attachment-theory

Attachment Theory Lecure 10: March 29th, 2007 Attachment “An affectionate bond between 2 individuals that endures through space and time and serves to join them emotionally' (Klaus, 1976) Theories of Attachment Psychoanalysis (Freud, Erikson) Behaviourism (Hull, Skinner)  Ethological Theory (Bowlby)   1 Psychoanalysis & Attachment Freud  Infant’s emotional tie to mother provides the foundation for all later relationships.  Infant becomes attached to the person or object that provides oral satisfaction (usually mother, as she is most likely to feed it). Psychoanalysis & Attachment Erikson  First year of life key time-frame for the development of attachment  Stage of Trust versus Mistrust  Responsive, sensitive parenting contributes to an infant’s sense of trust Behaviourism & Attachment Drive Reduction Hypothesis  As the mother satisfies the baby’s hunger (primary drive), her presence becomes a secondary (learned) drive because it is paired with tension relief.  Consequently, the baby prefers to prefer all kinds of stimuli that accompany feeding (e.g. caresses, smiles) 2 Behaviourism & Attachment Skinner  Emphasises reciprocal responsiveness between caregiver and baby.  Babies are reinforced to smile and look at their mothers, because in return they receive social interaction. Strength of attachment related to number of infant behaviours reinforced consistently (Gewirtz, 1969). Behaviourism & Attachment Critique:  Cannot explain why children exhibit attachment behaviours even when their caregivers may seriously mistreat them.  Attachment persists once it is formed, though ongoing reinforcement may be non-existent. Harlow & Zimmerman (1959) Inspired by Spitz (1946) Newborn rhesus monkeys raised by 2 ‘surrogate’ mothers – 1 made of wire, 1 of cloth.  Found infant monkeys became more attached to cloth mother, even when wire was the only one providing food.   3 Harlow & Zimmerman (1959) Experiment demonstrated that feeding is not a crucial element in attachment process.  Contact and comfort more important than feeding in the development of attachment.  Unethical to conduct similar study with human babies so difficult to say anything about attachment in humans based on this study.  However, observations of human infants reveal attachments to people who rarely feed them -e.g. grandparents, siblings (Shaffer & Emerson, 1964).  Ethology & Attachment Ethology is concerned with the adaptive, or survival, value of behaviour and its evolutionary history (Hinde, 1989)  Lorenz & Tinbergen observed behavioural patterns that promote survival in animals’ natural world.  Concept of imprinting.  4 Ethology & Attachment   Ethological observations found that several aspects of children's social behaviour, (e.g. emotional expressions, cooperation) resemble those of our primate ancestors. Babies are biologically prepared to contribute actively to establish a bond with their caregivers, which promotes the chances for their individual genes to survive Bowlby’s Attachment Theory Ethological Perspective Most widely accepted view of the infant’s emotional tie to the caregiver.  Based on many of the underlying theories psychoanalytic assumptions.   Background (Bowlby) Trained in developmental psychology, psychoanalysis, medicine and psychiatry.  Became interested in effects of early family relationships on personality development.  Commissioned by WHO to report on mental health of homeless children in post-war Europe.  5 Bowlby 1951 – Published report as ‘Maternal Care and Mental Health’  1965 – Second edition published as book ‘Child Care and the Growth of Love’  Major conclusion was that to grow up mentally healthy, “The infant and young child should experience a warm, intimate and continuous relationship with his mother (or permanent mother substitute) in which both find satisfaction and enjoyment” Bowlby Believed attachment bond has biological roots  Argued that human infant, like the young of other animal species, is endowed with a set of built-in behaviours that help keep the parent nearby, increasing the chances that the infant will be protected from danger.  6 Bowlby 1959 – presented 3 now-classic papers to British Psychoanalytic Society in London • ‘The Nature of the Child’s Tie to his Mother’ (1958) • ‘Separation Anxiety’ (1959) • ‘Grief and Mourning in Early Childhood’ (1960) ‘The Nature of the Child’s Tie to his Mother’ (1959) Described role of attachment behaviours, esp clinging & following, in binding child to mother and vice versa.  Believed these responses mature relatively independently during the first year of life, and become increasingly integrated and focused on a mother figure during the second six months  ‘Separation Anxiety’ (1959)    Identified 3 phases of separation protest: protest, despair and denial/detachment. Maintained that separation anxiety arises when a situation activates both escape and attachment behaviour, but an attachment figure is not available. Suggested excessive separation anxiety due to adverse family experiences. 7 ‘Grief and Mourning in Early Childhood’ (1960)   Argued grief and mourning processes in children and adults appear whenever attachment behaviours are activated but the attachment figure continues to be unavailable. Also suggested that an inability to form deep relationships with others may result when the succession of substitutes is too frequent. ‘Attachment’ (1969) Book laid groundwork for theory of attachment, documenting each statement with empirical research findings on infants’ cognitive & social development.  Then applied ideas to specific domain of infant-mother attachment.  Defined attachment behaviour as: “Behaviour that has proximity to an attachment figure, has a predictable outcome, and whose evolutionary function is the protection of the infant from danger” 8 Development of Attachment 4 Phases: 1. Pre-attachment phase (0-6 weeks) 2. Attachment-in-the-Making phase (6 weeks-6 to 8 months) 3. The phase of ‘clear-cut’ attachment (6-8 months to 18-24 months) 4. Formation of reciprocal relationship (18-24 months+) Internal Working Model    Based on experiences during the 4 phases. Consists of a set of expectations about the availability of attachment figures, their likelihood of providing support during times of stress, and the self’s interaction with those figures. Becomes part of personality & model for all future close relationships Mary Ainsworth Enabled Bowlby’s theory to be tested empirically.  Uganda Study – observational study of infant-mother attachment in 26 families.  Found secure attachment correlated significantly with maternal sensitivity.  9 Ainsworth Baltimore Project (began 1963)  Observational study of mother-child interactions in a variety of situations (e.g. crying, feeding, approach behaviour etc).  Striking individual differences emerged in how sensitively, appropriately and promptly mothers responded to their infant's signals. “An infant whose mother's responsiveness helps him to achieve his ends develops confidence in his own ability to control what happens to him” (Bell & Ainsworth, 1972, p1188) Strange Situation Laboratory procedure first used in Baltimore project.  Originally designed to examine the balance of attachment and exploratory behaviours under conditions of low and high stress.  10 Strange Situation Procedure: Mother and infant enter a playroom where they are later joined by an unfamiliar woman. While the stranger plays with the baby, the mother leaves briefly and then returns. A second separation ensues during which the baby is completely alone. Finally the stranger and then the mother returns. Strange Situation Found that infants explore the playroom and toys more vigorously in the presence of their mothers than after a stranger entered or while the mother was absent.  Also, when the parent leaves for a short time, the child shows separation anxiety, and an unfamiliar adult was found to be less comforting than the parent.  Strange Situation Unexpected patterns of reunion behaviour emerged amongst infants.  Ainsworth et al., (1978) identified a secure attachment pattern and 3 patterns of insecurity  11 Attachment Patterns Secure Attachment  Avoidant Attachment  Resistant Attachment  Disorganised/Disoriented Attachment  Blanchard & Main (1979): infant's reaction in the Strange Situation closely resembles its use of the parent as a secure base and its response to separation at home  Individual differences in attachment security seem related to prior patterns of infant-parent interaction  Attachment Q-Sort     Alternative measure to SS Parent sorts a set of 90 descriptions of attachment-related behaviours. Score assigns children to securely attached/insecurely attached group. Corresponds with Strange Situation classifications. 12 The Adult Attachment Interview (AAI)   18 questions on topic of attachment. Based on responses, adult's internal working model of attachment is classified. 3 types: • Secure/Autonomous/Balanced • Dismissing/Detached • Preoccupied/Enmeshed  The Adult Attachment Interview    Van Ijzendoorn (1995; 1997): Across 20 studies, ¾ infant-mother pairs share same attachment category. Mother's internal working model of attachment appears to affect behaviour towards child (van Ijzendoorn, 1995). May also influence mother's interpretation of child's behaviour Attachment Stability Wartner et al.(1994): Attachment stable through the first 6 years of life.  NB: bias towards using middle-class participants.  Stability affected by major life changes in family (e.g. job loss, divorce, birth of sibling). Effect can be positive or negative.  13 Cultural Variations Cross-cultural evidence indicates that secure attachments may be more likely in some cultures than in others.  Van Ljzendoorn & Kroonenberg (1988): examined results of 32 separate studies of attachment in 8 different countries  Van Ljzendoorn & Kroonenberg (1988) Country Germany UK Holland Sweden Israel Japan China USA Overall Average No. of Studies 3 1 4 1 2 2 1 18 Secure 56.6 75.0 63.3 74.5 64.4 67.7 50.0 64.8 65% Avoidant 35.3 22.2 26.3 21.6 6.8 5.2 25.0 21.1 21% Ambivalent 8.1 2.8 6.4 3.9 28.8 25.0 25.0 14.1 14% Attachment & Culture Possible that the Strange Situation is simply not an appropriate measure of attachment security in all cultures  Takahashi (1990)  Meaning of attachment may differ between cultures  Grossman et al. (1985)  14 Attachment & Culture On the other hand, research in Israel (Sagi et al., 1990) shows that the Strange Situation attachment classification predicts the baby's later social skills in much the same way as is found in US samples.  Suggests classification system valid in both cultures.  What about cultures where early child care is communal? Attachment & Culture Edward Tronick et al (1992) – studied pygmy group in Zaire called the Efe.  Infants communally cared for, though they usually sleep beside mother.  First 6 months – no central attachment figure  6 months+: preference for mother  15 Multiple Attachments   Babies develop attachments to a variety of people, e.g. Fathers, siblings, grandparents. Bowlby (1969) believed infants are predisposed to direct their attachment behaviours to a single, special person, especially when distressed. Fathers & Attachment    Father's sensitive caregiving predicts security of attachment Effect linked to time spent with their babies (van Ijzendoorn & De Wolff, 1997) Differences in style of interaction – tend to engage in more exciting, physical, playful interaction (Yogman, 1981) Siblings & Attachment   Teti et al. (1996): Security of attachment declines with birth of a sibling, esp if the sibling is under 2 years of age and mother is experiencing psychological or marital problems. By the time the infant is 8 months old, siblings typically spend much time together (Dunn, 1992). Role of temperament and parent behaviour also important.  16 Factors Affecting Attachment Security      Maternal Deprivation Quality of Caregiving Infant Characteristics Family Circumstances Parents' Internal Working Models Maternal Deprivation   Spitz (1945, 1946): Studies of institutionalised infants. Emotional difficulties of these infants were believed to be formed because of failure to form bond with 1 or more adults. Maternal Deprivation     Hodges & Tizard (1989) followed the development of infants reared in an institution that offered a good caregiverchild ratio & stimulating environment. Many adopted after age 4. Most developed deep bonds with adoptive parents. Higher rate of emotional and social problems amongst these children in childhood and adolescence. 17 Quality of Caregiving   Role of maternal sensitivity (DeWolff & Van Ijzendoorn, 1997) Van den Boom (1994) lower-class mothers who had received training to become more responsive towards their infants were rated as more responsive and had babies who were more likely to be securely attached. Van den Boom (1995) differences persisted for up to 18 months.  Infant Characteristics   e.g. Role of temperament Kagan (1989, 1998) infants who are fearful and irritable may simply react to brief parental separations with intense anxiety regardless of the parent's sensitivity to the baby. Seifer et al. (1996) proneness to distress in infancy is moderately related to later insecure attachment.  Infant Characteristics Other findings, however, point to only a modest influence of temperament.  E.g. van den Boom (1995): role of caregiving in relationship between irritability and attachment insecurity  van Ijzendoorn et al (1992): Infant problems had little impact on attachment quality compared to maternal problems.  Temperament may depend on 'goodness of fit' 18 Family Circumstances   Consistent link found in literature between attachment insecurity and stress and instability in family (e.g job loss, marital breakdown, financial problems). Availability of social supports, esp assistance in caregiving, reduces stress and fosters attachment security Attachment and Child Care   Belsky (1992): Infants placed in full time day care before 12 months of age more likely than home-reared babies to display insecure attachment, especially avoidance in the Strange Situation. Suggestion that babies who experience daily separations from the employed mothers and early placement in day care are at risk for developmental problems Attachment & Child Care However, caution needed when interpreting these findings.  Rates of insecurity are somewhat higher amongst children attending day care (36 vs 29%) but nevertheless resemble overall rate amongst children in industrialised countries (Lamb, Sternberg & Prodromidis, 1992).  Role of family environment (e.g. Lamb, 1998) 19 Attachment & Child Care   Quality of day care also important Children need a period to adjust when they first enter day care. Higher rates of distress seen at first but diminish over time (E.g. Barnas & Cummings,1994). Warm bond with caregiver can serve as protective factor for children with insecure attachment to one or both parents (Egeland & Hiester, 1995).  Readings Bretherton, I. (1992). The origins of Attachment Theory, Developmental Psychology, 28, pp759-775. (on website)  Miller, P.H. (2002). Theories of Developmental Psychology. New York: Freeman (Chp 5).  Smith, P.K., Cowie, H. & Blasdes, M. (1998). Understanding Children’s Development (2rd Ed.). Oxford: Blackwell.  20