The reforms of post graduate studies in France: a story of a forced marriage
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Jean -Jacques Paul, Cathy Perret Irédu, CNRS/université de Bourgogne, 9 avenue Alain Savary, B.P. 47870, 21078 Dijon cedex, France
jjpaul@u-bourgogne.fr cperret@u-bourgogne.fr
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Paper presented at the conference on Postgraduate education in Europe - Past, present and future, May 4-5, 2001, Linköpings university, Sweden.
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1. INTRODUCTION
In France, postgraduate studies have been concerned during this last decade by different evolutions, regarding the labour market and the institutional aspects as well.
On the labour market, in the beginning of the 80’s, the French policy for training researchers was conducted in order to reduce an anticipated shortage of researchers in academic research (higher education and public research) and more particularly in firms; such a shortage was also feared in many other OECD countries (OECD, 1991). This is why the policy has been centred on the growth in the number of PhD graduates, notably science PhD graduates. Around 1994, because a dramatic increase of the number of PhD graduates and a reduction of admissions by companies, the issue has been focused on the growing unemployment of PhD graduates. Finally, at the beginning of the years 2000, the labour market prospects are better for these graduates, because the ”baby boom” cohorts are beginning to retire. This movement will probably involve many opportunities for positions in universities and R&D institutes.
The evolution in the labour market is not independent from the institutional context. Thus, since the 80's, French policy on the training of PhD graduates appears to be both an educational policy and a research policy, in order to bolster the economic growth of the country. A law voted by the Parliament in 1982 (Loi d’Orientation et de Programmation du 15 juillet 1982, loi n°82-610) can represent the beginning of this policy; a whole series of reforms have been promoted to go with this policy. This policy has two main objectives: to increase the number of PhD graduates and to develop the links between PhD students and companies. The official purpose was to develop R&D in industry by integrating more PhD graduates in firms. Such an idea assumed that companies were interested in admitting PhD graduates and that PhD graduates were willing to work in companies. In fact, we will demonstrate that ministerial authorities have tried to arrange a forced marriage between these two parts, PhD graduates and companies.
This paper will first present the training of PhD graduates and will secondly give some data on employment of PhD graduates.
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2. THE TRAINING OF PH.D GRADUATES IN FRANCE: THE ORGANISATION OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES LEADING TO A PH.D
The French ”université” system has three levels (cycles). The first level awards a diploma after two successful years. The second level awards, after an another year, the Licence diploma or, after 2 years, the Maîtrise diploma. The third level is made up of two branches: a vocational one which prepares in one year to a vocational diploma; an academic one which prepares during theoretically four years to the Doctorat. In fact, the doctoral studies are splitted into two stages, one year to prepare the DEA (Diploma of Advanced Studies/ Diplôme d’Études Approfondies) and three years to prepare the Doctorat itself.
The ”université” system coexists with the Grandes Écoles (engineering schools and business schools) which award the ”Ingénieur” diploma after 3 years. Admission to the Grandes Écoles is based upon a competitive entrance examination. The students can enter after the baccalauréat, or more often after one or two years in the ”classes préparatoires” (élite prep schools). The access to these "classes préparatoires" is selective and depends on the marks get during the last year of secondary studies. Universities offer also some courses for engineers.
Before 1984, French system had three types of doctoral diploma. In 1984, all these diplomas were abolished and replaced by a common diploma, the Doctorat (Loi n°84-52 du 26 janvier 1984 sur l'enseignement supérieur). This reform was made primarily to obtain a diploma system similar to other European countries and to the USA. The doctorat is the highest diploma level of the French system and is awarded by the universities and some Grandes Écoles
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Figure 2. Structure of French university system
Doctorat
Third Level DESS vocational diploma (1 year) DEA (1 year) Ingénieur diploma GRANDES ECOLES (3 years) Second Level Maîtrise diploma (2 years)
First Level
DEUG diploma or Vocational diploma (DUT) (2 years) First Level
ELITE PREP SCHOOLS (1 or 2 years)
UNIVERSITY
First, we will present some data regarding the admission criteria to doctoral studies. After that, we will consider how doctoral studies are organised. In a third paragraph, the measures aiming at strengthening the links between PhD graduates and companies will be discussed and in the last paragraph, data will illustrate these links during the doctoral studies.
2.1. Admission to doctoral studies
Two series of laws have recently modified the organisation of doctoral studies : 1) the bill of July 5th
rd 1984 modified by the bill of November 23rd 1988; 2) the bill April 3 1992, which creates
”Doctoral Schools” and suggests the every PhD students be past of research team. The doctoral studies include essentially the DEA and the Doctorat. The DEA is considered as a preparation for the Doctorat.
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- The Diplôme d'Études Approfondies (DEA)
Created in 1974, the DEA is the first year of the doctoral studies. Admission into DEA studies is based upon the results of Maîtrise, and generally an interview. In the scientific disciplines, the students of the "grandes écoles" can obtain the DEA during the last year of the preparation for the ”Ingenieur” diploma. In fact, the DEA is part of their cursus and is an optional subject centred on initiation into research. ”Ingénieur” graduates have the same selection as Maîtrise graduates when they want to enter an other DEA.
The DEA is an introduction into the research activity. The students learn through a training period in a research team or through carrying out experimental works. They attend 120 hours of theoretical and methodological lectures. This diploma takes normally one year, however it can be taken part-time over 2 years, notably for the students who have a full-time job.
This diploma is awarded after the deliberation of the DEA jury on (art. 18, bill of April 30th 1992): 1) a dissertation which is intended to indicate the research capacities and the aptitudes to prepare a thesis; 2) exams or reports covering the theoretical and methodological lectures; 3) a viva voce examination in order to evaluate the general knowledge of the discipline; 4) when the student undergoes a training period in research team, the head gives his opinion on the student.
Table 1. The DEA students and DEA graduates
1990-91 Science disciplines - Enrolled - Graduates - Completion rates Arts, Humanities, Social Sciences - Enrolled - Graduates - Completion rates Law, Political Sciences, Economics and Management studies - Enrolled - Graduates - Completion rates All disciplines - Enrolled - Graduates - Completion rates 1995-96 1997-98
14, 317 11, 699 81.7
15, 371 13, 021 84.7
13, 543 11, 533 85.2
13, 791 6, 896 49.8
16,210 8, 320 51.3
15, 943 8, 114 50.9
8, 720 4, 873 56.3
10, 907 7, 115 65.2
10, 072 6, 972 69.2
36, 828 42, 488 39, 558 23, 468 28, 456 26, 619 63.7 67.0 67.3 Sources: observatoire des flux et des débouchés
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In 1998, 26,619 students obtained the DEA. About seven out of ten students have awarded their DEA (30 % of students do not finish the course), 85 % in Science, 51% in Arts, Humanities, Social Sciences, and 69% in Law, Political Sciences, Economics and Management studies. Since 1996, the number of students enrolled in DEA is either decreasing or stagnating (Cf. table. 1)
- The doctoral studies
Usually, DEA is required for admission to the Doctorat. The PhD enrolment takes place each years, and the supervisor gives his opinion. The prescribed length for the Doctorat is between 2 and 4 years. Public authorities recommend a 3 year period. A student may take more time, but he must ask for a specific authorisation. The PhD students works under the control of a supervisor, who needs to be "habilité" to supervise doctoral students (usually a Professor or a Director of Research) and who does his research work within a team recognised by public authorities.
Since 1992, doctoral schools have been implemented. These schools can be multidisciplinary. They have specific funds to organise some activities for doctoral students such as conferences and seminars, to encourage the participation to workshops in other universities and so on. The requirements for the Doctorat include the writing of doctoral thesis which is publicly defended. The dissertation can be disseminated in a private setting, notably when the thesis is centred on industrial matters. When it is a joint research, the individual contribution is evaluated through the dissertation. The assessment committee, with at least three members, evaluates the candidate through his research results, his ability to put them into the scientific context and his ability to make a clear oral presentation. The diploma is awarded by this committee with three distinctions ”honorable”, ”très honorable”, ”très honorable avec félicitations”.
In 1998 in France, 10,582 PhD diplomas were awarded and there were 66,239 PhD students in 1999 (Cf. Table 2). The number of PhD diploma and the number of PhD students have increased until 1996, whereas it has been decreasing since 1997, except for law political sciences, economics and management studies and social sciences. In fact, in these disciplines, the number of PhD diploma has been growing and the number of PhD student has been decreasing since 1999.
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Table 2. Number of PhD graduates and PhD students (1992-1999)
1992 1994 1995 1996 1620 1537 1998 1698 1999
NUMBER OF PH D GRADUATES
1178
Law, political sciences, economics and management studies and social sciences Arts, Humanities, History and Geography 1404 Sciences disciplines ALL DISCIPLINES 4886 8585
2190 5794 10598 16829
2346 6263 10974 19026
1903 5950 10582 19638
NUMBER OF PH D STUDENTS
Law, political sciences, economics and management studies and social sciences 19165 Arts, Humanities, History and Geography Sciences disciplines ALL DISCIPLINES 19365 30419 66613 21368 30907 71301 20026 20843 27268 26231 66932 66239
Sources : l’observatoire des flux et des débouchés
There are other diplomas based on research activities : the DRT (Diploma of Technological Research / Diplôme de Recherche Technologique) and the HDR (Accreditation to supervise research / Habilitation à diriger les recherches). The DRT (created in 1993) is awarded after a period of applied research in a company which is concluded by a dissertation. The project has to be conducted in co-operation with a university lab. Only "ingénieur" graduates can prepare a DRT. The DRT is awarded after 12 months of studies. Public authorities subsidise the firms which employ DRT students. This diploma is not widespread. In 1998, 100 DRT are being subsidised.
The HDR is prepared after the Doctorat. This diploma gives recognition of the highest scientific level, of the original research, of ability to master research strategies, and of the capacity to supervise young researchers. It is not a second thesis. The HDR appears as a professional title in the academic career.
2.2. The characteristics of PhD training
- The transition rate between DEA to Doctorat
On average, 43 % of DEA graduates in September 1998, enrolled in the PhD studies at the end of
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1998,. From 1994 to 1996, the transition rates between DEA to Doctorat have decreased in all disciplines; until then, it appears that the transition rates have been either increasing or stagnating since 1997. In fact, only in scientific disciplines, the proportion of DEA students enrolled in PhD studies has been grown.
Table 3. The transition rates between DEA to Doctorat
1991 -92 Science disciplines Arts, Humanities, Social Sciences Law, Political Sciences, Economics and Management studies Arts, Humanities Law, Political Sciences, Economics and Management studies, Social Sciences All disciplines 46.2 43.5 40.1 39.6 39.7 40.9 42.8 41,9 36,1 41,8 36,7 41,8 36,7 50.9 44.6 36.9 1992 -93 48.1 42.1 35.3 1993 -94 43.4 27.5 26.4 1994 -95 41.8 40.2 34.5 199596 41.0 199697 43,4 199798 47,7
Sources: observatoire des flux et des débouchés
In scientific disciplines, the transition are different between ”Ingénieur" graduates and ”Maîtrise” graduates. The transition rates have been estimated, for 1989-1990, at 34% for the ”Ingénieur”graduates and 57% for ”Maîtrise” graduates (Beltramo, Bourdon, Paul, 1992). More than one out of two DEA graduates do not continue on PhD studies. In fact, in addition to DEA diploma and recommendations of supervisor, supplementary conditions can be required in order to enrol in PhD studies, notably being funded (in Sciences), or being secondary school teacher (in Arts, Humanities, Social Sciences and Maths). These policies have been developed after the deterioration of PhD’s employment prospects. Otherwise, DEA graduates can choose not to continue, since DEA diploma in scientific disciplines has a good standing with firms, and that in Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences, most of DEA graduates have already a professional activity.
- Period of PhD studies
On average, PhD studies last about 4 years. But in scientific disciplines, the period is shorter (between 3 to 3,5 years), whereas the duration is between 4 to 5 in other disciplines. (Cf. Table 4)
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Table 4. Proportion of PhD s by length of completion % (1997 &1998)
2 years 3 years 4 years 5 years 6 years median and more Sciences disciplines Arts, Humanities, History and Geography Law, political sciences, economics And management studies and social sciences ALL DISCIPLINES 2.4% 34.6% 33.2% 16.3% Sources: observatoire des flux et débouchés 13.5% 3.99 3.4% 13.2% 26.7% 26.9% 29.9% 4.25 2.1% 45.9% 37.1% 11.4% 2.7% 8.7% 23.1% 26.4% 3.6% 39.1% 4.58
- International mobility
PhD students go rarely to an other country during the doctoral studies (Musselin, 1997), and if so, it is only in order to learn a particular method during a short period. Some funds are offered within European networks for doctoral mobility. PhD supervisors seems to be reluctant to encourage PhD students to be mobile during their postgraduate training. They consider that this mobility is too timeconsuming, since the funding for PhD students is limited to 3 years. Post-doc appears to be main possibility for international mobility of PhD graduates.
- Monitorat
The ”monitorat d’initation à l’enseignement supérieur” has been created in 1989 in order to encourage young researchers to choose an academic career after their PhD at a time where public authorities anticipated a shortage of young scientists. A ”moniteur” is a PhD student chosen among the PhD students granted by the government. However the ”monitorat” is a fixed-term contract, which do not imply that ”moniteur” PhD students have right to a lecturer post after they complete their PhD. The number of ”moniteur” can be estimated to 5, 400, compared with 68, 400 PhD
students in 1997.
The "moniteur" benefits a vocational training for the different tasks of a lecturer in the higher education, through teaching practices, lecturing at the in first level of ”université” and some lessons about the higher education and research system. Recently, their training has been modified : these
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PhD students receive lessons and information about the employment in firms .
- The foreign PhD graduates in France
Every year, there were about 30 % of foreign PhD graduates (on average 3, 000 PhD graduates). Since 1995, the number of foreign PhD graduates has been decreasing : 2600 foreign students obtained the PhD diploma in France in 1998. In 1998, there were 25% of foreign PhD graduates.
30 % come from ex North African French colonies (especially Marroco), 14 % come from other countries of Africa, and 14 % from the European Union. According to estimations of the Ministry of education, 35 % of foreign PhD graduates return to their country within a period of 18 months after their Doctorat.
2.3. Some measures taken to strengthen the links between PhD students and companies
In order to illustrate the policy aiming at strengthening the links between PhD students and companies, we will present two specific measures, the ”Doctoriales” and the ”CIFRE”.
”Doctoriales” have been introduced into France by the Direction of Research and Technology (DRET) within the Ministry of Defence, with the collaboration of the Association Bernard Gregory. Doctoriales (whose name is registered and belongs to the DRET) are presented as sessions which aim at making the Ph.D. students more open to the realities of the companies. From 1997, the ministry in charge of research wanted to disseminate such activities to every part of the national territory. The idea of the ”Doctoriales” comes from the United Kingdom, where since the end of the sixties, seminars have been organised in order to make the life in companies more familiar to Ph.D. students.
Public authorities wish to make easier the transfer of knowledge from academic research to firms, and to develop links between these two research worlds, notably through the partial financing by firms of theses focused in industrial matters. The relations between PhD students and firms are also
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envisaged as a way to help the former to be recruited by companies. In France, institutional arrangements, especially CIFRE, are designed to encourage companies to partially fund thesis. Created in 1981, CIFRE schemes bring together three partners: 1) a company that employs on a contract (2) a graduates from either an engineering school, a business school or a university (five years master diploma) and a research unit (university, engineering school or public research organisation) where the PhD is tutored. The company pays at least half of the young researcher’s salary (this less than the salary of a starting engineer). The remainder is paid by the State.
2.4. The links between PhD students and companies during doctoral studies
The proportion of PhD students supported has been growing since 1995. If in Science, 15 % of PhD students do not benefit any grant, this is the case of 80 % of the PhD students in Arts, Humanities, and Social Sciences, 70 % in Law, Political Sciences, Economics and Management studies (Cf. table 5).
Table 5. Firstly enrolled students supported by companies
Year First enrolments o.w. students supported by companies o.w. total supported students Company supports/ total supports Total supports/ first enrolments 79,3 70,1 83,4 85.7 12,4 11,1 13,1 17.4 20,5 19,9 21,8 28.2 44,8 40,2 45,7 49.5
Sciences disciplines
1994 1995 1996 1998
8280 8582 7454 7028 6050 6264 5832 5763 3714 3712 3819 3217 18044 18558 17105 16008
929 1074 906 897 43 48 40 49 70 85 83 104 1099 1207 1029 1050
6565 6020 6217 6022 748 694 766 1001 762 739 834 908 8075 7453 7817 7931
11,2 12,5 12,2 14.9 0,7 0,8 0,7 4.9 1,9 2,3 2,2 11.4 6,1 6,5 6,0 13.2
Arts, Humanities, and Social sciences
1994 1995 1996 1998
Law, Political sciences, economics, and management studies
1994 1995 1996 1998
All disciplines
1994 1995 1996 1998
Sources : observatoire des flux et des débouchés
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Among the supported PhD students , Science PhD students benefit a higher proportion of grants financed by companies : in 1998 the part of PhD students funded by firms in scientific disciplines is 14.9 %, whereas companies finance partly or totally 4.9% of the students in Arts, Humanities, and Social sciences and 11.9% of students in Law, Political sciences, economics, and management studies. We can note that the part of PhD students supported by firms increased.
3. THE EMPLOYMENT OF PhD GRADUATES
3.1. The different data on the employment of PhD graduates
There are four sources of statistical data about the employment of the PhD graduates : the annual survey of the Ministry of research and higher education, surveys by Céreq (Centre d’études et de recherche sur les qualifications / Research Center for the Analysis of Occupations, Vocational Education and Training), one survey by Irédu (Institut of Research on the Economics of Education), and some surveys realised by different universities.
1) The Ministry survey (MRT survey) is carried out every year since 1989. The DEA supervisors are interviewed, and a part of the questionnaire is about the prospects of the PhD graduates one and two years after they have been awarded the PhD diploma. 2) Céreq have carried out a survey in 1997 on 1,000 PhD graduates in 1994, and a survey in 1999 on 2,000 PhD graduates in 1996. The first survey looks at employment of PhD graduates every month between January 1993 to March 1997, and the second looks at employment of PhD graduates every month between January 1996 to March 1999.These surveys contain numerous data on employment and the PhD studies. 3) The survey of Irédu concerns the links between employment of 1,000 PhD graduates in 1993 or 1994 and the characteristics of research teams where they prepared their PhD. 4) Some French universities have conducted surveys on the employment of their PhD graduates. Theses initiatives are actually encouraged by the Ministry.
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3.2. The employment of PhD graduates
Céreq survey gives information about the employment of PhD awarded in 1994 and 1996, three years after their diploma (the foreigner PhD graduates are not considered in the survey). The rate of unemployment in 1999, 3 years after completion of the studies, is lower than for first degree holders (7% compared to 11% for first degree) and decreasing (8% in 1997). However, career prospects are better for graduates from engineering schools, whose rate of unemployment is only 2%. PhD graduates receive a higher salary than first degree holders do but their salary is the same than for young engineers (but they need to complete three more years of study).
Even if the proportion of PhDs working in companies has increased between 1997 and 1999, it still represents of minority of PhD graduates. The majority of them entered the public sector, as teachers or researchers. This fact appears to be contradictory with some statements declared by authorities promoting the new orientations for doctoral studies. According to the promoters of ”Doctoriales”, between 70% and 80% of PhD graduates would be employed by companies. ”Amongst the 10000 PhD students who defend each year their thesis, near 80% of them will be constrained to look for a job in the private sector” (Doctoriales 1999, Ile de France).
Investigations conducted by ourselves in companies (Cf. Beltramo et al., 2000) reveal that companies are often reluctant in admitting PhD graduates for research, when they are not engineers. The main explanation comes from the necessity for a researcher to be able to move to other functions after some years in R&D functions. Now, companies consider that PhD graduates who are not engineers cannot easily practise other functions than R&D ones. The best profile for companies is an engineer who holds also a DEA. In 1995, only 12,5% of the total researchers in companies held a PhD (Beltramo et al., 2000).
Companies want to admit PhD graduates when they need to investigate specific topics. This is why the topic and the field of the thesis appear to be of a strategic matter: for companies different in nationality and in industry, they represent the number one criteria for admission. That means that companies look for specific skills from PhD graduates, more than general ones, contrarily to that is declared by the promoters of the new orientations for doctoral studies.
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Table 6. Career Prospects of PhD Graduates (and comparison with other graduates)
Rate of unemployment, 3 years after completion of studies 1997 1999 1997 1999 1997 1999 Median wage per month, 3 years after completion of studies (Euro) Proportion of PhDs employed by companies
PHD GRADUATES
SCIENCES DISCIPLINES OTHERS DISCIPLINES CIFRE
8%
9% 6% 3%
7%
7% 6% 5%
1830
1830 1890 2060
1880
1830 1900 2170
35%
38% 15%. 85%
40%
42% 32% 79%
INGENIEUR DEA First Degree
5% 10% 12%
2% 8% 11%
1830 1600 1370
Sources: Céreq
1910 1600 1330
4. CONCLUSION
If the situation of PhD graduates is compared with the situation of graduates at other levels, the results appear to be equivocal. On the one hand, the rate of unemployment is lower than for DEA or licence-maîtrise graduates (12%), but on the other hand, it is higher than for engineers (5%). The average monthly income is the same for PhD graduates and for engineers (1829 euros). If we take into consideration that PhD graduates completed at least 9 years of higher education (5 to maîtrise and 4 to PhD) and that engineers completed 5 years of higher education, the benefit-cost ratio of post-graduate studies appears very low. Two points may be mentioned: 1) some people are very fond of research activities and are ready to be paid less for that (Bourdon, Paul, 1992); 2) PhD thesis could represent a mean to mitigate the rigidity of the selection process caused by the "Grandes Ecoles" system, by offering to "maîtrise" graduates the opportunity to reach more or less the same level of occupation than for engineers.
Two elements of the French policy can be debated: 1) PhD graduates are considered able to enhance the innovation capacity of companies. Public schemes have been implemented to promote the preparation of the PhD thesis in connection
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between public labs and companies. CIFRE represent the well-known measure. In fact, companies reveal a clear preference towards engineers rather than towards PhD, for R&D jobs. And within PhD students , those who are graduates from engineering schools are more frequently financed by companies. 2) PhD graduates are supposed to be employed in other occupations than R&D. Public authorities have launched workshops (called "Doctoriales") aiming at increasing graduates' awareness towards occupations outside R&D. Nevertheless, Céreq survey points out the fact that among higher education graduates, the most satisfied with their job are PhD graduates who entered higher education or public research. PhD graduates working in firms are less satisfied. On the other hand, companies are reluctant to admit PhD graduates, once they seem too specialised to occupy functions outside R&D (Beltramo, et al., 2000). Finally, it seems that public authorities are willing to organise a "forced marriage" between PhD graduates and companies, whose beneficiary does not appear obviously. Finally, this new direction given to Doctoral studies raise at least two questions. First: do we need to change the doctoral studies and if yes, how to change them?
The ground for transforming the content of doctoral studies is that PhD. graduates need to find job opportunities in companies. The problem is that the companies remain reluctant to hire PhDs. Some people may consider that companies could have an interest in knowing better what PhD. graduates could give to them, such as competencies of autonomy, of research project building and so on. But companies prefer to admit people with shorter diplomas (especially those graduates who have been filtered by engineering schools). Thus, it is not sure that the evolution of the contents of Doctoral studies towards a more professional way will change the opinion of the companies regarding the trade-off between engineering graduates and PhD. graduates. But such an evolution could be dangerous for the essential ground of Doctoral studies, which is to train people for basic research and for teaching at university. And without basic research, it is impossible to develop innovation. Putting the stress on professional aspects rather than on fundamental research could be compared with the murder of the golden eggs hen. But if the authorities of the ministry of education really want to make the doctoral studies closer to companies’ concerns, a way would be to develop two kinds of Doctoral studies, one devoted to
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basic research, essentially located within academic research labs, and another one more directed to companies, more linked to engineering and applied research, with training periods in companies. This is may be a way to solve the dilemma between the interest of safeguarding basic research and the willing of pushing more PhD graduates into companies. May be at this condition, the forced marriage will be transformed into reciprocal loves.
References : Beltramo J.P., Bourdon J., Paul J.J.P., 1996, ”An attempt to forecast the labor market for scientists in France”. Higher Education and work, Brennan J., Kogan M. and Teichler U. (Eds.).
Beltramo J.P., Paul J.J., Perret C., 2000, ”The recruitment of researchers and the organisation of scientific activity in industry”, International Journal of Technology Management.
Bourdon J., Paul J.J., 1994, ” L’analyse hédonique du goût pour la recherche”, IXèmes journées de micro-économie appliquée.
De Lassalle M., Maillard D., Martinelli D., Paul J.J., Perret C., 1999, De la compétence universitaire à la qualification professionnelle : l’insertion des docteurs, document synthèse Céreq, n°144, juin, Marseille.
Kivinen O., Ahola S., Kaipainen P. (Eds.), 1999, Towards the European Model of Postgraduate Training, Painosalama Oy, Turku.
Martinelli D., 2000, ”L’insertion des docteurs en 1999”, in Martinelli D., Molinari M., L’insertion professionnelle en 1999 des diplômés de l’enseignement supérieur, document Observatoire Céreq, n°150, juin, Marseille.
Musselin C. (Dir.), 1997, Mobilité des chercheurs publics en Europe. Rapport sur la France, l’Angleterre et l’Allemagne réalisé pour le ministère de l’Éducation nationale, de la Recherche et de la Technologie, Centre d’analyse, de formation et d’intervention.
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OCDE, (1992), Science and technology policy, Review and outlook 1991, Paris.
Paul J.-J., Perret C. (1999), PhD Graduates in France: Training, Careers and Policy Issues, in Kivinen and al. (1999), pp. 157-185.
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