March 29, 2007 Women Studies 10 –Exam 1 1. Feminism is an active movement aimed at ending subjugation and exploitation on account of sex and since the beginning of the women‟s suffrage movement, there were those who wanted to see women taking full and active participation in society. A writer for the Harper‟s New Monthly Magazine stated, “A women such as ye would make her –teaching, preaching, voting, judging, commanding a wan-of-war, and charging at the head of a battalion –would be simply an amorphorous monster…She might be very estimable as a human being, honorable, brave, and generous, but she would not be a woman” (Bitchfest: 106). This quote clearly portrays the attitudes and behavior toward women in the 19th century, emphasizing the fact that women are not „real‟ human beings, and should therefore be neglected of respect and praise. Instead, a woman must act a salve for her man, who after rigorous labor, needs a clean house, fresh food, and well nurtured family to come home to. Taking care of children, preparing meals, and cleaning the house does not deserve the parallel social esteem as male occupations do. Well, as today it is evident that such an argument is futile, women of that day realized that their place in the home deserves to be heard and at least represented outside of it. After all if it wasn‟t for their participation in life the male population would flourish, let alone reproduce. The first wave of feminism started at Seneca Falls, New York around 1848. This was the first documented wave by white western scholars, though further research demonstrated earlier advances at women equality, outside the United States. The Blue Stockings in London are a prime example of such group, organized in the last half of the 18th century. It was an informal women‟s literary group where women gathered and exchanged ideas, preferring to be single and happy over wed and a prisoner. Moving back to the U.S, the Declaration of Sentiments was constructed in 1848, including women‟s issues and concerns about their status and treatment in society. A unified abolitionist movement emerged from this union, understanding that the fact that women had fewer rights than the clinically insane man was immoral and that the freedom from slavery included the equality of sexes. The Seneca Five included Jane Hunt, Martha Wright, Lucretia Mott, and Elizabeth Cody Staton with the later additions of Susan B. Anthony and Sojourner Truth. Their prime focus was to extend suffrage to women, realizing that nations such as New Zealand allowed it since 1893. In 1890 the National Women Suffrage Association merged with the American Women Suffrage Association to make the National American Women Suffrage Association (NAWSA) maintaining prime leaders such as Elizabeth Staton, Susan B. Anthony, Carrie Catt, Frances Willard, Matilda Gage, and Anna Howard Shaw. Dating back shortly to demonstrate their struggle, Mary Wolfstone-Craft wrote the women‟s bible in the 1800‟s, analyzing the bible with a feminine twist. At the time the book was labeled very controversial and was lost until 100 years later, when more radical and open-minded ideas were accepted, or at least unable to be repressed. This example demonstrates how certain individuals are chosen to be enacted with the feminist movement due to a particular time and culture. The patriarchal nation, especially in the 1800‟s, had control over literature, government, and all factors outside (and in) the home, in society. They, in turn, created a dependant society for women, who were viewed as weak and incompetent. (Klein)
The first wave is primarily characterized by obtaining the right to vote, exemplifying that women are not, in fact, frail and incompetent. Unfortunately, since 1906, the term „feminist‟ had already picked up a negative connotation making this struggle more difficult to pursue. In the movie, “Iron Jawed Angels,” the struggles of Alice Paul, Lucy Burns, and many others is clearly portrayed by the social neglect and hatred received from society toward these „out-spoken, man-hating women.‟ The title in itself implies that an iron jaw is what it takes to produce change. Those women, who feared to act or participate in the movement due to reparations from the existing patriarchal society, would have left the world the way it is. Who know if today the vote would be cast to people outside the white-man realm? Alice targeted the protesting factory workers at the start of the film, explaining to them that safe working condition, including adequate fire escapes, are included in the fight for change and equality for women everywhere. She stated, “A vote is a fire escape,” demonstrating the correlation between safe working conditions brought by change and the drastic alteration suffrage would grant to all women who wish to be heard. As the movie depicted, this process was far from peasant. Their protest parades were invaded by men shouting degrading comments like, “Whatchu got under that skirt,” trashed with food, and left many of the members beaten and scared. But far from the expectation of the „fragile‟ woman, they were overly content with simply receiving publicity and hitting the front page of any local newspaper. Many women were situated with their current roles as house wife and only showed interest when the movement enlarged. For example, in the movie one of the senator‟s wives started by quietly giving donations to the NAWSA, but then slowly escaladed into participating in the marches and even in their food strikes in prison. Alice Paul was imprisoned for over seven months for her protesting and there she was force fed, along with her followers, as their hunger strike was far from what the officials wanted to deal with. In the movie, Alice stated, “In prison or out, American women are not free.” Senator Walsh called these political prisoners, “iron-jawed angels” as their voices were never tamed or sealed as most women‟s were expected to be. Prior to this imprisonment, Alice Paul and Lucy Burns started their own fundraiser, The Congressional Union for Women‟s Suffrage, as the NAWSA supported president Wilson and respectively the degradation of women, Alice and her colleagues wanted more. The Congressional Union consisted of all the top feminists and did not stop at anything until the right to vote was granted. Two attempts prior to 1920 failed in passage, until finally it was received in 1920. As the 13th amendment (1865) ended slavery, allowed women to get a divorce, own property, claim inheritance, and keep their own name in marriage (which Lucy Stone was primarily responsible for), the 19th amendment brought about right to vote for women. Black women were not really accounted for until the Civil Right Act of 1964, almost a decade after the abolishment of slavery. The end of the first wave was brought about with its prime accomplishment. Now that most women had the right to vote, the current female population felt that this struggle can be put aside. They felt that feminism was not needed anymore, as these past 75 years of struggle were quickly denounced. The younger generations didn‟t realize the collective struggle the women prior to them had to undergo and therefore, didn‟t see a necessity to continue the effort. They took these rights for granted and didn‟t understand that this struggle must endure. As an article in Housekeeping Monthly -May 13, 1955- portrays, women were still subordinate to men. Here are some hints to being a good house wife, “A good wife always knows her place,” “Greet him with a
warm smile and show sincerity in you desire to please him,” “remember his topics of conversation are more important than yours,” “You have no right to question him.” These are a few of the guidelines presented to pleasing your husband and as clear as the words on the page, women were viewed with less respect and intelligence, still degrading their presence in society and simply amounting it to making the man content. The fight for equality was inevitably going to pick up again as women realized that a place in the home is not always in their best interest. The second wave picked up around 1963 and was between the first two waves, women had been active participants in the army during WWII, which allowed them a step up. In 1949, “The Second Sex” was written by Simon DeBeauvior, Satre‟s lover of whom he took many ideas from, as women were only allowed to be published under a man‟s name. This clearly undermined the attempt for many women to speak clearly, as presence in the media is what kept men in power and women as objects. In her book, the idea of „the other‟ was characterized as outside the norm. As Arturo Madrid writes, the definition of an American citizen does not describe her appearance, profession, or speech and as such she is constantly placed outside the norm box and viewed as the other, an alien. Because American institutions represent the middle-class, white man, it is difficult for „others‟ to find a place without being pointed fingers at and ridiculed. Correlating with DeBeauvio‟s book, she stated that women‟s history and heritage was left out and unable to be represented in dominant culture due to the supremacy of men. One can be invisible or stand out as a freak, all because they are different and both lead to the same outcome, alienation and subjugation by the mainstream. It was publicly proclaimed that one is not born a woman, she becomes one. Betty Freidan, the writer of “Feminine Mystique,” similarly addressed the problem with no name. She was seen as the beginning of feminism since the first wave was not commonly recognized or depicted in the media and history. The problem with no name addressed the women at home and the men at war, since suburbia was emerging and the homes were to be filled with kids and THINGS, the place for a woman resided in the house, happy and healthy with all her stuff. In reality, however; many women were really miserable with their current status, but kept quiet about it so as not to disturb the dominant patriarchs. They felt deviant and knew that respective sanctions were in order if their thoughts were to be acted upon. As a result of this quietism, the rise of prescription drugs emerged to give women that sensation of happiness that this lifestyle was supposed to grant. A Rolling Stones song titled, “Mother‟s little helper,” related to those pills that mother needed to take in order to put on a smile everyday, a little help from a friend called drugs. With the emergence of Betty‟s book, however; many women felt liberated and united, they realized that they were not the only ones feeling this way and, in fact, this alienation became a reason for unification. (Klein) The second wave was characterized by equality and the emergence of Women Studies as a discipline. Many gays and lesbians got married, to the opposite sex, due to the configured roles that society established. They didn‟t want to be seen as „the other‟ and ridiculed for going against the normative standards. These principles did not accurately reflect the population because taking any segment of society and representing it by a small group of white, middle class, suburban houses did not embody everyone. This standard, however; gave voice to the problem. Social movements began to emerge with the Civil Rights Act of 1964, equal rights in the work
place, and gay rights protests, criticizing mainstream culture and creating identity based politics. The Black Panthers and Brown Burees were examples of those groups left out of society and history, the others, who wanted to be represented and acknowledged. These concerns and protests were soon taken into account by the media, as new cartoons emerged and the roots of women, Asian American, and Chicano studies were established. Initially groups of intellectuals gathered in informal atmospheres, such as the Kitchen Table Press, but later they went out to obtain formal PhDs in order to teach the study as an academic discipline. Now these informal meetings had been transformed strictly to academia, they were not, however; socially and publicly accepted yet. Women Studies became an interdisciplinary field, incorporated in sociology, political science, and other similar courses. Feminism, the ideology of women‟s studies as well as the stand point theory, gender issues from a woman‟s stand point were now social and political topics, problems, and social facts. Equal rights in the work place were the prime issue covered by liberal feminists, such as Betty Freidan. The patriarchal dominance in the legal system, denied opportunities for outsiders of the mainstreams, laws and legislation, again, geared toward the dominant culture and contributed to the maintenance of social inequalities. People, minorities, were getting really fed up with these conventional ideas and decided to fight back. Groups that grew out of the second wave consisted of Jane‟s Group, addressing safe abortions, others geared toward sexual politics, battered women and domestic violence, as well as the National Organization of Women (1966) erected by Betty Freidan, allowing legal watch for all women in the political and social realms. Radical feminists emerged as well, such as Andres Pworkin, which felt that liberal feminists were far too limited and there were more issues that needed attention. Lesbians, Anti-Porn Steinem, and WAP were all a part of the „sex wars‟ which led to the division of the feminist movement and consequently to the third wave of feminism. Critics of the second wave claim the all these groups were geocentric and that no universal identity for women existed. A shared a heritage just on account of sex was a false presumption and as the third wave overlapped the second, diversity emerged into playing a vital role. Feminism of the 70‟s did not address equality among sexes, simply a „unity‟ of women and their relative emergence into a patriarchal society. In no respect were they placed alongside men, rather they were viewed as one group, disregarding their differences, while still placing below the dominant male. (Klein) Around the 1980‟s, the third wave came about and challenged the second waves‟ essentialist definition of femininity, geared toward the middle class white woman. Women were different and their only common characteristic was sex; gender was not fixed and varied according to culture and time period. In 1981 “The Bridge Called My Back,” edited by Patricia Hill Collins, Michelle Wallace, Gloria Hall, Cherrie Moraga, and Gloria Anzaldua, all active radical feminists of the time, dealt with issues and categories of inherent and future struggles faced by colored women. In 1973, womanism, an altered term for feminism, was established by black women who felt left out of the predominantly white, middle-class segment of feminism. Black feminism emerged as well, as a nation builder, but still second to womanism. The National Black Feminist Organization expanded black liberation as well as women liberation. In 1973 Roe v. Wade legalized abortion in all 50 states under the privacy sector of the 14th amendment. In 1983, “In Search Of Our Mother‟s Gardens”, by Alice Walker, a reinvented version of the history wheel found pieces in women‟s past to unit them all; she was the
primarily activist for womanism. Although all women have inherent and diverse histories and characteristics, which cannot link them through essentialism, they do, in fact, share a collective struggle for power and unity through sex. Post-modern feminism broadened the notions of gender throughout American society, stating that gender is not fixed; rather it is learned behavior and socially constructed, allowing colored women, gays, and lesbians to take stands and receive publicity. The Riot Grrrls emerged around the same time, consisting of feminists under the age of 40, constructing the third wave and exemplifying a shift in attitude from the first wave, when younger girls thought that the right to vote was all they needed. Instead this pursuit was realized to be long lasting and never ending, requiring constant attention and the constant emergence of new group, in order to maintain its importance and status. Eco-feminism was also a philosophy constructed during the third wave, combining ecology and feminisms into one. Carol Adams, for example, refused to eat meat as the objectification of women was similar to that of animals and needed to be terminated. Lastly, Pro-sex feminism allowed the enjoyment of sexuality with awareness to both homosexuals and heterosexuals, establishing a difference lens than the patriarchal society did before. The third wave was less radical and geared more toward the mergence of minority groups, Black, Chicano, gay, and lesbian, in addition to that of women. These groups were suppressed for equal duration by the dominant culture, but after women‟s recognition in society a path was paved for the „others‟ to make the same difference. (Klein) This difference is made by „iron-jawed‟ groups, who stand up and fight for what they believe is just. As in “Iron-Jawed Angels,” if Alice Paul and other feminists gave up in their fight for suffrage, broke down at the demise of their parades, did not protest through lack of food consumption, this struggle would not have been made as public and as effective. Though many feminists are portrayed as male-hating, load-mouth, fat, ugly, dyke, bitches these characterizes, though not usually true, gave women their status in society today. An obnoxious bitch to one is an outspoken freedom fighter to another. And though these stereotypes are misleading and may downgrade the women‟s movement they do, in fact, make it what it is and emphasizes those public intellectuals which abruptly denounced these stereotypes. These intellectuals like Susan B. Anthony and Betty Freidan characterize the fight for female equality as they bring attention to the power of collective persistence. Without these women, and many like them, the movement would not have had such a grave achievement and would have resulted into a longer struggle to reach our status today. 2. During the second wave of feminism, along with the rise of various social movements, came the emergence of women studies as an academic discipline. Before women gathered in informal atmospheres, such as the Kitchen Table Press, and took turns speaking, giving power and voice to each member, while simultaneously attempting to eliminate the hierarchal model for debate. These groups started off small, consisting of close friends or relatives, but eventually enlarged due to printed press and attention in the media. The establishment of women‟s studies as an academic discipline allowed another, similar, forum for discussion among women and their collective issues. Radical activists, including student and faculty participants, were primarily responsible for pushing this discipline to universities and colleges, though many of them did not have the required professional degrees. This, in turn, brought lower wages and longer hours in comparison to other
fields presented in the academy. When the younger generations, however; saw this effort, many immediately aimed at achieving higher degrees so as to make this an accepted course and demonstrate the importance of what women, over the last century, have been discussing behind closed doors. Many women began to view this goal as a political movement; prepared to stop at nothing until it was an accepted field in academics. (Baumgardner & Richards) By the end of the 1970‟s, Women‟s Studies was well on its way to earning academic praise. Unfortunately, many of the initial activists who paved the way for this advance were fired because of their lacked in proper education. Some returned to receive their PhDs, while others were simply exhausted from the long hours and strenuous effort, regarding the alteration from radical feminism to liberal reformism as a downgrade. In little time, the classroom setting had closely resembled a consciousness-raising and awareness one. However, this excluded women from various backgrounds and class, enabling to locate those only in „diverse‟ CR groups. The college or university remained a representation of the dominant culture, including predominantly white, upper class women, which the media chose strictly to represent. This brought interest and praise only to those women who embodied this segment in the feminist movement, leaving many revolutionist feminists in the dark. Lesbians, colored, and working class women were lost in the prominence of the „privileged‟ leaders who received all the public hype and media attention. This distinction was finalized when women‟s studies achieved its academic status, in the traditional corporate institutions, also dominated by the mainstream culture. The women‟s studies classroom consequently replaced the consciousness-raising groups, where feminism and social change were discussed, and the movement as a whole lost its potential as many members were not accounted for (Baumgardner & Richards). The 70‟s wave of the feminist movement aimed toward simply making women visible in society, gearing toward the subjugation they faced in the patriarchal world, responsibilities as a house wife, and the overall exclusion from various social institutions. The first women‟s studies program in the United States was established on May 21, 1970 at San Diego State College after long and enduring struggle through rallies, petitions, protests, and CR groups. The course was under strict examination for some time and after its acceptance, many other colleges and universities established this program as a distinct discipline, allowing freedom from other departments and subjects. (SDSU-Women‟s Studies Department pamphlet). As the third wave of feminism was brought about due to the geocentric notions of the second, the women‟s studies discipline brought about the same criticism. A drastic increase in the number of women calling themselves „feminists‟ became clear due to the power it entailed to altering economic status and class mobility. Fortunately, women‟s studies, not only increased the amount of „feminists‟, it also brought about grand job opportunities in the academic and publishing realm. Though many of these women where simply using the system and name for personal fortune and not collective gain, women were, in fact, standing out. However, the destruction of CR groups brought about a herd of uneducated „feminists‟, making ignorant choices about the supposed politics of the feminist movement. The discipline dejected critical thinking and open discussion while gearing, more than needed, attention toward victimization of women, in all aspects of society, and not enough toward internalized sexism, as a basic foundation. Though much history, philosophy, and the feminist
movement has been covered by women, anti-male attitudes were not the basis for feminism and therefore should not reflect a majority of the lessons done in women‟s studies. Again, though male domination plays a huge role in the subjugation of women, merely concerning oneself with the rage this supremacy has caused makes nothing better than a man-hater, definitely not a feminist. Nonetheless, feminist consciousness-raising for males was a vital part of the revolutionary feminist movement, reaching out to boys and men, attempting to aid in their own understanding of what sexism is and how it can be altered. This segment of the movement made it unfeasible for the media to target this study as anti-male. (Baumgardner & Richards) “Feminism is anti-sexism” (Baumgardner & Richards). Without the support of all groups, men, women, colored, gay, lesbian, etc. this movement would not have progressed and will remain dormant in the future if segments of the population, steering away from the mainstream, are not included. The struggle will only be made easier and more promising if a collective group gathers for a collective purpose. Though the emergence of women‟s studies as a discipline brought about the advance and acknowledgment of women‟s history and culture, while simultaneously adding fields in the work force, it was, however; undermined by the sudden attempts of all females to call themselves feminists. The early 80‟s brought the suggestion of „politicized sisterhood‟ which consequently lost its meaning when the radical feminist stance was replaced by lifestyle based feminism. This basically accounted for any women who called herself a feminist, regardless of her political stance. Feminist politics were weakened as the scope was broadened and consequently any clear definition of feminism was lost. On a positive note, though confrontation of personalized sexism must advance and the definition of feminists must once again be proclaimed, a diverse segment of the population is emerging in the mass media, professional fields, and other praised institutions. This does give hope that one day sexism, racism, and any other „ism‟ will be discarded and viewed as our incompetent history. Though it is a long and rigorous process, change is progress. As Audre Lorde clearly states, “Change means growth, and growth can be painful. But we sharpen self-definition by exposing the self in work and struggle together with those whom we define as different from ourselves, although sharing same goals…This can mean new paths to our survival.” In other words, the differences evident in all subordinate groups are not nearly as significant and vital as the similarity they share, oppression. Unity is power and that power makes progress. There is however a flip side which demonstrates the illusions to advancement, but merely evokes the same traditional trends. As analytical intellects these distinctions should be recognized, addressed, and ultimately altered; giving words back their true meanings and once made promises a reality. 3. While gender and sex are often times misunderstood or mistaken for one another, there is a clear and present distinction between the terms. Sex is determined at birth according to certain physical features, genital details, hormonal make-up, and chromosome patterns. The terms male and female or used to classify a person according to those characteristics, often times (wrongly) associating males with masculinity and females with femininity. Gender, on the other hand, is socially constructed in a particular culture, time, and place. Men and women are socialized from birth, a process by which individuals learn to be competent member of our culture, into appropriate gender roles regarded as normative. Family, religion, and the media are examples of major
socialization agents and may often time come in conflict with the dominant cultures view on how to act, ideals at home may vary from those displayed at school or in the media. Gender is an act performed by each individual, a mask that rarely comes off, but may in comfortable situations. Leigh Shoemaker, for example, writes an article titled, “Urinalysis.” It explores the differences between men and women in the bathroom and how socialization plays a vital role in determining the appropriate behavior in the stalls. She makes the bathroom a micro version of society, not comprehending why “anyone who can shoot a stream of bodily fluid a few inches or a few feet away from one‟s corpus is somehow superior.” (Bitchfest: 52) Instead, she believes that the content of that fluid should determine that superiority. Leigh continues with the common misconception that women just take a longer period to pee. When, in fact, because women have been taught, by society, to cover their undergarments utilizing separate stalls, and actually wash their hands after the process, more time seems to be accounted for. For men, it‟s a simple “Zip, flip, whiz, shake, tuck, zip, and you‟re outta there.” (53) As a male, certain „manly‟ etiquette emerges upon entering the bathroom. Touching, starring, and talking are all signs of deviance and, „G-d forbid‟, homosexuality! The stall should also be used quickly and efficiently as proof of one‟s machismo, once again enforcing the typical masculine behavior boys are taught from a young age, extending as far as a bathroom stall. Our culture not only enforces certain traits and roles for different genders, it also places them in a hierarchal system. The feminine is consistently devalued, therefore; men who deviate from the norm are looked upon much worse than women who do so. Stepping outside this gender box will either earn a woman much respect or cost a man his reputation. Gender is a master status which entails certain expectations and actions. For example, babies were predominantly dressed in white until the French assigned the color pink for girls and blue for boys, the meaning spread globally. Baby girls now wear pink headbands and shoes at an age when they have no hair and can‟t walk, all for what reason? To demonstrate that this girl, in pink, will soon perform the normative „feminine‟ standards, which the present culture has assigned. Starting as early as the pink headband, children‟s books are geared in the same direction at a slightly older age. A 1970‟s story titled, “Pierre Bear” exemplifies how women were viewed as objects for male exploitation. Pierre Bear went out and found himself a mate, who he placed in his sled with the pots and pans he bought at the market. This Mrs. Pierre Bear, the bear who didn‟t bear her own name, smiled and giggled and then gave Mr. Bear a lovely baby boy. This superficial story was engraved in children‟s head‟s from the time they were young, instilling values of male supremacy in society. Though we see some progress in today‟s world, normative behaviors for boys and girls are still assigned and the pressure to maintain a masculine status still remains, enduing the devaluation of femininity. (Klein) Concepts that explore the appropriate cultural notions of masculine and feminine behavior in our society include emphasized femininity and hegemonic masculinity. Emphasized femininity includes four factors. First, the notion of heterosexuality. Young women, in today‟s society, „act‟ gay to perform to the male audience. They are taught by the culture that to receive a desired amount of attention, they need to look sexy, be skinny, and disregard all morals and limits to their actions. It is one thing for a woman to be pretty, it is another for a man to consider her good looking and unfortunately, that is what counts. A common theme now
demonstrates more women acting like men. If it is purely for the sake of their comfort then no critic is entitled, but it does become problematic, however; when they do this as a means of empowerment in our patriarchal society. Promiscuity has emerged as an essential tool for women to obtain power. Sexual availability, then marks the second factor, and deals with sexuality versus being sexy. Being sexy, an act no different than that of gender roles, is merely for display and enjoyment of men, a woman does not own it. Sexuality, on the other hand, is a control that women have over their bodies and sexual desires. This allows females to feel and act in domination of themselves, a personal decision which permits the maintenance of their pride and dignity. The unpaid work force is yet another aspect, which has slowly come to terms with society, yet still grants room for disparities. Women still earn approximately 82 cents for every dollar earned by man; precise calculations depend of the profession. Women‟s involvement in the domestic sphere, as house wife and caretaker, concludes the factors of emphasized femininity. Globally, 75% of women work, yet they do not get paid for what they do. As a house wife, mother, cleaning lady, and cook a woman‟s wage is quite unfair. Due to the notion that these tasks are inherent and in the natural ability of a woman, its importance dies, yet the work does not simplify. The compilation of these jobs is so rigorous that women in the 1950‟s began resorting to frozen meals because there was simply not enough time in the day to get everything done and have a homemade, fresh meal prepared. The 1990‟s book, The Second Shift, concentrates on the fact that women with careers, still come home to the same amount of responsibilities they had when they just stayed at home. Men not only get paid more for their work, but they require downtime after their „strenuous‟ day, while women, apparently, need no such time. The book also clarifies that men have certain tasks around the house as well. However, these chores require weekly or monthly attention, whereas a woman‟s job ranges from a-z and in a repetitive fashion. Jackson Katz, in the film “Tough Guise,” comments on the fact that some men want to adapt to the changes and become family men while dealing with relationships on a deeper level. Yet, he points out that there those who view this progress with backlash, a negative reaction to it. Howard Stern and Andrew Dice Clay are all examples of major media member who re-force old values of degrading women to simple object who were placed on this earth, simply in service to men. (Klein) In correlation with this regressive view that many popular stars exhibit, the hegemonic masculinity includes four aspects that do the same. This ideal notion of the „manly man‟ arises at the cost of gay, weak, and different men who steer from the „leaders‟ they ought to be. This comprises the first notion, the fact that men are dominant over women, children, and subordinate masculinities. Jackson Katz refers again to this backlash experienced by transgender individuals and gays. He states, that the rise in anti-gay violence is due to male insecurity. This anxiety demonstrates the fear the „real‟ men have in loosing their prevailing power and position. Reagan opposed gay, lesbian, civil rights, and student again Vietnam because he viewed these as signs of the nation‟s/male‟s decrease in supremacy. The second aspect correlates with the one present in emphasized femininity and deals with male heterosexuality. From manner to attire, men must act and look straight so as not to compromise their sexual orientation. The ideal of being metro-sexual is not regarded in high esteem and was merely created for and by marketing forces. Since the male population, 49%, was not being addressed in products mainly geared toward women, the companies decided it was time for heterosexual
males to buy grooming luxuries. The culture, on the other hand, did not accept such a notion with open arms. Though it is evidently emerging in our society, a „real man‟ still prevails, with his very limiting boundaries. Jackson Katz addressed that 76% of college men binge drink because that is what „real‟ men do. Real men are also supposed to have no emotion, be violent, and aggressive. The media further implements these notions by de-gendering violence, only making apparent and news breaking when women commit these acts. He further states that the key step in reducing violence is making clear that men are brutal and then changing the definition of man-hood. Men must also be sexually vivacious. According to hegemonic masculinity men need sex all the time with as many women as they can get and/or accommodate at once. “Tough Guise” addresses the issue of porn, reasserting the degradation of women in society by the media, belittling them to submissive being in desperate need of domination and control by tough men. He states, “You will never see a little man behind a curtain.” Real men don‟t need other people; they can make it alone due to their immense emotional stability. The Marlboro Man demonstrates the perfect example of this in his stoic, independent stance and actions. Lastly, a man‟s participation in the paid labor force is essential in proving his manhood. Having a low status job is problematic, in that it reduces his sense of power and pride. If a woman acquires a better salary, the man usually feels as if he is not fulfilling his task as a leading male. The situation only becomes worse if the man looses his job. He then resorts to nothing, in order to reassert his masculinity. He does less work around the house, exemplifying his superior stance while emphasizing a woman‟s proper role. A lot more pressure rests in the hands of men who aim at maintaining their masculine status, again a performance according to predisposed gender roles. (Klein) In association with gender roles and society‟s approach to them, two predominant views need to be addressed. Biological determinism, also known as essentialism, develops a very conservative and narrow view of gender and sex. The theory states that there is no difference between sex and gender, men and women have inherent roles, characteristics, and behaviors, therefore; a female is born feminine and a male is born masculine. Religion often follows this aspect, as there is no room for alteration with culture or time. Anyone who steers from the „accepted‟ views is regarded as deviant. (Klein) It was the sheer concept of a patriarchal society that leads to male privilege and female subjugation. Each category was regarded as a separate unit, yet with similar characteristics. Essentialism is merely the concept that women‟s and men‟s features are unconditionally diverse. (Zinn, Hondabneu-Sotelo, Messner) Social constructionism, on the other hand, acknowledges the fact that there are cross culture variations. It finds that notions of hegemonic masculinity and femininity vary, take, for example, the way men used to dress in the Victorian era to the way they do now. Society creates new meanings for physicality and gender roles, which are, in turn, rooted in a social setting of time and place. (Klein) It is a slippery slope distinguishing between men and women due to the wide range of variations, as some women do not act or consider themselves feminine or vice versa with males. A “prism of difference…[is used] to analyze a continuous spectrum of people, in order to show how gender is organized and experienced differently when refracted through the prism of sexual, racial, ethnic, social class, physical abilities, and national citizenship difference.” (Zinn, Hondabneu-Sotelo, Messner) During the second wave of feminism, when gender was used
to unify women and create a common identity, it backfired. Instead a strong division among females emerged, as a majority of the population was not represented in the popular, white middle class, definition. There is a difference between sex and gender, but these basic terms depend dramatically on various factors, which may or may not stand in relation to one another. Hegemonic masculinity, for example, is based on the definition of femininity, as well as other subordinate masculinities. This „other‟ allows a clear basis for male power and privilege, which not all men obtain. Gender can no longer be characterized as two distinct categories, males and females, but really it is a spectrum of public relations among variously situated individuals. “Woman and man have multiple meanings…a woman is defined by the existence of women of different races and classes,” Similarly the difference created among men and women are based on background relations not just sex. (Zinn, Hondabneu-Sotelo, Messner) 4. On a macro level, a patriarchy literally mean „father rule.‟ It is a system above and beyond individuals in which men and men‟s interests are central, encompassing all spheres: economic, social, educational, and political. (Klein) The reason it becomes problematic is because men don‟t see their inherent privileges. As Jackson Katz pointed out in his movie, “Tough Guise,” boys from a young age are taught by the culture and media, through sports and games, that being tough is being a man. “Real men” are intimidating and controlling, they gain respect by disrespecting others and dominating those who fall subordinate to them. Respect centers around projection of power, big strong, muscular, and leading the pact. Violence is a way boys become men. This common definition associated with masculinity goes just as unnoticed as the power men have been able to maintain in society for so long. From the age of two, little boys are presented with guns, actions figures, and other power related toys, so that by the age of twenty they see anything different as alien or degrading to their masculinity. Peggy McIntosh also points out, in her article, “White Privilege,” that men don‟t even realize or, better yet, want to realize that they are privileged, though they do realize that women are at a disadvantage to them. Additionally, they acknowledge women‟s subordinate status and work to improve it, but in no manner which undermines their own authority. Since their gain stems from the disadvantage of women, these refutations maintain male privilege and unable it to digress or terminate. It is wrong, however; to assume that all men are at an advantage and all women are at a disadvantage because of a concept known as the mythical norm. Audre Lorde describes America‟s mythical norm as male, white, thin, young, heterosexual, Christian, and financially stable, concluding that those who steer further away from it are those who experience more discrimination. For example, a man has gain over a woman, but a white woman has a similar, if not better, advantage over a black, lower-class male. Many factors contribute to determining who holds the dominating position, making „white privilege‟ and „male privilege‟ very similar and relevant issues. Just as male privilege is the ignorance of men to understand and alter their supremacy; white people obtain the same knowledge, yet are taught to repress it. Jackson Katz explains that for power to be maintained, it can‟t be examined because once it gets examined, change can begin to occur. And as Women‟s Studies examines male privilege and seeks to undermine it, African American studies and Chicano Studies, similarly, work toward the same goal. McIntosh states, that whites are educated to think that their lives are standard and impartial, yet
simultaneously ideal, so that when whites aimed toward assisting others, their real goal is to transform “them” into “us”. A principle which somehow doesn‟t seem so neutral anymore. The Matrix of Domination looks at the intersection of gender, race, class, history, etc. A black woman invented this rational intersection of analytical axes, confirming that these categories cannot be separated. People are stratified in society, each with personal experiences, a unique history, and a disparity among classes. Foregrounding is a term that emphasizes the manners at which these people, or groups, are deprived by the system of structural inequalities. The second wave of feminism serves as an example to this definition, where the middle class white women served as a symbol for the whole female population. This greatly underscored each woman‟s unique identity, as well as reasserted the fundamentals of discrimination, the exclusion of minorities and lower classes. (Klein) Many women were represented, yet many, were not. As the movie Iron Jawed Angels demonstrated, black feminists were requested to march behind the others. Society‟s deeply embedded stereotypical views of race and status would merely degrade the little prominence the women‟s movement had achieved and they could not afford to make such a sacrifice. When people acknowledge their own disadvantages, not privileges, concerning with race, gender, culture, or history, society struggles to rank these interrelated categories. Ranking the oppressions is simply a hierarchal view of people, which is not only difficult to accomplish but quite outdated. The relationship between social class and gender, or gender and race can not be differentiated into ranking categories, they are interrelated and they are what make people distinctive and diverse. The matrix of domination emphasizes the understanding of all these factors that assemble each person, allowing them to lie together as interrelated parts, the pieces to one whole puzzle. Each piece is just as vital to the completion and understanding of the puzzle as any other and no piece, whether from the middle or the end, can be rank better or worse. Patrism, a term not so much used by the mainstream, takes a different approach to stereotypes and examines the positive and benevolent ones. For example, stating that women are nurturing, sweet, and gentile. These, however; are exaggerated, versions of reality and don‟t allow variations among groups. Not all women are gentile, sweet, and nurturing. This term still obtains a bias perspective on humanity while categorizing individuals into broad groups according to gender, race, etc, yet again. In other words, patrism is ideological patriarchy. Traditional believes are so hard to break that systematic change doesn‟t not equate to ideological ones. Just because Hilary Clinton is running for president doesn‟t mean that sexism has vanished, she does not represent all the women in our culture, though the fact can‟t be undermined that this is progress, or merely the illusion of it. Cultural values are so internalized that social processes are hard to break. Sasha Baron Cohen presents a cultural satire on the nation of Kazakhstan, and similar traditional states. He comes to America as a conservative from his native country and is shocked at the way women dress and the fact that they are allowed to drive. During a dinner party, he states to a gentleman, “This is your wife? Where is her cage?” providing humor for those who understand, yet redirecting to the fact that places still exist where women are looked upon as sub-human, objects for male utilization. The Power over paradigm reevaluates women of power, a surreal possibility in the reality of Borat‟s satirical world. This paradigm is signified by the patriarchal system. An alternate, and perhaps better solution, would be the partnership model, which eliminates all hierarchy and
instead focusing on the interrelationships between people and other living things. In order to reinstitute society, the silences and denials must first, and foremost, be acknowledged, as they are the golden tools of oppression. Meritocracy is announced by inherent advantages such as white privilege and male privilege, yet maintained through their denial by those who dominate the system. As Peggy McIntosh very well stated, “Keeping most people unaware that freedom of confident action is there for just a small number of people props up those in power, and serves to keep power in the hands of the same groups that have most if it already.” Though these changes many take much time, they are essential to the progression and development of society into one that encourages difference, yet denies privileges and opportunities according to those differences. Characteristics, such as class, gender, and culture, all play out who we are and who we will become, nevertheless; openings should be based on talent and ability, not on a hierarchal system according to those attributes.