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Parent Involvement and Student Achievement
at the Middle Level
Research Summary #18, 2000
Question: Does parent involvement increase student achievement at the
middle level?
Although extensive research linking parent involvement to a variety of positive student outcomes has
been conducted at virtually all grade levels, educators' understanding of this link has been significantly
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shaped by the predominance of studies at the elementary level. The focus of this research summary
is to provide insights grounded in middle level studies that have application locally.
FAMILY A GENERAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE RESEARCH
INVOLVEMENT Parent involvement, as used throughout this summary, refers to either (a) voluntary involvement in
the school or (b) planned, goal-oriented programs of school, family, and community partnerships
that are organized and implemented to engage all parents in their children's education. The term
"parent involvement" will be used to reference studies that are primarily related to voluntary
involvement. The term "parent involvement program" will be used to describe purposeful programs
of school, family, and community partnerships.
K-12 studies linking parent involvement with a variety of student cognitive and affective outcomes
are quite extensive (Cotton & Wikelund, 1989; Desimone, 1999). Parent involvement has been
linked with student outcomes including increased achievement test results, a decrease in dropout
rate, improved attendance, improved student behavior, higher grades, higher grade point average,
greater commitment to schoolwork, and improved attitude toward school.
Recent research reviewing historical trends in parent involvement and student achievement point
out the inconsistency of those findings by documenting apparent improvements in achievement
while other studies do not support a relationship (Keith, 1993; McNeal, 1999). Previous studies have
shown that parent involvement patterns vary according to parents' social, racial/ethnic, and
economic characteristics (Catsambas & Garland, 1997; Hoover-Dempsy, Bassler, & Brissie, 1987;
Muller & Kerbow, 1993); but the findings have been mixed (Desimone, 1999, p. 13). More recent
parent involvement studies have pointed out important concerns with research methodology and
interpretation of results (Baker & Soden, 1998; Thorkildsen & Stein, 1998). Less is understood about
the effects of parent involvement on student learning at the middle level (Balli & Demo, 1998;
Brough, 1997; Keith, 1993; Rutherford, 1995; Trivette & Anderson, 1995) because elementary
studies have dominated the research.
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Parent Involvement and Student Achievement at the Middle Level (continued)
Developmentally responsive education
In order to be developmentally responsive, middle level schools must be grounded in the diverse
characteristics and needs of these young people (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development,
1989; National Middle School Association, 1995). A review of the parent involvement literature
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would suggest that the effects of parental involvement may vary with the age of the students (Keith,
1991; Trivette et al., 1995). As a result, more recent studies have begun to focus on middle level
students and their parents (Cotton & Wikelund, 1989). A review of the parent involvement pro-
FAMILY grams literature provides more promising results. Referencing the work of the National Network of
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Partnership Schools, Sanders and Simon (1999) conclude that when middle schools develop
comprehensive programs of school, family, and community partnerships, they can involve the
families of early adolescents in many ways that are developmentally appropriate and can improve
the quality and outreach of their programs from year to year.
Summary of middle level research findings
What we have learned from our review is that making a broad generalization that parent involvement
results in increased student achievement clearly understates the complexity of the issue. A review
of the literature shows that student achievement outcomes differ based on: (a) the particular
component of parent involvement and whether this data was parent- or student-reported; (b) the
achievement measure(s) used (e.g. achievement test scores, grades, G.P.A.); (c) the cultural or
racial/ethnic groups involved; (d) the subject matter (e.g., mathematics, reading, science) being
tested; (e) income levels of the parents; and (f) gender of the parents.
For a better understanding of research, we have adapted Epstein's typology of parent involvement
as a framework to organize the findings on this complex issue of parent involvement and student
achievement (Epstein, 1995). Epstein's typology and terminology are predominant throughout
the middle level research. Epstein's typology includes 6 categorizations: (1) Parenting; (2)
Communicating; (3) Volunteering; (4) Learning at Home; (5) Decision Making; and (6)
Collaborating with Community. The sixth type is not discussed in this summary because it is
more directly associated with community involvement.
Type 1: Parenting practices at home
While TV viewing (e.g., rules) has no direct effect on student achievement, it is impacted indirectly
and positively through some complex mechanism of parenting practices (Keith, 1993). Although
studies have questioned whether parenting practices are within the appropriate sphere of influence
of the schools, existing successful programs that promote effective parenting practices that address
this issue may be considered.
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Parent Involvement and Student Achievement at the Middle Level (continued)
Findings seem to suggest that there is a relationship between student-reported rules and increases in
reading achievement (Desimone, 1999). Parent-reported rules predicted a decrease in student
achievement among nonminority students, which some researchers believe reflects parent attempts
to help the child when the child is having difficulty. If this is the case, perhaps more proactive parent
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involvement would avoid a decrease in achievement scores. However, this approach may be
tempered by the differences in parental ability (e.g. parent education level) and available resources,
such as time (Muller, 1995), to help their children. This would account for the differences in
FAMILY achievement results when parent education is considered. In order to address this, perhaps
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identifying alternative middle level educational support systems perceived as positive by adolescents
might be considered. Parent involvement programs that use parent and student self-reports as a
way to determine the level of parent involvement and its effects should be aware that student
reports (i.e., student perceptions) are better predictors of student outcomes than parent reports
(Desimone, 1999).
In a study of a parent involvement program, Epstein, Simon, and Salinas (1997) reported that
families of middle grades students could be involved in learning activities at home. Their study of
the TIPS-Language Arts program documented that with interactive homework designed by teachers
and conducted by students, most families in inner-city middle schools were informed about and
involved in their children's education on a regular schedule. The program included parents who
would not otherwise have become involved.
Type 2: Communicating between school and home
Research suggests that the association between school-home communication and student
achievement was relatively small (Sui-Chu & Willms, 1996) and outcomes varied to some degree by
race and whether the desired outcomes were standardized scores or student grades. Grades are
slightly more impacted than achievement test scores (Desimone, 1999), which may be the result of
parent(s) communicating with the school and/or teacher at the time grades were impacted. McNeal
(1999) indicates that because school-home communication and levels of parent involvement vary
by race and income level, this suggests that some groups may feel more comfortable communicating
with the school than others. This implies that parent involvement programs should develop positive
communication strategies unique to the context of their own community. Parent involvement
programs that review and adapt effective strategies used by schools with similar family and
community background characteristics might be beneficial.
Type 3: Volunteering or being an audience at school
The association between volunteering and fundraising and student achievement appears to vary by
race and family income. Volunteering was almost twice as predictive of grades as achievement test
scores (Desimone, 1999). While the reasons are not clear, the findings suggest that there is a small
overall relationship between this component of parent involvement and student scores (Sui-Chu &
Willms, 1996). However, volunteering or fundraising on the part of white and middle-income
parents was associated with increases in mathematics and reading scores but was not significant for
African-American, Hispanic, Asian, and low-income students (Desimone, 1999).
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Parent Involvement and Student Achievement at the Middle Level (continued)
Type 4: Learning activities to involve parents with students at home
Desimone (1998), referring to studies by Muller, and Schneider & Coleman, concluded that school-
level involvement had less effect on achievement than parent-child involvement. The findings show
that parent-child discussion is significantly related to increased achievement for whites and African-
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Americans; however, the link was not significant for Hispanics or Asians (McNeal, 1999). Sui-Chu &
Willms (1996) found that home discussion of school activities was one of the stronger predictors of
student achievement (Balli & Demo, 1998). Although the dynamics of parent-child discussion about
FAMILY school are not clearly understood, studies suggest parent-child discussion, focusing on middle level
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age students, is another area where parent involvement programs might make a difference.
The employment status of mothers affects child supervision after school, the nature of parent-child
activities during this time, and the degree to which the parent is able to become involved in after-
school activities such as P.T.O. Better availability of supervised after-school activities for adolescents,
flexible work schedules that permit parents to participate in school functions, and school policies
that accommodate working parents are three areas for possible improvement (Muller, 1995).
Parent(s) helping students with homework or checking homework had a negative relationship with
achievement (Wang & Wildman, 1994). Some researchers believe this is an intervention strategy or
a negative outcome of parental monitoring of an adolescent seeking his or her own independence.
The findings suggest that perhaps a more proactive parent stance might prevent problems before
they occur. Providing alternative school-based strategies for assisting adolescents with their
homework in ways they find acceptable might be considered. The negative relationship may
simply be due to parents who are trying to help a student who needs help.
Based upon initial findings from parent involvement programs, students' academic work and
attitudes improve when students conduct interactive homework with family members (Epstein,
Simon, & Salinas, 1997; Sanders, in press).
Type 5: Decision making, governance, and advocacy roles
Parent involvement research studies distinguish between P.T.O. attendance and P.T.O. involvement,
which suggests some degree of responsibility and participation in decision making. P.T.O. attendance
or parent volunteering was associated with very small effects on reading and mathematics
achievement (Sui-Chu & Willms, 1996). P.T.O. involvement findings vary to some degree by
subject matter tested, income level, and race. Although the effect of parent P.T.O. attendance and
involvement is not clearly understood, it has been suggested that P.T.O. involvement may mitigate
some of the negative effects related to racial/ethnic barriers and differences by providing opportunities
for governance and advocacy roles (Desimone, 1999). Parent involvement programs that encourage
and support involvement of low-income parents in parent/school organizations may provide better
insight about the value of such involvement.
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Parent Involvement and Student Achievement at the Middle Level (continued)
SUMMARY
Although the dynamics of parent involvement and student achievement at the middle level are not
clearly understood, current efforts of purposeful parent involvement programs such as those of the
National Network of Partnership Schools provide promising strategies for making a difference. These
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recently evolving programs have the potential to make a difference and are expected to provide
substantive data over the new few years to effectively document their worth. The leadership of every
middle level school, regardless of school enrollment size or community socio-economic composition,
FAMILY has an obligation to engage in discussions about purposeful parent involvement programs. There is
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no evident research documenting a negative effect as a result of the implementation of a well-
designed parent involvement program and there is an initial body of literature and research
supporting the value of such programs. A general Web search or a direct link to the National
Network of Partnership Schools Web site at http://scov.csos.jhu.edu/p2000/p2000.htm is an
excellent starting point.
Suggested Resources
The writers of this document suggest two resources for educators considering parent involvement
programs. The National Network of Partnership Schools Web site mentioned in the summary
paragraph is an excellent source of specific information about parent involvement programs. An
additional source would be Judith Brough's chapter on "Home-School Partnerships" in National
Middle School Association's book entitled What Current Research Says to the Middle Level Practitioner
(1997, Judith Irvin, editor), available through NMSA by phone order or online order at
http://www.nmsa.org.
REFERENCES
Baker, J. L., & Soden, L. M. (1998). The challenges of parent involvement research. (Report No.
EDO-UD-98-4). New York, NY: ERIC Clearinghouse on Urban Education. (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. 419 030).
Balli, S. J., Demo, D. H., & Wedman, J. F. (1998). Family involvement with children's homework:
An intervention in the middle grades. Family Relations, 47(2), 149-157.
Brough, J. A. (1997). Home-school partnerships: A critical link. In What Current Research Says to the
Middle Level Practitioner (pp. 265-274) (Judith Irvin, Ed.). Columbus, OH: National Middle School
Association.
Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development. (1989). Turning points: Preparing American youth for
the 21st century. Washington, DC: Author.
Cohen, D. L. (1994). Parent involvement drops off after early grades. Education Week, 14(1), 6.
Cotton, K, & Wikelund, K. R. (1989). Parent involvement in education. School Improvement Research
Series [Online]. Available: http://www.nwrel.org/scpd/sirs/3/cu6.html.
Desimone, L. (1999). Linking parent involvement with student achievement: Do race and income
matter? The Journal of Educational Research, 93(1), 11-30.
Eccles, J. S., & Harold, R. D. (1993). Parent-school involvement during the early adolescent years.
Teachers College Record, 94(3), 568-587.
National Middle School Association
5 4151 Executive Parkway, Suite 300 Westerville, Ohio 43081 Tel: 614-895-4730 FAX: 614-895-4750 1-800-528-NMSA C 2005
Parent Involvement and Student Achievement at the Middle Level (continued)
Epstein, J. L. (1995). School/family/community partnerships: Caring for the children we share. Phi
Delta Kappan, 76(9), 701-712.
Epstein, J. L., Simon, B. S., & Salinas, K. C. (1997). Involving parents in homework in the middle
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ON TARGET Development, and Research.
Keith, T. Z., Keith, P. B., Troutman, G. C., Bickley, P. G., Trivette, P. S., & Singh, K. (1993). Does
FAMILY parental involvement affect eighth-grade student achievement? Structural analysis of national data.
INVOLVEMENT School Psychology Review, 22(3), 474-496.
McNeal, R. B. (1999). Parental involvement as social capital: Differential effectiveness on science
achievement, truancy, and dropping out. Social Forces, 78(1), 117-144.
Muller, C. (1995). Maternal employment, parent involvement, and mathematics achievement
among adolescents. Journal of Marriage & the Family, 57(1), 95-100.
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schools (pp. 5-8). Columbus, OH: National Middle School Association.
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Rutherford, B., & Billig, S. H. (1995). Eight lessons of parent, family, and community involvement in
the middle grades. Phi Delta Kappan, 77(1), 64-68.
Sanders, M. G. (in press). Schools, families, and communities partnering for middle level students'
success. National Association of Secondary School Principals, National Alliance of Middle Level
Schools Monograph Series. Reston, VA: National Association of Secondary School Principals.
Sanders, M. G., & Simon, B. (1999). Progress and challenges: Comparing elementary, middle and high
school in the National Network of Partnership Schools. Paper presented at the American Education
Research Association Annual Conference in Montreal.
Sui-Chu, E. S., & Willms, J. D. (1996). Effects of parental involvement on eighth-grade achievement.
Sociology of Education, 69, 126-141.
Thorkildsen, R., & Stein, M. R. (1998). Is parent involvement related to student achievement?
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Trivette, P., Anderson, E., Singh, K., Bickley, P., Keith, T. Z., & Keith, P. B. (1995). The effects of four
components of parental involvement on eighth grade student achievement: Structural analysis of
NELS-88 data. School Psychology Review, 24(2), 299-317.
Wang, J., & Wildman, L. (1994). The effects of family commitment in education on student
achievement in seventh grade mathematics. Education, 115(2), 317-319, 271.
Original Publication Information:
Parent involvement and student achievement at the middle level. NMSA Research Summary #18.
National Middle School Association
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