What is Sociology

What is Sociology? I. Sociology: scientific study of human society and social behavior A. Human society: “A group of interacting individuals sharing the same territory and participating in a common social structure.” 1. Social structure: “ web of rules that regulate our interactions” 2. Rule violation results in ostracism, loss of friends, loss of respect, jail B. Science: “Logical system that bases knowledge on systematic empirical observation” 1. Methods to gather information a. Field observation (assignment #1) b. Surveys (assignment #2) c. Institutional data d. Experiments 2. Social values guide selection of problems 3. Principles of science a. Universalism: all facts are agreed upon by impersonal criteria; 1. objectivity 2. systematic skepticism b. Communalism: all knowledge is collective and cross-checked by others B. Three methodological frameworks 1. Positivism (Auguste Comte): Can we explain social patterns in terms of law-like regularities? -- focus on cause & effect -- objectivity Emile Durkheim’s Suicide (1898): Vulnerability to suicide greater among less socially integrated --unmarried, unemployed, youth, men 1 Vulnerability to suicide greater among less culturally regulated --Protestants (vs. Catholics, Jews) Q: What about "free will" and spontaneity? 2. Interpretive Sociology (Max Weber): Can we understand the shared meanings that lie behind social action? -- focus on shared meanings -- verstehen (empathetic understanding) method Max Weber’s Protestant Ethic & the Spirit of Capitalism (1904) Modern work ethic a product of 16th century Calvinist religious belief in predestination; acute anxiety about one’s “fate” leads to material accumulation of wealth and rational conduct to gain signs of one’s “election” to heaven Q: Can interpretation explain social regularities? 3. Critical Sociology: Can we improve society through social change? -- focus on social criticism & progress -- value-committed advocacy of social change Karl Marx & Frederick Engel’s Communist Manifesto (1848) Thesis that working class conflict and economic crisis will eventually destroy modern capitalism, ushering in utopian communist society marked by end of private property & the state and economic affluence Q: Can sociology designate goals and values for social change? II. Basic Premises of Sociological Perspective A. Human nature is inherently social -- humans as social animal 1. Feral children: the Wolf Boy of Aragon (Jean Marc Gaspard) 2. Children raised in isolation (John Mooney) 3. Rationality, language and selfhood as social products 2 B. Social world may seem "natural" but is socially constructed 1. Harold Garfinkel's elevator experiments 2. Physical distance conventions C. Social world is at least partially mutable D. Sociological Imagination (C. Wright Mills): key focus is how social opportunities and constraints shape our lives and how these insights empower us as active participants in society 3 Theory and Method in Sociology I. What is a theory? how and why social facts are related Theoretical paradigm? image of society that guides theory & research II. Three Sociological Theories A. Structural-functionalism 1. Key ideas a. Society as a complex interdependent system whose parts work to promote solidarity and stability; similar to biological organism b. macro focus c. Social structure = stable social behavior d. Key focus on functions -- consequences for operation of society as a whole e. Manifest and latent functions f. Dysfunctions 2. Key problem: What is the basis of social order? a. Thomas Hobbes’ “state of nature” thesis (Leviathan) 1. Human appetites are boundless 2. The “state of nature” is anarchy -- a “war of all against all” resulting in dominance of the powerful and life that is “nasty, short and brutish” b. Solutions: 1. Hobbes: humans choose to concede power to the state to impose order 2. Talcott Parsons’ functionalism: humans need social control – socialization 3. Emile Durkheim's theory of suicide a. too much individualism: egoistic suicide (Protestants vs. Catholics) b. weak social ties: anomic suicide (divorced & unemployed) 4. Critique: 1. neglects power & conflict 4 2. Are all social problems solved by greater social control? B. Social Conflict Paradigm 1. Key ideas a. Social inequality -> conflict -> social change b. Social order is created by elite power and manipulation c. macro focus 2. Conflict theory of education a. Schools reproduce inequality by providing opportunities for well-to-do -tracking b. Schools legitimize inequality by making it appear to be due to individual merit 3. Critique a. ignores shared values & interdependence b. may loose objectivity in pursuit of social change goals c. too structural – need for attention to everyday life C. Symbolic Interaction 1. Key ideas a. Micro focus --- society constructed by everyday interaction (Max Weber) b. Human personality is a product of social interaction (George Herbert Mead) 2. Key problem: How is social reality constructed? a. "self" as a social product b. "society" is a product of social interaction c. social interaction is regulation by perceptions presented to others and calculations of benefits (exchange theory) 3. Greeting rituals 4. Courtship rituals as exchange 4. Critique: a. risks ignoring macro constraints on everyday life 5 b. assumes mutual benefits of all social interaction III. Our Solution: Each Paradigm Useful for Specific Questions IV. Logic of Scientific Inquiry A. Steps in Research 1. define the problem 2. review the literature & formulate hypotheses 3. develop a research design 4. collect data 5. analyze data 6. draw conclusions B. Hypothesis: a formal statement of a relationship between two or more variables: how an independent variable (cause) is related to a dependent variable (effect) C. Variable: a concept with values that vary from case to case D. Measurement: the process of determining the values of a case E. Reliability: the consistency of measurement F. Validity: the quality of measurement V. Major problems in research A. Why correlation may not be causation (IQ and shoe size) 1. Correlation: values of two variables change together 2. Causation a. identify causal mechanism b. show temporal order c. tests for spuriousness (other factors) B. Problems of objectivity 1. objectivity – value-free stance 2. critical vs. empirical theory? 3. complications 6 a. personal views shape interpretations b. all research has social & political implications C. Problem of human reactivity 7 Culture and the Sociological Perspective I. Culture: values, beliefs, behavior and material objects that form a way of life Social Structure: patterned relationships among components of a social system Society: a population with a common territory, culture and political system II. Premises of Sociological Perspective: A. no human instincts -- drives converted by learning into patterned behavior B. Most behavior is learned III. Basic Concepts A. Symbols: any sign that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who share a culture B. Language: a system of symbols with conventionally defined meanings C. Values: socially shared ideas about what is good, right and desirable D. Norms: shared rules and expectations that guide behavior as appropriate to given situations IV. American culture A. Core values Equal opportunity Individual merit Materialism Action over reflection Practicality Progress Science Democracy & Free Enterprise Freedom Racism & Group Superiority B. Cultural diversity Subculture: cultural patterns that set a group apart Counterculture: cultural patterns that strongly oppose those widely accepted Multiculturalism: education program recognizing cultural diversity and equality High vs. Popular Culture: elite vs. general population 8 V. How Do Cultures Change? A. Cultural lag -- technology changes more rapidly than values B. Change through: 1. invention 2. discovery 3. diffusion VI. Linguistic Relativity Thesis A. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: Language system defines meanings, which organize perceptions B. Illustrations 1. what are the colors? 2. types of snow? 3. reading left-right/up-down C. Issues 1. Language capacity is biologically innate (Noam Chomsky) 2. Languages can be translated into each other VII. Cultural Relativism and Ethnocentrism A. Ethnocentrism: judging another culture by one’s own B. Cultural Relativism: evaluating a culture by its own standards C. Examples 1. What are standards of female beauty? 2. Norms regulating social interaction distance D. Problems 1. Are there no standards that are inherently good or just? 2. What about cultural universals? (George Murdock) a. incest taboo b. family relations 9 c. use of funeral rites d. prohibition on murder VIII. Theories of Culture A. Functionalism 1. Idealism: values are the core of cultures 2. Cultural universals are products of social evolution 3. Problems a. overstates uniformity and stability b. cultural diffusion? B. Conflict theory 1. Materialism: cultures are rooted in economic system 2. Values reflects the interests of the dominant class 3. Critique: underestimates shared aspects of culture C. Sociobiology 1. Are cultural universals due to natural evolution? 2. Sexual "double standard" and reproductive interests? 3. Problems a. hazards of racism and sexism b. biological determinism? Cultures constrain but are constructed 10 Socialization I. Basic definitions: Socialization: acquiring personality and cultural knowledge for a particular society; primary/secondary socialization Roles or role-taking: acting in a position relative to the imagined perspective and expectations of others Personality: person’s fairly consistent patterns of acting, thinking and feeling Self (or self-image): view of one's own personality based on role-taking II. Socialization and Human Nature A. Core socialization thesis: social roles shape self-images and hence the socialization experiences that shape personality B. Secondary theses: 1. humans lack genetic programming and must learn behaviors for survival 2. language basis of rational thought and self-image 3. social order stems from socialization and social bonds C. Nature or nurture? 1. "Who Am I?" studies (Manfred Kuhn) 2. Feral children; children raised in isolation 3. Animal studies (Harry and Margaret Harlow) III. Personality and Socialization A. Psychoanalysis (Sigmund Freud): Superego --- internalized norms and values Id -- instincts Ego – consciousness Desublimation -- conversion of instincts into socially acceptable behavior Critique: Male-centered 11 Are instincts learned? B. Developmental Psychology 1. Jean Piaget’s stages of cognitive development a. sensimotor: use of senses (birth +) b. preoperational: use of language and symbols (1 ½ to 2 +) c. concrete operational: use of causality (7+) d. formal operational: use of abstract & critical thought (12+) Critique: stage 4 is culturally relative D. Sociological Theories: George Herbert Mead & George Horton Cooley a. “self” – part of personality composed of self awareness and self-image “I” -- spontaneous ego “me” – reflective self b. “looking class self” -- self stems from role-taking c. role-taking -- orientation to others in terms of their perceptions of us; self and society as two sides of the same coin d. socialization – society recreating itself inside individuals e. Mead’s stages of self-development: 1. imitation: Birth - 1 ½ no self 2. play: 1 1/2 + role-taking 3. games: IV. Socialization A. Pygmalion in the Classroom (Robert Rosenthal) 1. teacher's expectations 2. self-fulfilling prophecy B. "Becoming a Moonie" (John Lofland) 1. Resocialization: radical change of personality Age 3 1/2 + generalized other 12 a. total institutions make more effective b. identity stripping & new identity 2. Can anyone be resocialized? 3. Does "deprogramming" work? 13 Social Interaction I. Social interaction: process by which people act/react towards others; primarily statuses and roles Status: social position occupied (not prestige) Master Status: central status for personality identity Role: behavior expected of someone in a position Role Set: multiple roles connected to a single status Role Conflict: conflict in roles among two or more statuses Role Strain: tension among roles connected to a single status Role Exit: departure from status Social Group: two or more people who identify and interact with one another Primary Group: group based on personal and enduring relationships Secondary Group: large & impersonal group based on specific goal or activity Reference Group: group that serves as a point of reference in making evaluations Network: a web of weak social ties II. The Social Construction of Reality A. Thomas Theorem: "Whatever is defined as real is real in its consequences" B. Implications 1. reality is socially constructed through social interaction 2. interpretations are based on symbols 3. linguistic relativity 4. cultural relativism C. The Thomas theorem in action 1. "Indian Joe" as a mental patient 2. Mental hospital in-take interviews (Thomas Scheff) 3. Is coffee a "drug"? D. Ethnomethodology 14 1. Breaking the rules to see how people build their realities 2. Harold Garfinkel’s “breeching” experiments III. Dramaturgical analysis (Erving Goffman) A. social interaction as theater B. presentation of self and impression management C. performances-- frontstage and backstage D. altercasting E. body language: How is deception identified? F. personal space IV. Group Conformity A. Solomon Asch experiments: 1/3 conformists B. Stanley Milgram’s authority experiments C. Irving Janis --- “Groupthink” V. Reference Groups and Relative Deprivation WWII Military Promotions and Job Satisfaction -- Samuel Stouffer VI. Consequences of Group Size A. Diffusion of Responsibility --bystander intervention stuties (Piliavin & Piliavin) B. Triads & Group Stability 15 Sexuality & Society I. Sex: biological distinction between females and males Gender: personality traits and behavior attached to females and males II. Nature vs. Nurture A. Hermaphrodite socialization B. Cross cultural variation in legitimate sexual behavior -Homosexuality among upper class ancient Greeks -incest universally prohibited but what is “incest” varies cross-culturally & in the U.S. -cultural variation in sexual modesty & display - why do girls’ math scores drop after age 12? C. Why is the incest taboo universal? 1. Biology 2. Prevents role strain in kinship & family relations 3. Provides out-group marriage and solidarity III. The “Sexual Revolution” A. Reduced sexual “double standard” B. Greater tolerance of premarital sex and diverse sexual orientation C. No change in incidence of sex D. Why? The “pill” Individualism Media exposure D. The “Sexual Counter-Revolution”? IV. Sexual Orientation: romantic and emotional attachment to another person 16 A. Heterosexuality, homosexuality, bisexuality & asexuality B. Social explanations 1. historical novelty of “homosexuals” (Michel Foucault) 2. cross-cultural variation in homosexuality C. Biological explanations D. Combination of nature & nurture? E. How many gays? F. Growing tolerance for homosexuality V. Sexual Controversies A. Rape: Does a Rape Culture Exist? 15-30% of women report victimization myths about rape B. Sexual Harassment: 30-50% of women report victimization C. Teenage Pregnancy 1. decline in incidence but rise in unmarried pregnancies 2. school withdrawal & poverty risk VI. Theories of Sexuality A. Functionalist 1. need to regulate biological drives and channel into reproduction 2. universality of incest taboo 3. functions of prostitution? (Kinsley Davis) 4. critique: cannot explain cultural variation in legitimate sexuality B. Symbolic Interaction 1. Social construction of sexual norms 2. Cross-cultural variation: female circumsision 3. Critique: how explain universals? 17 C. Conflict Theory 1. Norms reflect the interests of the powerful 2. Who is punished for prostitution? 3. Heterosexual preference in laws & norms Critique: Sex not always a power issue. 18 Deviance and Crime I. Deviance: recognized violation of cultural norms “behavior that violates important norms and is sanctioned by large numbers of people as a result” (Robert K. Merton) “behavior that people so label” (Howard Becker) Crime: violation of formal law Social Control: attempts to regulate thought and behavior through negative sanctions and socialization Criminal Justice System: formal institutions of police, courts, prison II. What is deviant? A. Statistically abnormal? B. Violate any norm? more vs. folkway --- socially significant norms C. Whose norms? D. Is it the act or social reaction? Labeling question III. Who is deviant? A. Widespread deviance: youth crime surveys B. Primary vs. secondary deviance (Charles Lemert): recidivism IV. Theories of deviance A. Biological theories 1. Phrenology (Caesaro Lombroso) 2. Mesomorph body types (William Sheldon) 3. XYY chromosone theory 4. Critique a. need for general population samples b. most crime is by “normals” c. does not explain why behavior is defined as “crime” 19 B. Psychological theories 1. Containment Theory (Walter Reckless & Simon Dinitz) a. “good” vs. “bad” boys based on impulse control b. Critique: Most crime is by “normals” What creates weak self-control? C. Functionalist theories 1. Strain theory (Robert K. Merton) deviance rooted in social structure -- discrepancy between means (opportunities) and ends (goals) of material success Types of deviance: Innovation Ritualism Retreatism Rebellion Conformity Material Goals + + Legitimate Means + + 2. Deviant subcultures (Richard Cloward & Lloyd Ohlin) Strain + readily accessible illegitimate opportunities = criminal subcultures Strain + no opportunities = conflict & retreatist subcultures 3. Critique a. Modest links of social class with many forms of crime b. Cannot explain crimes based on passions or mental illness c. Does not deal with definition of what is “crime” D. Interactionist Theories 1. Labeling theory: deviance results from the way others respond to actions a. Primary vs. secondary deviance b. Labeling thesis: negative label promotes identification with deviant 20 identity & recidivism c. Becoming paranoid? (Charles Lemert) d. Myth of mental illness? (Thomas Szaz) e. Critique 1. universal definitions of some deviance and crime 2. more useful for less serious deviance 3. weak labeling effects 4. who defines labels? 2. Differential Association Theory (Edwin Sutherland) a. crime is learned through differential interaction with those who favor illegal behavior; learn techniques of crime and neutralize shame & guilt associated with crime “When you lay down with dogs, you get up with fleas” b. reinforced by deviant subcultures (e.g. prisons) Critique: Does not explain the original deviance or labels 3. Control theory (Travis Hirschi): synthesis of strain and differential association theories --- all actors experience impulses to deviance but are controlled ATTACHMENT: Family, peers, school provide conforming attachments OPPORTUNITY: Confidence about the future and economic opportunities INVOLVEMENT: Time and energies linked to legitimate activities BELIEF: Commitment to conventional morality 4. Conflict Theory a. laws reflect interest of powerful b. powerful can resist being labeled and punished 21 Critique a. most laws supported by strong majorities -- not only the powerful b. much of crime and deviance is not affected by inequality V. Types of Crime A. Crimes against the person: direct violence B. Crimes against property: theft C. Hate Crimes: motivated by racial, religious, sexual orientation or other bias D. White Collar Crime: committed by persons of high social status in the course of their occupations E. Corporate Crime: committed by corporations against employees or consumers VI. The “Typical” Criminal A. Young B. Male C. Lower Class? D. Racial Minorities E. Cross-National Differences in Crime Rates VII. Goals of Punishment A. Retribution B. Deterrence C. Rehabilitation D. Societal Protection VIII. Does Punishment Work? A. 50% + recidivism rates B. No death penalty deterrence effects C. Short-term societal protection and some rehabilitation 22 Social Stratification I. Social stratification: system by which society ranks people in a hierarchy A. structural B. persists across generations C. both universal and variable D. sanctioned by beliefs Caste Stratification: based on ascription or birth (closed mobility) Class Stratification: based on both birth and achievement (open mobility) II. Theories of Stratification A. Functionalist theory (Kingsley Davis & Wilbert Moore) Demands of Important Positions & Scarce Talents Unequal Rewards Social Stratification -> -> 1. inequality necessary to motivate those with scarce talents to perform central tasks 2. meritocracy: individual talents & effort determine rewards 3. middle class society: diamond-shaped distribution 4. open mobility 5. Critique a. How measure functional contribution? b. How separate “contribution” from power? -- Eifel tower of wealth --Corporate CEO paid 1000 times average production worker c. Dysfunctions: 1. inequality blocks opportunities and undermines functional contributions 2. inequality creates relative deprivation and thus hostility & conflict 23 B. Conflict Theory (Karl Marx, Max Weber) Differential Interests & Resources -> Conflict -> Conflict Resolution -> Social Stratification 1. stratification based on ownership 2. two-class systems: have/have not 3. "From each according to their ability, to each according to their need" (Karl Marx) 4. restricted mobility 5. Critique a. How provide incentives without inequality? b. Classless society? c. Growth in affluence & skilled occupations III. Synthesis: Gerhard Lenski & Jean Lenski A. Increase in technology -> social surplus -> increased inequality B. Social surplus -> increase in role of power -> reduced inequality C. Kuznets curve: curvilinear relation of economic development to inequality D. What about new post-industrial inequality? --widening skill/talent gaps --increased business power --reduced governmental protection --dual career families --new immigration IV. Is America a "middle class" society? Table 1: U. S. CLASS STRUCTURE 24 Upper-Upper 1% Lower-Upper 4% Upper-Middle 20% Average-Middles 25% Working Class 30% Lower Class 20% Positions Corporate Rich Working Rich Managers & Professionals Lower Man. & Small Business & White Collar Blue Collar Working Poor & Unemployed Education Prestige Schools Prestige Schools College Educated Mixed Life Style WASP; Autonomous WASP; Autonomous Mixed; Autonomous Mixed; Conformist High School Less than H.S. Mixed; Conformist Conformist Table 2: Social Class and College Financial Aid in Sociology 101 % U. S. 5 20 30 30 10 % Soc. 101 2 47 42 9 1 % Using Financial Aid 0 28 58 88 100 Upper Upper-middle Average-middle Working Lower Class B. Social Mobility: Who Gets Ahead? (Christopher Jencks) Intragenerational: within a generation (e.g. single life-time) Intergenerational: across generations (e.g. father-to-son) Structural Mobility: due to occupational upgrading 1. moderately high structural mobility for men 2. downward mobility for divorced women; narrowing gender gap 3. mostly short-distance mobility 4. “Middle Class Slide” -- multiple job holding (5.4%); young adults at home (49%) 5. some improvement for racial minorities Table 3: SOCIAL MOBILITY IN THE U.S.: GSS 1972-76 Father’s Job: White Collar/Prof. Farm Blue Collar White Collar/Prof 66.5 24.4 35.4 Farm .5 19.9 .8 Son’s Job Blue Collar 32.9 55.7 63.8 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 C. Poverty in America 25 1. Relative/Absolute Poverty 2. Official Definition: 3 X food requirements for survival $18,810 for family of 4 (2003) 3. Feminization of poverty: 51% of poor families 4. Race: 2/3 of poor are white but African-Americans 3 times more likely to be poor than whites 5. Age: 36% of poor children D. Explaining Poverty a. Culture of Poverty b. Structural 1. globalization & deindustrialization 2. female-headed households 3. reduced government protection 26 Global Stratification I. Global Stratification: Cold War Categories: First/Second/Third World Problems: 1. neglects changes in Eastern Europe 2. ignores diversity among 3rd world countries World Bank Categories: High Income Countries: 50 nations,18% population, 80% world income Middle Income Countries: 90 nations, 70% population, 19 % world income Low Income Countries: 60 nations, 12% population, < 1 % world income II. World Poverty Indicators In Africa over half of all deaths are children under age 10 In low-income countries over half of population is under 16 years of age and 1/3 of all children are hungry 40,000 people starve to death every day 15 Million people starve to death every year Social costs of poverty – inactivity, disease & lack of productivity Famine due to chronic food shortage II. Theories of Global Stratification A. Modernization Theory (W. W. Rostow): 1. Traditional Society: poverty due to cultural traditionalism (fatalism), low technology, capital investment and authoritarian government 2. Industrial take-off requires 10% investment rate, market freedom and cultural modernization (future orientation, entrepreneurial spirit) 3. Technological maturity: urbanization, occupational differentiation, mass education & gradual democratization 27 4. High mass consumption B. Hence problems of low-income countries are internal C. Developed world can help -- cultural modernization, population control, “green revolution”, technology transfer & foreign investment D. Development policy should counter traditionalism, provide market incentives & eliminate governmental corruption E. Critique 1. How can poor countries develop from weakness? 2. Competition from core countries may lower position of poor countries 3. Ethnocentric bias 4. Inappropriate technology 5. Foreign aid props up corrupt governments E. Dependency Theory (Andre Gunder Frank, Immanuel Wallerstein) 1. Modernization theory only useful for developed countries; fails to explain problems of less developed countries 2. Poverty due to exploitation by wealthy countries: colonialism and neocolonialism; “Underdevelopment is the reverse side of development” a. Primary products exporting b. Lack of industrial capacity c. Foreign investment & debt 3. Critique a. Is international trade and investment a zero-sum game? b. East Asian “tigers” (S. Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan) based on international trade c. Major problem is corrupt repressive government d. Failure of economic autarky & socialism (e.g. North Korea) 28 Race and Ethnicity: Is the U.S. a Melting Pot? I. Race: a socially constructed category of people who share biological traits are socially defined as significant Ethnic Group: a category of people whose shared cultural heritage is socially defined as significant; based on common ancestors, language, religion and “we” identity Prejudice: a rigid and unfair generalization about an entire category of people Discrimination: treating various categories of people unequally Racism: belief that one racial category is innately superior Ethnocentrism: belief that one's own culture and group standards are inherently superior Minority group: category whose physical or cultural traits are used to make them subject to unequal treatment II. Core Discrimination Argument A. Observable Physical/Cultural Markers -> Prejudice and Discrimination -> Ideology of Racism/Ethnocentrism -> Inequality B. Modern Racism (Larry Bobo & James Kluegel) 1. based in meritocratic ideology 2. less overt discrimination than neglect & steering (e.g. housing & school segregation; profiling) C. Ethnic & Racial Stratification in the U.S. White Protestants White Ethnics Racial Minorities New Immigrants 30% 35% 25% 10% 1st wave immigrants; Northern Europe 2nd wave immigrants; southern & eastern Europe slavery & indentured servants 3rd wave immigrants from Latin America, Asia & Africa 29 D. Dysfunctions of Discrimination 1. Contradicts with American meritocratic values 2. Socially & economically inefficient 3. Creates destructive conflict III. What is a Racial/Ethnic Group? A. Social markers thesis (Frederick Barth) 1. “Race” vs. “ethnic” socially defined as biological vs. cultural marker 2. “race” markers far more significant because unalterable Are Mexican-Americans a race? Japanese-Americans? 1890 U.S. Census: “white, black, mulatto, quadroon, octoroon, Chinese, Japanese, Indian” “one drop of blood” rule national origin for Asians defined as “race” 1990/2000 U.S. Census: both ancestry and self-identification majority claiming American Indian ancestry identify “mixed” 20% of those claiming American Indian ancestry self-identified as American Indian 6% refuse to fill out the “racial ancestry” question IV. Theories of Discrimination A. Internal Colonialism Thesis (Robert Blauner) 1. Colonized Minorities: violent early contacts define groups as “race” and as subject to discrimination 30 Coercive Contacts -> Race Marker -> Racial Prejudice -> Discrimination Slavery: African-Americans Genocide/reservations: Native Americans 2. Assimilated Minorities: assimilate depending on cultural similarity to AngloAmericans Voluntary Contacts -> Ethnic Marker -> Assimilation 2nd & many 3rd wave immigrants B. Scapegoating Theory (John Dollard) social frustrations of socially disadvantaged lead to aggression against vulnerable minorities as “safe targets” C. Authoritarian Personality Theory (T. W. Adorno) corporal punishment & emotionally distant childrearing leads to rigid personality & prejudice D. Social Distance Theory (Emory Bogardus) perceived distance based on Anglo-American values leads to prejudice & discrimination V. General Patterns A. Assimilation (or melting pot): B. Pluralism: distinct with parity: white ethnics Switzerland C. Legal Protection: Affirmative Action D. Segregation (legal vs. institutional): pre-1990 South Africa; pre-1965 U.S.; de facto today in housing and schools E. Genocide and Forced Migration: the Holocost; U.S. Indian reservations & black slavery 31 Vi. Possible Solutions A. Contact ? Busing & diversity contacts in schools, multicultural education limit: will not work where groups perceive competition; depends on trust & cultural understanding B. Equal Rights C. Legal Protection: Affirmative Action 32 Gender Stratification I. Gender: Personality traits and social positions attached to female and male Gender Stratification: Unequal rewards based on gender Patriarchy: social organization in which males dominate Sexism: ideological belief in the inherent superiority of one sex II. Gender Division of Labor A. Classic Division: Personality Female emotionalism Male instrumentalism Gender Roles Child care and domestic duties Hunting, warfare & work outside home B. Are Gender Differences Biological? 1. Psychological studies: Some math vs. verbal abilities & physical strength vs. longevity differences but no IQ differences 2. Cross-Cultural Studies Margaret Mead: gender reversal among Tchambuli (or Chambri) George Murdock: only cross-cultural constant is women handle child-rearing; industrialization reduces importance of physical strength & gender division of labor III. Transformation of Traditional Gender Division of Labor? a. 60% adult women work outside home/74.4% of men; 63% of mothers with small children & 77% married women with school-age children b. dual-earner households c. some equalization of earnings d. persistent gender occupational segregation 33 IV. Why do women get paid less than men? A. Gender socialization B. Occupational steering C. Majors in college D. Willing to accept less pay E. Second shift responsibilities F. Discrimination in hiring and promotions – “glass ceiling” G. Cumulative combination of above IV. How alterable is gender stratification? A. Occupational Gender Segregation 1. all occupations 80%+ male or female 2. 75% working women in clerical/service jobs w/ few job ladders upward 3. 30% managers are women: “glass ceiling” to top management; stereotypes about men as managers 4. 53% of professionals are women but concentrated in lower rewarded fields (nursing, teaching); high paid professions require full-time life-long commitment, which may conflict with second shift responsibilities B. “Choice” aspects unlikely to change quickly C. Embeddedness – multiple reinforcing factors D. Comparable Worth Policies? 1. Equal Pay: Men and women of similar abilities are paid the same in the same jobs 2. Comparable Worth: Men and women in jobs with similar occupational demands are paid the same 34 E. Sources of change 1. Higher education -- women 55% college students & 50%+ of medicine & law students 2. Lower fertility but little change in family duties 3. Somewhat less stereotypes and statistical discrimination 4. Slight reduction in occupational gender segregation 35 Stratification in Education and Medicine I. Stratification most evident through income, wealth and access to education and health Education: social institution through which society provides its members with important knowledge (basic facts, job skills, cultural norms & values) Schooling: formal instruction under the direction of specially trained teachers III. Goals A. job skills B. basic knowledge and citizenship C. equal opportunity? D. creativity and personal development IV. Contemporary Concerns 1. declining standards (Nation at Risk) 2. lack of relevance to jobs & careers 3. training for the future? “digital divide” 4. unequal resources 5. lack of discipline & school violence 6. student passivity V. Theories of the Educational System: Functionalist Equalization of opportunities Technical training & meritocratic selection VI. Schools and Status Attainment A. Basic facts: (Christopher Jencks Who Gets Ahead) 1. 1/3 of status attainment due to education 2. cultural capital acquired from parents central link across generations Conflict Inherited advantage Legitimation of upper class & racial advantage 36 3. most upward mobility structural 4. U.S. is the world’s largest mass educational system but class & race are still critical to educational attainment B. What is the role of the schools? 1. The Great Training Robbery (Ivar Berg) 2. Pygmalion in the Classroom (Robert Rosenthal) tracking and class/racial segregation in classrooms 3. local control & segregated schools 4. does college pay? $500,000 lifetime income C. How do people get jobs? weak ties (Mark Granovetter) D. Credentialism and credential inflation (Randall Collins) a. formal degrees as gatekeeping b. overeducation? Credential inflation due to surplus of credentialed workers c. cooling out the poor as “unqualified” E. Functional illiteracy (less than 8th grade reading and math): 20% U.S. adults VII. School reforms a. equalized funding b. magnet schools c. school choice --- vouchers, charter schools, private for-profit schools, home schooling d. mainstreaming VII. Stratification and Health Medicine: social institution that focuses on combating disease and improving health Health: State of physical, mental and social well-being VIII. Trends in Health A. Rise in longevity due largely to public health measures and secondarily modern medicine 37 B. shift in leading causes of death from infectious to chronic disease C. Social differences --infant mortality rate for minorities is double white rate --poverty major factor behind racial gap in longevity --male longevity 5 years shorter than female -- masculinity D. Rise in sexually-transmitted disease (AIDS, syphilis) IX. Why major health differences in U.S.? A. Direct-fee vs. socialized medicine: Sweden: Compulsory and comprehensive public health system Britain: two-tiered mixed private/public system Canada: single-payer government system but two-tiered like Britain Japan: Doctors work privately but mixed system U.S.: user-fee system w/ private insurance (85% covered) + medicaide for the poor 38 Formal Organizations & Work I. Formal Organization: large secondary group with formal rules and structure Network: a web of social ties Bureaucracy: a rationalized formal organization designed to maximize routine task efficiency Oligarchy: the rule of the few Profession: a white-collar occupation requiring extensive formal training with claims to collegial control Open/Flexible Organization: decentralized organization using cooperation to maximize problem-solving II. The Structure of Work Organizations A. Features of Bureaucracy: 1. specialized tasks 2. hierarchy 3. rules and regulations 4. technical expertise 5. impersonality 6. written communication B. Secondary features 1. internal job ladders and promotions 2. greater efficiency with routine tasks C. Dysfunctions of Bureaucracy 1. Peter principle: people promoted to their level of incompetence (Peter Hull) 2. Distorted Information (Harold Wilensky’s Organizational Intelligence): subordinates misinform to please bosses 39 3. Iron Law of Oligarchy (Robert Michels): “Who says organization says oligarchy” --- power concentration undermines democratic participation 4. Bureaucratic ritualism and alienation (Robert Blauner Alienation and Freedom) 5. Parkinson’s Law: Work expands to fill the time available D. Open Flexible Organizations 1. Human Relations in Industry: a. social relations key to work efficiency b. Hawthorne Effect c. Worker participation & quality circles 2. Features of Professions a. Theoretical knowledge b. Collegial accountability and licensing c. Authority over clients d. Community interest 3. Advantages of Professions a. work autonomy and job satisfaction (Blauner) b. efficiency in complex problem-solving 4. Dysfunctions of Professions a. Monopolistic markets (George Stigler) b. Weak collegial accountability c. Weak client controls d. Self-serving? 5. Japanese Organization Model (William Ouchi’s Z Type Organization) a. Features 1. collective hiring, promotion & rewards 40 2. lifetime job security 3. holistic participation in decisions 4. broad training 5. collective decision-making B. Do Z Organizations Work in America? III. Advantages A. Bureaucracy: Routine tasks B. Decentralized Organization: Complex problem-solving 41 Post-Industrial Capitalism I. Economy: social institution that organizes a society’s production, distribution and consumption of goods and services Preindustrial economy: centered around primary sector production (food and raw materials) Industrial economy: centered on manufacturing (secondary sector), inanimate energy (fossil fuels) and factory organization Post-industrial economy: centered on services and processing information, automated production and science-based technology Capitalism: private ownership of production and markets Socialism: state ownership and government planning Mixed economy: private ownership + governmental planning Welfare capitalism: capitalist economy + extensive social welfare programs State capitalism: private ownership with close partnership with government II. Types of Economies Property Axis: Technology Axis: Agricultural Industrial Post-industrial China? Russia? III. Advantages of Economic Systems A. Capitalism: freedom to pursue self-interest; efficiency B. Socialism: freedom from want C. Mixed Economy: attempt to secure advantages of both Capitalist 3rd World Brazil & Mexico Socialist Cuba, N. Korea Old USSR & East Europe U.S. & Western Europe 42 IV. Corporate Capitalism in the U.S. A. Classical 19th Century Liberal Capitalism 1. private ownership of productive wealth 2. profit motive 3. laissez faire state & market competition B. Modern Corporate Capitalism 1. managerial control 2. oligopoly 3. state regulation of markets & social welfare programs V. Post-Industrial Capitalism A. Key features (Daniel Bell) 1. science as productive force 2. cybernation and information control 3. service sector production 4. knowledge workers 5. bureaucratization B. Other trends 1. Decline of unions 2. Rise in self-employment 3. Rise in temporary & part-time employment C. Decentralization vs. Centralization (John Naisbitt's Megatrends) 1. geographic dispersion and sunbelt growth 2. decentralized work vs. new information controls 3. increasing work autonomy vs. deskilling 4. increasing knowledge requirements 5. high technology vs. low technology development 43 VI. Is High Tech Growth Beneficial? A. The Optimistic Picture 1. reduce physical drudgery 2. increased productivity due to technology 3. upgraded occupations and skill levels B. The Pessimistic Picture 1. unemployment (esp. older workers and "rustbelt") – job outsourcing 2. Increased inequality due to digital divide 3. job growth in low wage sectors 4. pollution and workplace hazards of "high tech" production 44 Power and Politics I. Key Concepts Politics: the institutionalized system that distributes power, sets the agenda and makes decisions Power: the ability to achieve ends despite resistance from others Authority: power that people perceive as legitimate State: the legitimate monopoly on the means of violence over a given territory Regime: the formal rules that regulate decision-making and the legitimating myths that justify these decisions Government: the people who occupy the command positions within the state II. Types of Political Systems A. Monarchy: single family rule through direct inheritance; legitimized by tradition and appeals to charisma Constitutional monarchy: Britain Authoritarian monarchy: Saudi Arabia, Nepal B. Representative Democracy: leaders compete for office in open free elections; legitimized by rational-legal authority “Third wave” spread of democracy C. Authoritarianism: no popular participation; military regimes, monarchies “soft authoritarian”-- Kuwait, Malaysia, Singapore “hard authoritarian” – Myanmar (Burma) D. Totalitarianism: centralized regime with extensive control through state terrorism, cult of personality & ideology Hitler’s Germany, Stalin’s USSR; Saddam’s Iraq, Taliban Afghanistan, Kim II Sung in N. Korea 45 III. Representative Democracy in the U.S. A. Key questions 1. How concentrated is power? 2. What are the bases of power? 3. Can power change? B. Three Theories of U.S. Power Structure 1. Pluralist theory (Arnold Rose; Robert Dahl) a. power dispersed by elite competition -- interest groups and elections b. all groups able to mobilize c. voting and public opinion key to changing policy Critique: a. Interest groups biased towards upper/upper-middle class b. voting turnout tied to class c. large donors determine viable candidates 2. Power Elite theory (C. Wright Mills) 3 elites: Corporate Elite & Presidency & Military a. elite unity due to common social backgrounds & interlocking directorates b. bureaucratic power -- military-industrial complex c. mass society & Congress as “second tier” power Critique: a. Military is “on tap” – not “on top” b. Congressional resurgence c. public opinion & voting influence domestic policy 3. Neo-Marxist Model (G. William Domhoff) a. capitalist class controls the power-elite 46 b. capitalist unity based in interlocking directorates c. potential for lower class rebellion Critique: a. Growth of “middle class” movements b. Business competition as well as unity III. Conclusion: Who Rules? A. May be relevant to particular policy arenas: Foreign policy – power elite Domestic policy -- pluralism B. Unified elite competing against “middle class” movements IV. Extra-Institutional Politics A. Revolutionary Change 1. Relative deprivation 2. Repressive authoritarian states 3. Intellectual opposition – universities and college students 4. International diplomatic and economic pressures B. Terrorism 1. Goal is political intimidation 2. Typically a weapon of the weak but may be used by states against population 3. Social origins -- repressive authoritarian states; low development; political ideology 4. Vulnerability of democracies 47 Family Change Family: social institution to oversee bearing and raising of children Kinship: a social relation based on blood, marriage or adoption Marriage: legally sanctioned relationship involving cohabitation, economic cooperation, normative sexual relations and child-bearing II. Major Questions about Family Change A. Major Family Structures Cross-Culturally B. What Explains Dominance of Modern Nuclear Family? C. Is Contemporary Family in Crisis? Change? III. Family and Kinship Types Extended & Nuclear Families Monogramy/polygamy: Single/multiple marriage partners Polygyny/polyandry: Multiple female/male partners Exogamy/endogamy: Marriage outside/inside group Patrilocal/matrilocal/neolocal residence: Where do new nuclear families reside? Patriarchy/matriarchy/egalitarian marriage: Authority relationship Patrilineal/matrilineal/bilateral descent: Inheritance rules IV. Marriage Ideals in U.S: Monogamous Exogamy? Endogamy? Neolocal Residence Egalitarian Bilateral Descent Romantic Love V. Three Theories of the Family 48 A. Functionalist Theory 1. universality of family rooted in the need to socialize children and provide emotional support (“haven in a heartless world”) 2. Functions of the incest taboo B. Conflict Theory 1. property inheritance 2. patriarchal regulation of female sexuality 3. maintenance of class & ethnic cohesion C. Interactionist Theory Identity exchange in the marriage market VI. Historical Change in Family Structure A. Traditional vs. modern family structures Form: Courtship: Extended or corporate Arranged marriages Nuclear Self selection & Romantic love Monogamy Neolocal Bilineal Egalitarian ? Number of spouse: Polygamy Residence: Lineage: Authority: Patri- or matrilocal Patrilineal Patriarchal B. Why Historical Family Change? 1. industrialization: geographic and social mobility; reduction of family functions to child-rearing and emotional support (Wm. J. Goode) 2. Culture: rise of romanticism and modern individualism (Phillip Aries) C. “Family in Crisis” or Family Change? 1. Rise in divorce rate 1920 1/7 49 1940 1960 1980 1/6 1/4 1/3 2000s 1/2 ?? 2. Alternative family forms a. step families (40% of children) b. single-parent families: 1/4 (1999) c. cohabitation: 1/10 couples (1999) d. out-of-wedlock births: 1/3 of all births (1999) e. rise of permanent singlehood: 1/4 of adults (1999) f. open homosexual unions: 1 million gay parents (1999) 3. Related trends a. delayed marriage: mid/late 20s b. serial monogamy c. lower fertility – below replacement level d. Increased sexual permissiveness 4. Explanations of Divorce Rate a. increased stress (including less support from extended family) b. failed romance c. increased individualism d. women’s economic autonomy e. legal and social acceptance D. Family Change or Crisis? a. divorce with remarriage b. persistence of marriage ideal 50 c. cohabitation as trial marriage IV. Family Structure and Mental Health (John Mirowsky & Catherine Ross) A. Traditional: husband works/wife keeps house: low depression for both B. Strained Traditional: wife works out of necessity & does all housework: moderate depression for wife/high depression for husband (failure) C. Strained Egalitarian: both happily work; wife does all housework: moderate depression for wife D. Egalitarian: both happily work and share household duties: lowest depression levels 51 Social Movements & Social Change I. Social Movement: organized activity to bring about or oppose social change Social Change: Transformation of culture and social institutions II. Theories of Social Movements A. Relative Deprivation: gap between expectations & satisfactions; J-curve B. Mass Society: social isolation & strain lead to quest for identity C. Resource Mobilization: leadership and group cohesion allow mobilization D. Framing Theory: leaders construct new symbols of injustice and solutions E. New Social Movement Theory: focus on quality of life issues & rely on mass media III. Types of Movements A. Alternative: limited change for limited number of participants (Promise Keepers; MADD) B. Redemptive: radical change for small number of converts (AAA) C. Reformative: limited change in all of society (environmentalism, civil rights) D. Revolutionary: radical change in all of society (Communist, Klu Klux Klan, Aryan Nation) IV. Stages of Movement Development A. Emergence: perception of injustice as a ”wrong” – leadership formation B. Coalescence: promoting problem definition & strategy C. Bureaucratization: organizing to address problems D. Decline: 1. success? 2. oligarchy (Robert Michels) and leadership cooptation/goal displacement 3. state repression and collapse 52 4. incorporation into the mainstream VI. Why Do Movements Succeed? (William Gamson) I. Movement Success Tangible Gains -- laws, material benefits Political Acceptance -- recognition by political leaders II. Major Factors a. narrow goals (“think small”) b. bureaucratization c. unruly tactics (including violence) d. mobilize during a political crisis period e. use allies & have no competitors 53 Population, Urbanization and the Environment I. Demography: study of the size, distribution and change in human populations Ecology: study of the relationships between living organisms and their environments Fertility: the incidence of child bearing crude birth rate: births/person fertility rate: births/women of child-bearing age Fecundity: the biological potential of child bearing Mortality: the incidence of death in a society crude death rate: deaths/person infant mortality rate: U-1 deaths/live births Life Expectancy: average life span of a population (U.S. currently: 73 males/79 females) Age Structure: relative proportions of different age categories Demographic Transition: decline in fertility and mortality associated with economic development Migration: movement of people in and out of a territory In-/Out-Migration Rate: Migrants/Population Net Migration Rate: Immigrants - Emigrants/Population Sex Ratio: Males/Females (U.S. currently: 96/100; India & rural China 107/100) II. Population Growth A. Population = births-deaths+net migration Growth Rate population base B. Key Factors: fertility; mortality; migration; age structure C. Zero Population Growth (ZPG)? Each adult has less than 2 children D. Age-sex pyramids III. Is the world overpopulated? 54 A. Malthusian Theory 1. population increases geometrically while food supply increases arithmetically Geometric Progression: 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 Arithmetic Progression: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 2. Wrong due to industrialization (technology) & demographic transition C. Demographic Transition Theory: decline in fertility due to cost of children & modern values (esp. women’s rights) Pre-industrial Society: high fertility & high mortality = slow population growth; children valued as workers Developing Society: high fertility & low mortality = rapid population growth Developed Society: low fertility & low mortality = slow population growth; children as economic liability 3. Is the demographic transition inevitable? 4. Factors in Overpopulation? a. modern medicine and public health b. women’s status and high fertility c. nationalism and pro-natalist policies 5. Is the U.S. overpopulated? a. Social Security assumes large young population b. highest resource & pollution rate per capita in the world IV. Neo-Malthusian Theory A. How Create Ecologically Sustainable Society? B. Limits to Growth Thesis (Donella Meadows) a. IPAT formula: Impact = Population * Affluence * Technology b. linear projection models 55 c. industrialization not sustainable around 2050 due to resource depletion, pollution, and excess population growth; hence need to limit growth C. Critics a. limits of linear forecasting: counter-cycles b. human inventions c. human population as the “ultimate resource” (Julian Simon) D. Global Climate Change a. Global warming due to greenhouse gas emissions b. Fossil fuels primary source of GHGs c. Evidence of Climate Change E. Critics a. natural fluctuations b. natural sources of temperature rise c. benefits of global warming F. Conclusion: global warming poses problems for all V. Urbanization: Concentration of population in cities City: permanent concentration of large numbers of people who do not produce their own food Metropolis: central city and sub/ex-urban areas that it dominates Megalopolis: metropolitan areas fused together (e.g. BoshWash) Community (or Gemeinschaft): residential unit with personalized relations and strong sense of group membership Society (or Gesellschaft): residential unity with impersonal relations based on practical needs Urban Ecology: study of the relationship of physical and social organization of citiesV. 56 VI. What creates urbanization? A. The pre-industrial city: military & religious institutions central; Industrial city: commerce central B. Industrialization and the growth of modern cities C. Contemporary world urbanization due to “city lights” and government policy VII. Theories of Urban Ecology A. Concentric zone theory: Chicago (Ernest Burgess and Robert Park) B. Sector theory: "Silicon Valley" (Homer Hoyt) C. Multiple-nuclei theory: Los Angeles (Harris & Ullman) D. Cultural ecology: preservation of central Boston (Walter Firey) VIII. The Loss of Community? A. Gemeinschaft vs Gesellschaft (Toennies): replace close ties based on kinship and friendship with impersonal economic relations B. Blase attitude and urbanism as a way of life (Louis Wirth) C. Contrary Evidence: 1. persistence of “urban villages” and suburban communities (Herbert Gans) 2. persistence of community based on work & community institutions (Claude Fischer) 57