What is Psychology

What is Psychology? Chapter 1 Learning Objectives 1. Define psychology. 2. Distinguish between psychology, pseudoscience, and common sense. 3. Compare and contrast five major theoretical perspectives in psychology today. 4. Identify and discuss the three broad categories of professional activities of psychologists. 5. Distinguish between the five different types of psychotherapists. 6. Define critical thinking and list eight criticalthinking guidelines. Learning Objectives Identify and examine the use of descriptive methods in psychological research. 8. Explain why a psychologist would use a correlation study and define the elements of a correlation study. 9. Outline the basic model of an experiment. 10. List the advantages and disadvantages of the various research methods used in psychological research. 11.Examine the use of descriptive and inferential statistics in psychology. 7. Defining Psychology  Psychology is the discipline concerned with behavior and mental processes and how they are affected by an organism's physical state, mental state, and external environment Psychology, Pseudoscience, and Common Sense     Scientific Psychology bears little relationship to "Pop" Psychology Fortune telling, numerology, graphology, and astrology are not part of psychology Psychology is not just a fancy name for common sense Psychological research often produces findings that contradict popular beliefs Pop Psychology 1. 2. 3. Expressing aggression is good for you. Don’t hold back your feelings TV violence does not negatively impact young children We only use 10% of our brain Bumpy Logic  Phrenology was a 19th-century pseudoscience • No scientific basis  Phrenology linked bumps on the skull with character traits The Birth of Modern Psychology   Functionalism: An early psychological approach that emphasized the function or purpose of behavior and consciousness Psychoanalysis: A theory of personality and a method of psychotherapy, originally formulated by Sigmund Freud, which emphasizes unconscious motives and conflicts Psychology's Present 5 Major Theoretical Perspectives      Biological Perspective Learning Perspective Cognitive Perspective Sociocultural Perspective Psychodynamic Perspective Biological Perspective  A psychological approach that emphasizes bodily events and changes associated with actions, feelings, and thoughts Learning Perspective  A psychological approach that emphasizes how the environment and experience affect a person's or animal's actions: It is often called behaviorism Cognitive Perspective  A psychological approach that emphasizes mental processes in perception, memory, language, problem solving, and other areas of behavior Sociocultural Perspective  A psychological approach that emphasizes social and cultural influences on behavior Psychodynamic Perspective  A psychological approach that emphasizes unconscious dynamics within the individual, such as inner forces, conflicts, or the movement of instinctual energy What Psychologists Do    Psychological Research Psychological Practice Psychology in the Community Psychological Research   Basic Psychology: The study of psychological issues in order to seek knowledge for its own sake rather than for its practical application Applied Psychology: The study of psychological issues that have direct practical significance; also the application of psychological findings. Psychological Practice Psychotherapist Person who does psychotherapy; credentials and training vary Has a doctoral degree: Ph.D., Ed.D., or Psy.D. Clinical Psychologist Psychoanalyst Psychiatrist Other professionals Has specific training in psychoanalysis after an advanced degree (usually M.D. or Ph.D.) A physician (M.D.) with specialization in psychiatry Licensing requirements vary by state; generally at least an M.A. Can be social worker (LCSW), counselor (MFCC), or other. Critical and Scientific Thinking in Psychology Critical Thinking  Critical Thinking: The ability and willingness to assess claims and make objective judgments on the basis of well-supported reasons and evidence, rather than emotion or anecdote Critical Thinking Guidelines         Ask Questions: Be willing to wonder Define Your Terms Examine the Evidence Analyze Assumptions and Biases Avoid Emotional Reasoning Don't Oversimplify Consider Other Interpretations Tolerate Uncertainty Scientific Method   Introduction | Definition The scientific method is a process used to systematically investigate observations, solve problems, and test hypotheses. Scientific Method Introduction | Purpose  The scientific method helps scientists ensure that the theories they test are true by testing a hypotheses with tests. Scientific Method Introduction | Steps The scientific method has 5 steps: 1. State the problem 2. Make Observations 3. Form a Hypothesis 4. Do the Experiment 5. Draw a conclusion.  Scientific Method    Introduction Example The scientific method can be applied to any problem that you need to solve, lets take a look at an example First we need to start with identifying the Problem. Scientific Method Problem | Overview  The first step of the scientific method is to State the Problem. It is important to clearly state what your problem is to avoid any confusion later in the scientific method. Scientific Method   Problem | Definition A problem is a question to be considered, solved or answered. Everybody constantly encounters minor problems everyday. Most days start with the question, "Should I get out of bed or not?" That is a problem. Scientific Method  The problem we have chosen is: "Which one of these two paper towels will absorb more water?" After we state the problem, we must make Observations about the problem. Scientific Method   Observations | Overview The second step of the scientific method is making observations about the problem. Scientific Method   Observations | Definition An observation is the act of noting and recording something with instruments. Observations help scientists decide how certain variables might affect the problem. Scientific Method     For our problem "Which paper towel will absorb more water we make observations by comparing the two different types of paper towels. Brand A papertowel is larger in size than Brand B papertowel. Brand A papertowel is twice as thick as Brand B papertowel. Based on these observations we can Form a Hypothesis. Scientific Method   Hypothesis | Overview The third step of the scientific method is to form a Hypothesis. The hypothesis is formed by examining the observations carefully and making a an educated guess as to what the outcome might be. Scientific Method   Hypothesis | Definition A hypothesis is a tentative explanation that accounts for a set of facts and can be tested by further investigatio Scientific Method  For our problem, based on the two observations that Brand A paper towel is both larger and thicker than Brand B paper towel that Brand A paper towel will be able to absorb more water.  Scientific Method   Experiment | Overview The fourth step of the scientific method is to do an experiment that tests the hypothesis. The experiment must be unbiased in nature, meaning that the scientist cannot create an experiment that will favor the outcome that they have predicted in their hypothesis. Scientific Method   Experiment | Definition An experiement is a test under controlled conditions that is made to demonstrate a known truth, or examine the validity of a hypothesis. Scientific Method   Experiment | Overview For our problem, we need to create a test that will determine whether or not Brand A paper towel will absorb more water than Brand B paper towel. Our experiment consisted of measuring water, folding a paper towel, dipping it into water, noting how much water it had absorbed and then repeating the process with the other brand of paper towel. Scientific Method       Conclusion | Overview The fifth step of the scientific method is to draw a conclusion. Scientists draw conclusions by examining the data from the experiment. There are basically two possible outcomes. Either the experiment supported the hypothesis and can be regarded as true, or the experiment disproved the hypothesis as false. If the hypothesis is false, repeat the steps in the scientific method and make adjustments to your hypothesis. If the hypothesis turns out to be false, there are some questions to ask to find out why: What was wrong with the original hypothesis? Did you make poor observations? Was your experiment flawed? Scientific Method   Conclusion | Definition A conclusion is the result or outcome of an act or process. Scientific Method   Conclusion | Example For our problem, we were correct in hypothesizing that Brand A paper towel's larger size and thickness helped it absorb more water than Brand B paper towel's smaller size and thinness. We have proved our hypothesis to be true. Scientific Method Descriptive Studies: Establishing the Facts     Case Studies Observational Studies Tests Surveys Case Studies  A detailed description of a particular individual being studied or treated. Observational Studies  Studies in which the researcher carefully and systematically observes and records behavior without interfering with that behavior; it may involve either naturalistic or laboratory observation. Tests     Standardize: To develop uniform procedures for giving and scoring a test. Norms: Established standards of performance. Reliability: Consistency of scores derived from a test. Validity: The ability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure. Test Surveys   Survey: Questionnaires and interviews that ask people directly about their experiences, attitudes, or opinions. Representative Sample: A group of subjects, selected from a population, which matches the population on important characteristics. Correlational Studies: Looking for Relationships Correlation   Correlation: A measure of how strongly two variables are related to one another Variables: Characteristics of behavior or experience that can be measured or described by a numeric scale Types of Correlations   Positive correlation: Increases in one variable are associated with increases in the other; decreases are likewise associated Negative correlation: Increases in one variable are associated with decreases in the other The Experiment: Hunting for Causes     Experimental Variables Experimental and Control Conditions Experimenter Effects Advantages and Limitations of Experiments Experimental Variables   Independent Variable: A variable that an experimenter manipulates. Dependent Variable: A variable than an experimenter predicts will be affected by manipulations of the independent variable. Experiments  Experiment: A controlled test of a hypothesis in which the researcher manipulates one variable to discover its effect on another. Experimental and Control Conditions   Experimental Condition: In an experiment, a condition in which subjects are exposed to manipulations of the independent variable. Control Condition: A comparison condition in which subjects are not exposed to the same treatment as in the experimental condition. Experimental Design    Hypothesis: Nicotine in cigarettes impairs driving. All conditions kept the same for both groups except nicotine. • Control condition is given placebo (inactive) cigarettes Number of collisions is measured. Random Assignment  A procedure for assigning people to experimental and control groups in which individuals have the same probability as an other of being assigned to either group. Placebo  An inactive substance or fake treatment used as a control in an experiment or given by a practitioner to a patient. Experimenter Effects   Unintended changes in subjects’ behavior due to cues inadvertently given by the experimenter Double-Blind Study: Experiment where neither subjects nor people running the study know which subjects are in the control group and which are in the experimental group until after results are tallied. Advantages and Limitations of Experiments   Experiments allow conclusions about cause-effect relationships. Participants in experiments are not always representative of larger population. • Much psychology research is carried out using colleges students as participants.  Field Research: Descriptive or experimental research conducted in a natural setting outside the laboratory. Evaluating the Findings   Why Psychologists Use Statistics From the Laboratory to the Real World Why Psychologists Use Statistics   Descriptive Statistics: Organize and summarize data Inferential Statistics: Assess how meaningful results are, such as differences between groups. • Significance tests assess how likely it is that a study’s results occurred merely by chance From the Laboratory to the Real World  Choosing the Best Explanation • Sometimes there are competing explanations for the same events  Judging the Result’s Importance • Statistical significance does not prove that a result is important, only that it is reliable • Meta-analysis combines and analyzes data from many studies Different Research Methods   Cross-Sectional Study: Subjects of different ages are compared at a given time. Longitudinal Study: Subjects are followed and periodically reassessed over a period of time