved victory against the Ottomans in 1571 C.E., in response to a call from the pope against the mounting Ottomans empire, crushing the Ottoman navy of 300 ships. War against the Protestants caused him only frustration. The king of Spain claimed absolute power over “his” American lands. Spain built an overseas empire, enslaving native Americans: • Cortes conquered Aztecs • Pizarro conquered the Incas • Florida “discovered” by the Spanish • Spanish explored Southeast and Southwest US • Spanish explored Chile Religious wars split German Thirty years of religious wars (Catholic vs. Protestant) split Germany: 1618 C.E. to 1648 C.E. Resulting Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 C.E. concluded: 1. France took fertile Alsace along Rhine River. 2. Sweden took a piece of northern Germany on the North Seas and another on Baltic. 3. Princes of Germany won almost total independence from the Holy Roman Empire. 31 A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history 2/24/2004 4. Calvinism gained equal privileges with Lutheranism and Catholicism. 5. the Dutch Republic won recognition as an independent state. Transition to Modern Times: 1558 C.E. to 1815 C.E. England: 1558 C.E. to 1688 C.E. Religious issues still divided England’s Queen Elizabeth (daughter of Henry VIII). Queen Elizabeth had Mary Stuart, a Catholic pretender to the thrown (and her cousin), beheaded. Spain attacked England with the largest invasion force that Europe had ever seen, “The Invincible Armada”. Eight unmanned fire ships sent into the Spanish fleet, causing panic and a British route. Defeat of the Spanish Armada by Francis Drake (1577 C.E. to 1580 C.E.) boosted British pride and selfconfidence. So-called Golden Age of Elizabethan England (Shakespeare, theatre, etc…) Europe in the Age of Absolute Monarchs: 1648 C.E. to 1763 C.E. France’s Louis XIV “Sun King” (Bourbon dynasty) created the splendor of Versailles. Peter the Great, czar of Russia. Austria and Prussia rose to power. Enlightenment in Europe, American Revolution: 1688 C.E. to 1790 C.E. The period when scholars believed the use of reason and in the scientific method. Newton discovered the law of gravity, but he could not prove his ideas mathematically and did not publish his ideas for 20 years, in 1687 C.E., in a book titled Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. Newton’s greatest achievement was to discover that the same force ruled the motions of he planets, the rolling balls, the pendulum, and all matter on Earth and in outer space. He called the attraction of objects “gravitation”. In his book, he summarized the workings of the universe; “Every particle of the universe attracts every other particle with a force varying inversely as the square of he distance between them and directly proportional to the square of their masses. Newton’s laws became the starting point for investigating everything in nature, including use of reason to all aspects of life. At the heart of the philosophes (enlightened thinkers such as Voltaire) were five ideas: 1. Reason; the absence of prejudice in thinking is a sort of divine force. 2. Nature; there are natural laws of economics and politics, as well as natural laws of motion 3. Happiness; a person who lived by nature’s laws would find happiness. 4. Progress; society and humankind could be perfected with scientific approach. 5. Liberty; philosophes envied the liberties of the English in their Bill of Rights and believed that, through reason, society could be set free. Scientific knowledge advanced, as did use of scientific instruments such as telescopes and microscopes. Oxygen and electricity were discovered. World geography was mapped. Writers advocated liberty and reason. Adam Smith supported free trade. 32 A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history 2/24/2004 Montesquieu advocated separation of powers (executive, legislative, judicial), on the model of Britain. Rousseau championed freedom. “These movements were sound in their way, and, if they had met with real spiritual success, they might have produced a certain reconciliation between science and religious thought in Europe. But, as it happened, the wrong caused by the Church of the Middle Ages was already too far-reaching to be repaired by mere reformation, which, moreover, quickly degenerated into political struggles between interested groups…. No wonder, therefore, that, as the decades and the centuries advanced, the hold of religious thought grew weaker and weaker in Europe, until in the 18th century the predominance of the Church was definitely swept overboard by the French Revolution and its cultural consequences in other countries.” “At that time again it appeared as if a new spiritual civilization, freed from the tyrannical gloom of the scholastic theology of the Middle Ages, had a chance of growth in Europe…. But this spiritual, religious conception of life was and remained restricted to a few individuals. The great European masses, after having been for so long a time imprisoned in religious dogmas which had no connection with the natural endeavors of man, could not, and would not, once those chains were broken, find their way back to a religious orientation.” [Asad, 1975] French Revolution and Napoleon: 1789 C.E. to 1815 C.E. Age of European Dominance: 1700 C.E. to 1914 C.E. With the intellectual shackles of the Middle Ages….broken, the thinking among the Europeans could not reconcile themselves to a humanized God/Father.….After a period of enlightenment [at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century], European thinkers instinctively shrunk back from the conception of God as presented in the teachings of the Church; and as this was the only conception to which they had been accustomed, they began to reject the very idea of God, and with it, religion.” [Asad, 1975] “There can be no greater error than to consider Western civilization as an outcome of Christianity. The real intellectual foundations of the modern West are to be found in the old Roman conception of life….that can be expressed as follows: “As we do not know anything definite – that is, by means of scientific experiments and calculations – about the origin of human life and its destinies after the bodily death, it is better to concentrate all our energies on the development of our material and intellectual possibilities without allowing ourselves to be hampered by [such things as] transcendental ethics and moral postulates [which are] based on presumptions which defy scientific proof.” [Asad, 1975] Ali ibn Talib (raa), when asked by his son Al-Hussein (raa) what is the distance between faith and certainty. Ali said “Four fingers.” “And how is that?” asked his son. “Faith is what you hear with your ears and which yhour heart believes,” said Ali (raa), “while certainty is what your eyes have seen and your eart is therefore certain about. Between the ear and the eye there is a distance of only four fingers!” [Stories of Caliphs, The Early Rulers of Islam, 1997, Hoopoe Books, Cairo] 33 A Muslim study of Christian scripture and history 2/24/2004 Bismillah Behold! In the creation Of the heavens and the earth, And the alternation Of Night and Day There are indeed Signs For men of understanding [Surah Al-Imran, 3:190] The Industrial Revolution: 1700 C.E. to 1850 C.E. Britain led in the rise of industry and changed ways of life. Restoration, Romanticism, and Revolution: 1815 C.E. to 1850 C.E. Four great powers were Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, and Russia sought stability. Congress of Vienna, 1814 C.E, sought to undo changes caused by French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. Romanticism rejected reason, and was strongly related to nationalism. Romanticism was a reaction against Enlightenment, with its orderly, rational approach. Romanticism was marked by four distinctive characteristics: 1. heavy emphasis on emotion and passion 2. emphasis on the individual 3. celebration of nature 4. glorification of the past. Romanticism fueled nationalism, as it fueled strong emotions of past glories. Economic Expansion and Nationalism: 1851 C.E. to 1876 C.E. Industrialization created a global economy. Working people gained more influence. The Communist Manifesto. Italy and Germany formed nations. The Age of Imperialism: 1875 C.E. to 1914 C.E. Nations competed for overseas empires. Imperialists divided Africa British dominated South Asia Imperialism reached the Western Hemisphere. U.S. fights Spain for Cuban intervention and naval bases. U.S. encourages revolution in Panama (breaking from Columbia) to build Panama canal. Europeans and U.S. competed for Pacific Islands for strategic naval bases. When Hawaiin monarch (Queen Liliuokalani) refused to give up her country’s freedom, she was overthrown; and Hawaii was annexed to U.S. In the following year, after Spanish-American War, U.S. won control of Guam and Philippines from Spain. 34