CURRICULUM DESIGN BASICS Reference: Harrison, J. M., Blakemore, C. L., & Buck, M. M. (2001). Basic principles of curriculum design. In Harrison et al., Instructional strategies for secondary school physical education (5th ed.) (pp. 131-148). Boston: McGraw-Hill. WHAT Is A CURRICULUM Jewett, Bain, and Ennis described the physical education curriculum as follows: "Broadly defined, the school curriculum includes all experiences conducted under school auspices, from formal classroom instruction to interscholastic athletics. More specifically, the curriculum is defined as the planned sequence of formal instructional experiences presented by the teachers to whom the responsibility is assigned." 1 The curriculum should reflect the society and its philosophy. The teacher becomes the intermediary to translate the curriculum into the instructional strategies that influence student learning. Teachers' personalities and abilities influence their capacity to transpose curricular content into student learning. Students' interests and abilities, in turn, influence their input into the instructional system. Figure 1 demonstrates how this interaction occurs. THE IMPORTANCE OF CURRICULUM DESIGN Curriculum design involves the creation of a set of operating principles or criteria, based on theory, that guide the selection and organization of content and the methodology used to teach that content. With the accelerated rate of social change, schools are preparing youth for adulthood in a society not yet envisioned by its members. Hawley's words still ring true: "It's not a question of whether or not to change, but whether or not we can control the way we are changing. We are living in an Alice in Wonderland world where you have to run just to stay where you are. To get anywhere you have to run even faster than that. The pieces on the chess board keep changing and the rules are never the same." 2 Progress is impossible without change. Changes in financial resources, facilities and equipment, student populations, faculty availability and expertise, student needs and interests, and other environmental and technological changes force curriculum change. However, all change does not result in improvement. In fact, some changes may be worse than no change at all. On the other hand, when schools lag behind in curriculum development, changes are imposed from the outside. The move to national standards for content areas is an example of the push for accountability from outside of the schools.
The Society Philosophy The Physical Education Curriculum Knowledge
Personality
The Teacher Instruction (Method)
Abilities
Abilities, background
Interests
The Student Figure 1 The relationship of curriculum and instruction.
Curriculum change should be based on a well-informed evaluation of past, present, and future, including the best thinking of professionals who have researched and tested each proposal. Effective ideas should be retained, ineffective ones discarded. New ideas ought to be tried on a small scale prior to adoption. Planning and preparation are keys to a successful and meaningful program. Traditionally, educators make two mistakes with regard to curriculum design. They either just let things happen or they look around for a good curriculum and adopt it, whether or not it fits their particular needs. Curriculum designers must carefully merge cultural elements, old and new into a curriculum that fits the students, school, and community. The constantly changing American society requires a continuous,
systematic process of evaluating and redesigning the curriculum to achieve program objectives. REVIEW QUESTIONS: What is a curriculum? What is curriculum design? Why is it important? MODELS OF CURRICULUM DESIGN An effective curriculum must be built on a solid philosophical foundation that answers the question of what educational purposes the school should seek to achieve. The classical model for curriculum design, proposed by Tyler in 1949, asked four questions of curriculum planners: (1) What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? (2) What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to help attain these purposes? (3) How can these educational experiences be effectively organized? and (4) How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? 3 Tyler's steps for curriculum design included stating objectives, selecting learning experiences, organizing the experiences, and evaluating results. Tyler's model is most closely aligned with the educational purposes of preserving the social order and teaching skills and competencies needed to function effectively in society. Tyler's model has been criticized for not describing the way curriculum committees actually proceed. Walker observed curriculum designers and described their actions. 4 Their first step was to establish a platform of beliefs and values to guide the planning process. The second step was to develop curriculum materials and then review these materials by identifying facts, generating alternative solutions, determining consequences, weighing alternatives, and choosing the best solutions. The result was a curriculum "design" or product. Some of the newer value orientations might fit more effectively into Walker's model. THE CURRICULUM DESIGN PROCESS The steps of the curriculum design process presented here are based primarily upon Tyler's classical design for curriculum development. 1. Establish a curriculum committee. 2. Study information needed to make curriculum decisions. 3. Determine the philosophy, aims, and objectives of the school. 4. Determine the program's scope and sequence. 5. Schedule. 6. Implement the program.
7. Evaluate and revise. Figure 2 shows a diagram of the curriculum design process. After evaluation, the designers should follow the feedback loops back to the beginning of the cycle and re-examine the objectives and instructional programs to determine how to improve them using the new information gained.
Establish the Committee
Curriculum Foundations
Study the Basic Foundations
Information needed to make curriculum decisions
Determine Goals Objectives
&
Determine Scope Sequence
Schedule &
Yearly Schedule
Implement the Curriculum
Unit & Lesson Planning
Evaluate & Revise
Evaluate each Objective
National, State, District, School Plans
Content for each school level
Sociology
Information about the environment Community & School Resources Characteristics, needs, & interests of learners Principles of learning Subject Matter
Skills
Preschool & Kindergarten
Class Instruction: Student Grouping Class Sizes
Physical Fitness
Primary
Intermediate Knowledge
Psychology
Time Allotments INSTRUCTIONAL PROCESS Objectives – Content – Learning Activities - Evaluation Staffing
Attitudes, Values, Appreciations
Middle or Junior High Senior High
Teaching Stations
Intramurals
Philosophy
Governmental Activity Social Skills Educational Purposes
College
Extramurals Adult
Philosophical orientations National, State, & District
Figure 2 The curriculum design process. REVIEW QUESTION: What are the steps in the curriculum design process?
Program Evaluation
Establish a Curriculum Committee Persons responsible for curriculum decisions include administrators, teachers, students, parents, and community leaders. Most major innovations in the public schools are introduced by teachers and administrators. Colleges and universities that train teachers, state boards or departments of education, and textbook publishers and instructional materials producers indirectly provide educational leadership. The Administrator's Role in Curriculum Design The instructional program is the most important responsibility of school administrators. They must (1) plan instructional programs that contribute to the intellectual, physical, and emotional growth and well-being of all young people, and (2) select and assign competent teachers. They provide leadership for curriculum planning, implementation, evaluation, and revision. Direct leadership occurs when department chairs, principals, or district supervisors help teachers with curriculum development. Once a decision is made to develop or revise a curriculum, the administrator selects a curriculum committee and proposes goals and guidelines for action. This process is more formal at the district level or in a large department, whereas in a smaller department all teachers might compose such a committee. Administrators work closely with the committee, providing input, reviewing proposals for new programs, and providing resources. Administrators are also responsible for helping to implement approved programs. Indirectly, all administrators, and especially principals, have the responsibility to provide a climate for personal and group growth. This requires effective communication, time and resources for personal and group study, opportunities to attend conferences or visit innovative schools, and freedom to experiment with new ideas. Teachers with time and resources to study and experiment with new ideas and practices generally are more innovative. The Teachers' Role in Curriculum Design Although instructional supervision is an administrative responsibility, teachers' insights are critical for developing a successful curriculum. Teachers are the first to notice a need for change. Their intimate knowledge of learners, classrooms, and the school environment puts them in a position to make and implement practical curriculum changes. In fact, many changes occur, almost unnoticed, as teachers work together to revise course content and schedules. Many schools assign curriculum leaders, master teachers with additional training in curriculum development and leadership skills to help teachers make curriculum decisions.
Physical educators have more flexibility for curriculum development than other teachers because of their unique facilities. Students can be grouped and regrouped by ability levels or interests more easily than in intact classrooms, and class sizes can be altered to fit the activity to be taught and the facilities available. Sound curriculum development principles and practices will prevent the curriculum from "just happening." Teachers who attend conventions and in-service meetings, visit other schools, read professional journals, serve on school or district committees, and discuss ideas with other teachers are able to keep abreast of changes in physical education curriculum. The Curriculum Committee The number and kinds of curriculum committees depend on the extent of the curriculum project. A school curriculum project might include a coordinating committee, with subcommittees for each grade level. On a smaller level, each member of the physical education staff might serve on the committee. The coordinating committee acts as a clearinghouse for ideas and suggestions. The coordinating committee or the smaller committee establishes the overall physical education philosophy for the district or school, explores satisfactions and dissatisfactions with the present program, and schedules meetings and establishes the work sequence. Although program development can be a product of individual teachers, administrators, or supervisors, experience shows that a curriculum cooperatively planned by all those involved in its implementation yields the best results. Administrators provide insights into time schedules, budgets, facilities, resources, and other administrative details. Teachers, both men and women, work daily with students and know what will or will not work. Students provide information regarding their own interests, learning obstacles, relevance of learning experiences, and recommended extra-class programs. Parents and community leaders provide varied, fresh ideas based on their experiences with school and life and their aspirations for children. They can be influential in promoting curriculum change if they are consulted during the planning stages. Recent graduates can be especially helpful in evaluating the curriculum's relevance to real life. Curriculum specialists provide expertise in
curriculum design and ideas that have worked well in other schools. Clerical assistants can record, type, copy, collate, and distribute information.
Persons chosen to serve on curriculum committees should represent and have the respect and support of their peers and the administration. Small committees can achieve consensus and get the work done more effectively. Periodically rotating committee memberships avoids fatigue and promotes a fresh attack on the problems at hand. When several people from various back- grounds join together in a group effort, synergy occurs; that is, the result is greater than the sum of its members. Since curriculum development is a time-consuming process, released time or pay for extra work should be considered for committee members. REVIEW QUESTIONS: Who should serve on a curriculum committee? What is the role of each of these persons? Resources for the Curriculum Committee Persons responsible for curriculum design should be aware of the resources available, which include people and organizations, publications, curriculum guides, facilities, and media. Collaborative arrangements in which teachers work with curriculum and instruction specialists and researchers to identify and investigate problems and solutions make their findings more applicable to public school settings. A large number of national associations and societies and government agencies also have materials or journals of value to physical education. Check your university or local library for addresses and publications or check the Internet. A few of them include the American Cancer Society, the American College of Sports Medicine, the American Medical Association, and the American Heart Association. Two national organizations with tremendous resources are the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance (AAHPERD), and the President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports. AAHPERD has excellent position papers outlining guidelines for physical education. It also publishes several journals and a number of other pertinent publications. The President's Council provides speakers, public relations help, bulletins, and films on various areas of interest to physical educators. State departments of education often provide consultants, in-service activities, conferences, clinics, and workshops. State education associations and state associations of health, physical education, recreation, and dance can be of inestimable service. The local chamber of commerce can provide information about the resources and makeup of the local community. The number
of professional journals relating to physical education has increased dramatically in the past few years. An excellent list of the scholarly periodicals in physical education appeared in the Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance. 5 State departments of education and local school systems publish curriculum guides detailing the course of instruction and requirements for specific subject areas. Curriculum guides generally include some or all of the fo1lowing: (1) philosophy, goals, and objectives; (2) characteristics and needs of students; (3) program scope and sequence with suggested units of instruction for each grade level; (4) sample schedules; (5) administrative guidelines; (6) instructional activities; (7) evaluation techniques; and (8) resources. Teachers who help write curriculum guides find them more useful than those who merely read them. As school districts move from traditional programs to more authentic instruction, the guides become more useful to teachers. Curriculum guides enhance the articulation between programs at different school levels and assure proper progression and development in the three domains of learning. REVIEW QUESTION: What resources are available for curriculum designers? Study Information Needed to Make Curriculum Decisions To make effective curriculum decisions, the committee must learn all it can about the environment, the school, the learners, and the subject matter and how it is learned. Then it must attempt to integrate this information and its implications with the educational philosophy espoused by the district and school. Governmental activity also has an influence on curriculum decisions. Information about the Environment A large number of social forces affect students’ lives. Curriculum developers must consider local attitudes and values as well as national ones. Most communities share certain values, attitudes, and beliefs. Local resources and interests influence the selection of learning activities. The current emphasis on physical fitness and lifetime sports reflects a general commitment to the ideal of preparing students for effective adult living. Thus, schools in many areas have adopted Fitness for Life or similar courses. Local commitments to promote equality of opportunity for all students may not be strong enough to overcome the value for athletic excellence. Needs and priorities can be assessed through brainstorming, observation, interviews, questionnaires, surveys, inventories, public hearings, and available statistics. Asking people to indicate priorities as
critical, important, or desirable can be helpful, as can asking them to classify needs as longrange or immediate. A community survey can provide information concerning the following: The community's historical background The philosophy of community members and their willingness to support education and physical education programs Economic and tax base factors of the community, such as major employers; average family income; incidence of unemployment; and educational, recreational, health and other services Social, cultural, and political factors, such as population and prospective changes in population, age distribution, ethnic and racial makeup of the population, social and cultural attitudes, religious orientation, educational background, crime, political pressures, and form of government Geographical and location factors, including such regional factors as climate, altitude, and the availability of lakes, mountains, and seashores, that affect students' activity interests and the time that can be spent out-of-doors; and the environment (urban, suburban, or rural), which affects personal and family income and the activities students can engage in outside of school Community resources, including colleges and universities, private and parochial schools, public libraries, parks and playgrounds, swimming pools, cultural programs, government agencies, citizens, groups, and commercial ski resorts, bowling lanes, and equestrian clubs Learning more about the community increases one's understanding of its organization and lifestyle. The analysis of social forces leads to implications for curricular needs. Hass listed curriculum criteria to consider when dealing with social forces. 1. What social or cultural factors contribute to the individual differences of the learners? 2. How can the curriculum and the teaching take into account these differences? 3. What values are we teaching? 4. What values do we wish to teach? 5. What can the curriculum do to assist learners in their goals of social self-understanding and self-realization ? 6. How can the curriculum and teaching be planned and organized so that learners are assisted in confronting personal and social problems?
7. How can learners be helped to develop the skills needed to solve problems? 6 Information about the School School resources that influence the physical education curriculum include finances, facilities and equipment, staff, school and department policies, and the total school curriculum. Most school monies are spent for building construction and maintenance and salaries. When finances are low, teachers may be left without essential facilities and instructional materials. School facilities can be supplemented by community resources such as bowling centers, skating rinks, ski slopes, and gymnastic studios. State and national parks and forests provide resources for adventure and outdoor education activities. Government, community, business, and philanthropic agencies often aid schools in obtaining resources. The school's organizational structure and school policies stifle or encourage creativity in curriculum planning. Administrators' values, attitudes, and policies toward learning, student behavior, and faculty freedom affect student and teacher morale and cohesiveness. The number, age, gender, socioeconomic background, interests, and expertise of physical educators directly affect what is taught. The school curriculum pattern and schedule dictate the limits within which the physical education program must operate. Information about the Learners Educational goals and curricular objectives arise from student needs, which are generally of two types. The first kind arises from needs within the organism itself. To achieve physical and psychological safety, students need self-efficacy and skill in basic movement skills and a safe progression of curricular activities. Consideration of differences in skill level and readiness yield security to try new activities and activities requiring higher skill levels. Social approval increases when activities are structured so low-skilled individuals and students experiencing social rejection are not disadvantaged. Using cooperative activities, adapting activities so students with a wide range of abilities experience success and enjoyment, and counseling students to select those activities best suited to their individual needs and interests increase student self-esteem. According to Maslow, the school environment should help students satisfy their basic needs so they will be free to move on to self-actualization. To develop self-actualization in physical education, students need to learn how movement affects their health and well-being in adulthood and how to take responsibility for their decisions.7 The second type of needs is determined by comparing the learner's current status with the status expected by society. The gap between these two levels defines an educational need.
For example, if a society expects its members to be able to swim and students cannot swim, then a need exists. Some educational needs are common to children or adolescents of a particular age level, no matter where they live, while other needs are specific to the local environment. Assuming, for example, that all seventh graders need instruction in team sports and all twelfth graders need to develop skills in individual and dual sports for use in their leisure time negates the fact that students vary considerably within a single grade level in both age and intellectual, physical, social, and emotional development. Youth in Hawaii may need to be adept at swimming and surfing, while children in Colorado may need to be good snow skiers. Students who differ dramatically from group norms, including potential dropouts, bilingual students, the mentally and physically disabled, and the gifted also should be considered. In fact, the courts have ruled that schools must meet the needs of all learners. Programs must be flexible enough to adapt to learners' individual differences. Students' interests and purposes for enrolling in physical education must be considered. Curriculum designers should plan for a variety of learning modes to accommodate students' individual personalities and learning styles. Data concerning both the whole student population and individual students are essential. Curriculum designers must consider the nature of the student body- the number of students, their ages, gender, grade levels, socioeconomic levels, racial composition and ethnic background, personal and family characteristics, interests, achievements, talents, and goals. Data from physical fitness, knowledge, skill, and attitude tests can describe students' past achievements. Health assessments provide essential information about students. Questionnaires to determine student interests can help determine readiness for learning specific activities. Other methods for studying learners include observations, questionnaires, interviews, and school and community records concerning attendance, delinquency, health, social status, discipline, and participation in extracurricular and recreation activities. Hass listed questions curriculum planners can ask to test how well programs have been planned to meet students needs: 1. Does the planned curriculum provide for the developmental differences of the learners being taught? 2. Does the planned curriculum include provisions so that learning may start for each learner where he or she is?8
Data about students are compared with desirable norms and deviations noted as possible concerns for school attention. The curriculum committee must decide which needs can be appropriately met by the school and which are best met by coordination with other social agencies. The Subject Matter and How It Is Learned The trend toward outcome-and standards-based education at the national and state levels makes it imperative for physical educators to design curriculum that help students achieve the specified outcomes. The Goals 2000: Educate America Act in March 1994 established a national council to help professional organizations develop standards specifying what students should know and be able to do. These content standards describe the knowledge and skills of each discipline, while the performance standards stipulate "how good is good enough." Once assessments of student work or performance have been accumulated over time, performance benchmarks can be used to describe the students’ progress toward the performance standards. Table 1 lists the content standards for physical education.9 Table 1. Physical Education Content Standards A physically educated student: 1. Demonstrates competency in many movement forms and proficiency in a few movement forms. 2. Applies movement concepts and principles to the learning and development of motor skills. 3. Exhibits a physically active lifestyle. 4. Achieves and maintains a health-enhancing level of physical fitness. 5. Demonstrates responsible personal and social behavior in physical activity settings. 6. Demonstrates understanding and respect for differences among people in physical activity settings. 7. Understands that physical activity provides opportunities for enjoyment, challenge, selfexpression, and social interactions.
Source: From National Association for Sport and Physical Education: Moving in the Future: National Physical Education Standards: A Guide to Content and Assessment (St. Louis, MO: Mosby, 1995)
All students should be expected and helped to meet the content standards of physical education before graduating from high school. This can only occur when the curriculum is carefully planned and instruction carried out at each level to lead toward the standards. Thus, the outcomes or objectives at each level (elementary, middle, junior and senior high school) should form a hierarchy or taxonomy in which achievement of the lower objectives leads to achievement of the objectives higher up until the final standard is achieved. Unit objectives should fit into the outcomes for each level and lesson objectives are derived from the unit objectives. Curriculum designers must consider each of the standards and the learning domainscognitive, psychomotor, and affective-that relate to those standards. Students should be helped to discover how physical education relates to them and how they can use the information gained to solve their own problems. Some questions to consider when planning the subject matter and instructional methodology include the following: What does a physically educated student know? Do? See Moving in the Future: National Physical Education Standards: A Guide to Content and Assessment to review the characteristics of a physically educated person (what s/he has, is, does, knows, and values). What should students know and be able to do at the high school level, the junior high school level, the middle school level, or the elementary level? (These are called benchmarks.) What should students know and be able to do at the specific grade level to meet the school level outcomes? What instructional units will help students achieve these objectives? What lesson objectives will help students achieve the unit objectives?
The curriculum should allow students to develop at all levels in each learning domain and help learners to identify and organize the key concepts and principles of physical education and use them to solve personal problems, now and in the future. To accommodate individual learning styles, it should also provide alternative approaches to learning: Research in educational psychology and motor learning, in exercise physiology, and in other areas of education also have implications for curriculum development. A knowledge of educational psychology and adolescent development helps educators select objectives that are attainable at certain age levels and the conditions and amount of time necessary for learning. Time greatly influences achievement of the objectives. It is better to have fewer
objectives and teach them well than to have a large number of unattained objectives. Research indicates that learning that is applied or integrated with other learning is retained longer than isolated or compartmentalized learning. Governmental Activity Federal and state legislation; judicial decisions such as those on legal liability, integration, and busing; and government regulations and supervision, including the power to allot or withdraw funds, plays a major role in the educational process. Federal laws that have had a tremendous effect on school programs include PL 94-142 (The Education for All Handicapped Children Act) and its sequel, The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990 (PL 101-476); Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act; and Title IX. Policy constraints often dictate what can be done, leaving little latitude for innovation. The National Association for Sport and Physical Education (1999) has prepared the Sport and Physical Education Advocacy Kit (SPEAK) II to help physical educators change public opinion and influence political decisions that affect physical education.l0 Philosophies of Education and Physical Education The philosophical orientation of persons responsible for curriculum decisions is undoubtedly the greatest variable influencing the selection of school goals and objectives. Progressive philosophers study the learner and select curricular purposes and content in terms of student needs and interests. Essentialists derive goals and subject matter from the body of knowledge that has been handed down over thousands of years. Sociologists view the school as a means to help people deal with contemporary problems. Educational philosophies attempt to answer questions such as whether to educate persons to adjust to the culture or to improve the culture, and whether to provide a general education for all students or vocational training for those who wish to leave early or immediately after high school to go to work. The board of education is generally responsible for establishing the overall philosophy and goals of the schools within its jurisdiction. District goals should be divided into subgoals and performance objectives consistent with educational goals and standards. Physical education goals and objectives are formulated in the same manner. To form a philosophical base on which to build a meaningful program, teachers must become aware of their own philosophies. To accomplish this, they should wrestle with questions like the following: 1. What is the purpose of education?
2. What is the purpose of physical education? To teach concepts, sport skills, fitness? Personal and social skills? 3. How does physical education fit into the purposes of education? 4. What is the role of a teacher? Not all of the objectives suggested for the school by the preceding analyses can possibly be implemented in the time available in the curriculum; therefore, it is essential to select the most important ones and ensure that they are achieved. Proposed objectives must be evalu ated in terms of the values (stated or implied) in district, school, and department philosophies. Objectives that do not agree with the philosophies are deleted. Even though objectives are stated early in the curriculum process, they will undoubtedly be revised over and over again as decisions are made with regard to scope and sequence, selection of learning activities, and evaluation. They should be refined into a usable state before the curriculum is implemented, even though some may be revised after evaluating the new program. Once the objectives have been selected, they should be stated as observable student behaviors and in a way that educators, parents, students, and other interested persons can understand what behaviors are intended. Hass listed some guidelines for evaluating goals and objectives as follows: 1. Have the goals of the curriculum or teaching plan been clearly stated, and are they used by the teachers and students in choosing content, materials, and activities for learning? 2. Have the teachers and students engaged in student- teacher planning in defining the goals and in determining how they will be implemented? 3. Do some of the planned goals relate to the society or the community in which the curriculum will be implemented or the teaching will be done? 4. Do some of the planned goals relate to the needs, purposes, interests, and abilities of the individual learner? 5. Are the planned goals used as criteria in selecting and developing learning activities and materials of instruction? 6. Are the planned goals used as criteria in evaluating learning achievement and in the further planning of learning sub-goals and activities? ll REVIEW QUESTIONS: What should be considered in each of the following areas before making curriculum decisions? a. community
b. school c. learners d. subject matter e. trends, innovations, research f. governmental activity g. philosophy Educational Purposes, Value Orientations, and Curriculum Patterns Local social and environmental forces and the philosophies of educators and physical educators directly influence the purposes of education and the value orientations that are selected as the bases for local curricula. As social forces change, the demands placed on schools also change. Decisions about social implications must take into account the following purposes of education: 1. to preserve and maintain desirable social features by transmitting them to the young; 2. to teach skills and competencies needed to function effectively as an adult member of society; 3. to help the individual function within society to the fullest extent possible, both now and in the future, through intelligent self -direction, group deliberation, and action; and 4. to teach the individual to constructively evaluate social issues and influence the social order by contributing to ordered, purposeful change. Jewett, Bain, and Ennis described five value orientations for curriculum development that match the purposes described above.12 They are disciplinary mastery, social reconstruction, learning process, self-actualization, and ecological integration. The chosen value orientation should be stated in the philosophy of the curriculum guide. Disciplinary mastery emphasizes the transmission "of the cultural heritage from one generation to the next." The "back to the basics" movement reflects this emphasis, as does the traditional emphasis on physical fitness and mastery of basic movement and sport skills in physical education. Social reconstruction stresses instruction for "creating a better society," and emphasizes interpersonal and problem-solving skills. Social reconstructionists include nontraditional activities such as outdoor and adventure education and "new games," with emphasis on cooperation rather than competition, in an attempt to broaden community recreational interests.
The learning process emphasizes learning how to learn and the importance of learning the skills needed to deal with rapid changes in knowledge and technology. Content includes basic physical education knowledge, as well as learning how to acquire sport skills. Advocates of self-actualization provide opportunities for students to explore many activities and then develop expertise in one or more chosen activities. Experiences that lend themselves to each student's quest for personal excellence and satisfaction include outdoor pursuits and adventure activities. In the fifth orientation, ecological integration, self-actualization is sought as a means toward a holistic interaction between the individual and the environment. This orientation focuses on the global interdependent society and emphasizes health-related fitness, skillful movement, self-confidence, creativity, outdoor education, and leadership skills designed for optimum personal development. For learners to achieve curriculum goals and objectives, learning experiences must be selected and organized to reinforce concepts, values, and skills. Common school organizing structures include the separate subjects curriculum, the broad fields curriculum, and the core curriculum. Elementary school curricula generally follow the broad fields pattern, including such areas as language arts, social studies, and natural science. Middle schools often use a core curriculum, combining classes such as English, history, and science, with separate classes in physical education, art, music, and other subjects, using teacher specialists in those areas. The most common secondary school organizational pattern is the separate subjects curriculum in which a different subject is encountered by the learner during each period of the school day. No attempt is made to relate principles learned in courses such as chemistry, biology, and health to each other. The broad fields curriculum tends to be more learnercentered and promotes greater integration of concepts learned, while the specific subject pattern tends to be primarily subject-centered. No one curriculum pattern is adequate to serve the varied populations of all schools. Curriculum designers must study curriculum patterns as a basis for intelligent action and then select and combine elements from several patterns to form a curriculum pattern that suits the needs of the particular school or system within which they are working. This requires knowing the elements of each pattern and possessing the creativity to adapt them to the needs of the situation. In physical education, curriculum patterns have evolved from either a subject-centered or a student-centered approach. Subject-centered curriculum patterns include the traditional
activity-based and the more recent movement-based and concepts-based curriculum patterns. They are generally chosen to promote the purposes of transmitting the culture to young people to prepare them for effective living in society. They emphasize disciplinary mastery and learning how to learn. Student-centered patterns include the developmental- needs and the student-centered curriculum patterns. These patterns tend to reinforce the purposes of self-actualization and social change, along with their respective value orientations. Activity-Based Curriculum Patterns In the most common pattern, the activity-based curriculum is organized around activity units, including dance, fitness, and sports. Participation in activities is the goal. Since all activities cannot be included, a percentage of the total time is established for each activity category. Local considerations influence specific selections within each category. Progression is from basic skills in the elementary grades to specialization in a few selected activities at the high school level. Although the multi-activity pattern is easy to administer, many programs are inadequately planned and implemented resulting in boredom, repetition, and failure to develop skills beyond the basic level. Students fail to develop the concepts necessary to understand the purpose of physical education throughout life. These programs are difficult to justify to administrators and taxpayers. The foremost advocate of play for its own sake is Siedentop. He stated that "physical education derives from play, is best understood in reference to play and best defined as playful motor activity, and in its mature form is institutionalized in culture as sport and dance."13 Play is seen as an important part of human existence. Students need instruction to develop the fundamental motor patterns needed for participation in all activities and counseling to help them match their interests and abilities to suitable activities. Sport education is an activity-based approach that stresses learning to be competent, literate, enthusiastic sportspersons. Instruction mirrors sport in society, with modifications to fit the educational setting, and includes six features; (1) sport seasons (rather than units), sufficiently long to achieve the objectives; (2) team affiliation; (3) formal competitions interspersed with practice sessions; (4) a culminating event (tournament, meet, etc.); (5) record keeping/statistics, which provide feedback to players and coaches; and (6) festivities and rituals, such as team names, colors, logos, banners, opening ceremonies, and throwing out the first ball. Students participate in formal competitive schedules with preseason instruction, team practice sessions, a culminating event, and publicized records and standings. Games progress in difficulty, with modified games such as one-on-one, two-on-two, and three-on-
three, helping all students become competent and confident in their skills and strategies. All students are involved in playing, refereeing, and scorekeeping, with roles such as coach, manager, trainer, statistician, and sports information person rotated among students. Fair play points are awarded to lead students toward appropriate personal and social behaviors. Sports education may occur in single classes, with competition between classes scheduled during the same class period or other class periods, or during intramural activity time. Guests, such as parents, grandparents, teachers, and community members may serve as spectators or event managers. Sports education teaches skills, rules, strategies, appreciation for play in our society, and proper ethical principles involved in good sport.14 Research has shown that students in the sport education model improve in the use of strategy, participation levels, and team play, while students in traditional models often do not. 15 Another activity-oriented curriculum approach is wilderness sports. Wilderness sports include activities conducted in wilderness settings, such as backpacking, canoeing, and scuba diving. While physical skill is the primary objective of wilderness activities, group or individual problem solving under stress is the major purpose of adventure education, which uses contrived obstacles or environments as problems or challenges for students to solve. Although instruction is included in physical education classes, weekend or overnight outings are essential for skill application in wilderness settings.16 Movement-Based Curriculum Patterns The movement-based curriculum is based on the work of Laban and is used primarily in elementary school programs. 17 The curriculum is organized around themes involving the body and its interrelationship with space, time, effort, and flow. Exploration of movement concepts and a variety of movement skills in dance, gymnastics, and sports are included. Students use problem solving or discovery learning to create new ways of using their bodies to achieve specified goals with various pieces of equipment. Although movement-based curriculum patterns are primari1y used in elementary schools, effective programs have also been implemented in middle schools and high schools. Concepts-Based Curriculum Patterns Concepts approaches based on the body of knowledge about human movement are organized around key ideas or principles, broad enough to permit instruction in a wide variety of activities and meaningful enough to justify the time and effort expended. The goal is to help students understand the what, why, and how of physical education through problem solving in laboratory and activity settings. Sport and movement skills can be used to teach concepts.
Progression is from simple to more complex knowledge. Concepts approaches are based on two assumptions: (1) that concepts transfer to new skills and situations and (2) that students learn concepts better if the teacher emphasizes the concept (e.g., force production) rather than teaching the concept within an activity unit. Concepts-based curricula are more easily justified in an academic sense and may help physical education achieve a more respected place in the school curriculum. They adapt readily to individual student differences and to different locales. Students who do not excel in physical education activities often like the concepts approach. Another advantage may be the carryover of basic concepts about health and fitness to real life. Two disadvantages are that students may not learn the skills needed to participate in each activity and that concepts may transfer to new skills and situations only when the application is made clear in the new situation. In the late 1960s and 1970s, a group at Loughborough University in England devised a teaching model to overcome the deficiencies of the traditional activity model. 19 Their approach, which focuses on student understanding of game strategies and solving problems unique to game forms, became known as the Teaching Games for Understanding (TGFU) Approach. Theoretically, it agrees with the premise that the learner must move toward cognitive dissonance to create a desire to seek solutions to problems. 20 The Games for Understanding Model involves a classification of games into types, such as invasion games (basketball, soccer, etc., target games (golf, archery), net/wall games (volleyball, racquetball), and field games (softball). Games are taught using a cycle of six steps. 21 1. Introduction of the game form and the problems unique to that game. For example, volleyball is a net game that requires the use of strategic angles for placing the ball into spaces on the opponent's court and for defending spaces on one' s own court. Game forms are modified games such as 3-on-3 or 2-on-3 which contain the essential elements of the official game, with adaptations to meet the needs of the learners and to ensure safety . 2. Games appreciation. The emphasis is on students understanding the rules of the game. Players learn that rules affect the skills and strategies needed. Rules generally include the number of players on a team, the playing area, the type of equipment (modified balls, lower nets), and ways of scoring. 3. Tactical awareness. Game components are exaggerated to increase student awareness of the need for certain game strategies such as creating space when attacking or denying space when defending and recognizing opponents' weaknesses. The teacher's role is to observe
the outcome, assess the situations that arise and the players' solutions, and then pose questions to individuals or groups that stimulate possible answers or challenge further thought. "Questions may concern the objective of the game, the selection and execution of particular tactics or techniques, [such as] What are you trying to do? What are the alternatives? How could you best achieve it? How can other team members help? How will you adjust to the opponents' play? etc."22 4. Decision making. Students gain experience in recognizing cues from game situations and predicting possible outcomes, then choosing the best outcome for the situation. Decisions include "What to do" and "How to do it." 5. Skill execution. Once students see the need to improve skills to accomplish their tactical goals, they are better prepared to work on skill development under the guidance of the teacher. Both skill efficiency and appropriateness in the game are considered. 6. Performance. Appropriate response selection and efficient technique execution ultimately result in effective game performance. In this phase, the students' abilities are assessed and the cycle returns to the beginning. The TGFU model takes into account both learning and motivation theory, helps students see relationships and differences between games, and fosters both cognitive development and skill development. However, it requires teachers to be truly knowledgeable about game structures and to select developmentally appropriate game forms and modify games to help students understand the activities without violating the basic principles on which the games are based. Teachers must be helped to develop the pedagogical content knowledge required to implement this approach.23 In the subdiscipline approach to physical education, units are based on the subdisciplines traditionally associated with physical education--exercise physiology, kinesiology, motor development, motor learning, sport sociology and psychology, and sport history, philosophy, and art. An example of a concept-oriented instructional unit for biomechanics using the subdiscipline approach might include: Week 1: Center of gravity and base of support Week 2: Balance Week 3: Spin and angle of rebound Week 4: Newton's laws of motion Week 5: Force production Week 6: Summary of the use of biomechanics in
sport 24 Several variations of the concepts-based curriculum pattern include ( 1) integrating concepts with the traditional activity-based curriculum, (2) teaching a separate unit on concepts along with the traditional activity units, and (3) teaching concepts on special occasions such as rainy days and shortened periods. With the current emphasis on physical fitness, wellness, and healthy lifestyles, it is no surprise that physical educators have created a fitness-based curriculum approach. Most programs emphasize fitness concepts, as well as activity skills for developing healthy lifestyles. A number of textbooks for teaching fitness concepts to secondary school students has been published. Most programs are supplemented with activity units designed to encourage participation in physical activity throughout life. Developmental-Needs Curriculum Patterns The student needs curriculum is based on the cognitive, psychomotor, and affective developmental stages and growth patterns of children and youth. Basic skills are taught in elementary school programs; team sports are emphasized in middle and junior high school programs; and lifetime activities are taught in senior high school and college curricula, along with appropriate cognitive and affective objectives for students' developmental levels. The curriculum is often divided into activity or theme units chosen by the faculty to meet student needs. This curriculum pattern is primarily based on the assumption that students go through the same developmental stages at the same rate, although some programs attempt to provide a variety of learning experiences to provide for individual variation in developmental levels. In a survey of professionals, researchers concluded that developmentally appropriate practice involves "experiences which are adapted to the individual learner's needs, interests, skill, and confidence levels."25 The developmental-needs curriculum is widely accepted and often combined with the activity-based curriculum under the assumption that development will occur automatically through participation in motor activities. Student-Centered Curriculum Patterns Student-centered curriculum patterns are based on students' purposes for enrolling in physical education activities, including social interaction, adventure, emotional release, physical fitness, self-discipline, or personal expression. The assumption is that students are capable of assessing their own purposes and making appropriate choices, although counseling helps students with these choices. A wide variety of activities with beginning, in-
termediate, and advanced levels of instruction are required to meet student needs. Attendance, cooperation, and learning increase when students are allowed to concentrate on activities in which they have real interest and develop competence in activities in which they will participate outside of school. Some teachers may need to learn to teach new activities that are of interest to students. If students continually shift from one teacher to another, teachers may not get to know students. Some students can get lost in such a system. Humanistic physical education stresses the unique-ness of each individual. It uses physical activity to assist students in their search for personal meaning, self-understanding, self-actualization, and interpersonal relations. Subject matter mastery is de-emphasized. Humanistic physical education requires a caring, authentic teacher who can establish a close teacher-student relationship and facilitate student learning. Hellison developed a personal and social responsibility model for physical education. Its focus is on teaching and empowering students to take more responsibility for themselves and to be socially responsible and sensitive to the rights, feelings, and well-being of others. He identified the five goals shown in Table 4 and then placed these goals into a hierarchy of levels for developing responsibility: (0) irresponsibility, (1) respect, (2) participation, (3) self-direction, and (4) caring. Hellison proposed strategies to help youth progress through the five stages, including awareness talks, group and individual reflection, time to try out or experience the levels, group problem-solving meetings, individual counseling, and individual choice.26 Table 4. Levels in Hellison’s Personal and Social Responsibility Model 1. Respect for the rights and feelings of others a. Maintaining self-control b. Respecting everyone’s right to be included c. Respecting everyone’s right to a peaceful conflict resolution 2. Participation and effort a. Exploring effort b. Trying new things c. Developing a personal definition of success 3. Self-direction a. Demonstrating on-task independence b. Developing a sound knowledge base
c. Developing, carrying-out, and evaluating a personal plan d. Balancing current and future needs e. “Striving against external forces” 4. Sensitivity and responsiveness to the well-being of others a. Developing prerequisite interpersonal skills b. Becoming sensitive and compassionate c. Contributing to the community and beyond d. Helping others without rewards 5. Outside the gym a. Trying out the levels in the classroom, on the playground and street, and at home b. Making decisions about the usefulness on the levels outside the gym
Adventure education involves group or individual problem solving under stress using contrived obstacles or environments as problems or challenges for students to solve. Robinson proposed the risk-sport process as an alternative approach for humanistic physical education. His approach focuses on five phases: (1) initial involvement to meet individual needs for various levels of stimulation and autonomy within various social environments, (2) cognitive appraisal of the participant's perceived competency compared with the risk of the situation, (3) making decisions on which risks to accept or reject, (4) exploration of the nature of the performance and interpersonal experiences, and (5) reflection to understand the factors underlying their sport experience. Since risk-sport activities are not suitable for or attractive to all students, this model is recommended as an elective unit within the physical education curriculum. 27 Another student-centered curriculum pattern is the personal meaning approach, in which the focus is upon the satisfaction gained from participation in the movement experience or from the use of movement activities to achieve personal goals. The purpose-process curriculum framework (PPCF), defined by Jewett and Mullan consists of seven groups of movement purposes- physiological efficiency, psychic equilibrium, spacial orientation, object manipulation, communication, group interaction, and cultural involvement. 28 It is assumed that students have the same purposes, but the emphasis may change from school to school depending on the students. The curriculum content can be arranged within activity or concept units emphasizing one or more selected purposes. An example of the PPCF is the program developed for tenth graders in a Canadian school district. Students take one unit
each in fitness, personal development, and dance; two goal-type games; two net games; and one target game or combative activity. Adventure activities fit in well with the personal meaning curriculum. The major problem with the PPCF is that it is difficult to use for persons not familiar with the framework. REVIEW QUESTIONS: Define each of the following curriculum patterns: Subject-centered a. Activity-based 1) Sport education 2) Wilderness sports b. Movement-based c. Concepts-based 1) Teaching games for understanding 2) Subdiscipline; fitness d. Developmental needs Student-centered a. Humanistic b. Adventure education/risk sports c. Personal meaning
Building a Program from Curriculum Patterns Curriculum design involves choosing one or more curriculum patterns that meet the goals and objectives of the school or district for which the curriculum is being designed. For example, a movement approach may be chosen for the elementary schools, with activity-based programs dominating the secondary programs. Fitness-oriented concept units could be taught in the middle, junior, and senior high schools, with other concepts integrated with the appropriate activity units. The important thing to remember is that programs and patterns must be compatible with school and community philosophies and have internal consistency. Hellison and Templin suggested using the 51 percent rule, meaning that the program should be built primarily around one curriculum model, integrating components of other models where appropriate.30 In this way, teachers might integrate aspects of some of their favorite models, while still having compatibility and defensibility with the program's values and beliefs. Annarino and his colleagues listed the following practical considerations for designing or selecting curriculum patterns and programs:
Needs and interests of students Number and type of students Pre-entry skills of the students Terminal objectives to be achieved Type, expertise, and number of instructional personnel Grouping of students Availability of equipment and supplies Number of teaching stations Time allotments School and state requirements Type of instructional strategy to be employed Availability and types of instructional aids Seasonality 31
Siedentop and his colleagues suggested the following considerations : How adequate are the school facilities? How adequate are the community opportunities? How easy is it for students to get from school to the community sites? Do students have to catch buses right after school? Is the school district willing to provide supplementary compensation for faculty leadership in intramurals, clubs, and drop-in recreation? What is the state law regarding physical education? What support is there for going beyond the requirements of the state law with an elective program? How motivated are the physical education teachers to build a program that really counts? The answers to these questions will provide the background information for making decisions about how much a program can accomplish. 32 Whatever program is selected, do it well. It may be worthwhile to implement program components in small steps and work with that portion until success is achieved before starting another part.