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1 Yu Yibing Chapter I The Word 一、Diction (choice and use of words) Jonathan Swift: Proper words in proper places. 1.Building up a large vocabulary the recognition vocabulary the active vocabulary 2. Approaches to the building up a vocabulary (1) Learning words from a word-list or from a dictionary, words learned in this way is isolated from the context. eg. Doctor: What’s the matter with you? Patient: My nose is running and my feet smell. Doctor: Oh. That’s too bad. You should be built upside down. 2 (2) Learning words from speech and writing Examples: [1] She cannot bear children. a. She cannot tolerate children. b. She cannot give birth to children. c. She is not able to give birth to child. d. She is not allowed to give birth to child. 3 [2] kill He killed the man. He killed the dog. They killed the proposal. Please kill the engine. She is dressed to kill. You are killing me. She killed her child with kindness. He took a snack to kill his hungry. He killed every day at the park. He killed himself with overwork. 4 kill He killed the spirit of the group. The news killed their hope. These flowers kill easily. He killed three bottle of Whisky in a week. Kill one’s appetite Kill peace Kill the mood Kill marriage 5 Example[3] last I’ll defend the bridge to the last drop of my blood. I thought her last book was one of her best. He knew this was his last hope of winning. This is a question of the last importance. He is the last person to consult in such matter. 6 Example 4 介绍 introduce 请让我自我介绍：我叫辛普森．介绍: cause to be acquainted Let me introduce myself: my name is Simpson. 市、县官员向他介绍了它们机构对塌方事件进行联合调查的 进展情况。介绍：to give detailed information to (brief) He was briefed by city and country officials on the progress by their agencies into the cave-in. 服务员介绍了菜单上最美味的佳肴是炸鸡． 介绍: suggest favorably (recommend) The waiter recommended fried chicken as the best dish on the menu. 7 请你介绍一下经验好吗？ 介绍：convey to another or hand down to another who is younger or come later. (pass on) Would you pass on your experience? Introduce He introduced me to his parents.(介绍) He is apt to introduce new ideas into the business. （引进） They have introduced a new job-contract system into the factory’s reform project. （采用） Tobacco was introduced into Europe from America. （传入） 8 Dressing designers introduce new fashions each year. （推出） The doctor introduced a long tube into the sick man’s throat so he could breathe.（插入） Television and space travel are introducing many new words into our language.（引入） I introduced my country cousin to the big city by showing him the sights.（见识） 9 II. Using words correctly 1.overcome Chinglish Examples: I’m not afraid of the hot weather. I don’t mind the hot weather. I felt the room rather cold. I found the room rather cold. On Sundays I always sleep late. On Sundays I always get up late. 10 She felt the blanket soft. The blanket felt soft to her. His level of English has been proved. His English has improved. He received the fourth place in the exam. He came out the fourth in the exam. 11 2. Beware of archaisms, obsolete words, anachronisms and newlycoined words Words or meaning of words which are no longer in common used but occur in special text (e.g. Religious works) and poetry are called archaic. Examples: ere, mayhaps, quoth, thy, thine Words or meaning which have gone out of use altogether are called obsolete. words that are inappropriate for the time about which one is writing are called anachronisms. newly-coined words: junior-high-schooler, water-sensitive-crops, snow-poor-winter, tube-steak, knee-throw… 12 3.Avoid slang On hearing that his father had kicked the bucket, we wrote him a letter to express our deep sympathies. The big banquet held in honor of the distinguished state guests was really neat. 13 Using words accurately The shade of meaning Eg: eagle and hawk Eagle is a bird that soars high and thus see far, to have an eagle eye (to have excellent vision) Hawk is a bird of pray, symbolizes harshness, thus people call the hard line politician ―the hawk‖ Dove and pigeon Dumb and mute 14 1. Specific and concrete words Specific and general A good man : kind honest just generous sympathetic warm-hearted selfless honorable Good food: tasty nourishing rich wholesome high-priced fresh substantial 15 General: In spring, the weather in Beijing can be very bad. Specific: In spring ,it is often windy and dusty here. More specific with the help of details: In spring, the wind blows all day long. The air is then filled with fine dust which sometimes shuts out the sun. there is no escape from the fine dust. It gets into your eyes, your ears, your nostrils, and your hair. 16 General words to generalize Specific words to specify Black smoke was coming out of the rear of the engine. Black smoke belched out of the rear of the engine. Flames were reaching the gasoline tanks. Flames licked over the gasoline tanks. Words are general or specific by comparison Eg: maple---tree---plant Linguistically described as hyponymy( the meaning of one form is included in the meaning of another) 17 Hierachical diagram Living things creature plant animal insect vegetable flower tree carrot daffodil baiyan pine 18 Denotation and Connotation Denotation is the basic ,direct,, literal meaning of a word. As defined by the dictionary. Connotation is the association around and the overtone about the word. it’s the feeling or idea suggested by the word. E.g . Guojia Country emphasizes the territory. Nation emphasizes the people. State emphasizes political organization. Land is often used to connote certain feeling. 19 Examples An island country ; neighbouring country A peace-loving nation; the awaking nation of Africa State-owned enterprises Our state system is the people’s democratic dictatorship. A far-away / foreign land; a land of liberty/ opportunity 20 All the following adjectives mean‖ thick in body because of presence of superfluous flesh‖, but differ widely in connotation. Stout: suggesting robust health Portly: suggesting-slow dignity Plump: suggesting a pleasant fullness of figure Rotund: suggesting a spherical shape Chubby: suggesting the bouncy roundness of a cherub or a well-fed suggesting baby Fat: suggesting the neutral, general uncomplimentary connotation Corpulent: suggesting an unbecoming bulkiness Obese: implying an unhealthy excess of fat 21 Different connotation reflecting the attitude of the speaker Complimentary neutral Public servant employee Financier Law officer Captain of industry businessman Investigator Captive derogatory bureaucrat speculator cop tycoon government investor policeman successful spy jailbird detective prisoner 22 Different connotation between English words and Chinese counterparts Foreign---- we say ―foreign friends,‖ foreign guests‖ and ―foreign expert‖ with all due respect to them, but to the English speaking people the word ― foreign‖ carries the connotation of alien or outsider and not of ourselves. foreign friends= friends from abroad Propaganda: Mass: 向．．．学习： learn from, emulate 23 Synonyms • Two or more forms with very closely related meaning, which are often but not always, intersubstitutable in a sentence. • Formality: • Early English: small/little • French: petite • Latin: diminutive ask time question age interrogate epoch rise mount ascend • Generally, Latin words are more bookish than early English and French. 24 Examples: • My father purchased a large automobile. • My dad bought a big car. • The concert concluded with a performance of Beethoven’s 5th symphony. • They ended the concert with Beethoven’s 5th symphony. 25 Formality • informal formal • leave depart • scared apprehensive • blow up explode • quit resign • job position • tired fatigued • flunk fail • ---|----------|------------|------------|------------|------------• acute perceptive intelligent smart on the ball 26 Man Woman and Child H: Honey, I gotta talk to you. W: Sure. Is something wrong? H: Well, sort of. Yes. W: Bob, something in your voice scares me. Have I done anything? H: No. It’s me. I’ve done it. Sheila, remember when you were pregnant with Paula? W: Yes? H: I had to fly to Europe—Montpellier—to give that paper… W: And? I trusted H: I have an affair. W: This is some terrible joke. Isn’t it? H: No. It’s true. I—I’m sorry. W: Who? H: Nobody. Nobody special. W: Who, Robert? 27 Man Woman and Child H: Her—her name was Nicole Guirin. She was a doctor. W: And how long did it last? H: Two, three days. W: Two days or three days? I want to know. H: Three days. Does it all matter? W: Everything matters. H: I was waiting for the right moment. W: And ten years later was the right moment? No doubt you thought it would be easier. On whom? H: I didn’t want to hurt you, Sheila. If it’s any consolation, that’s the only time. W: No, it isn’t any consolation. Once is more than never. H: Sheila, that was so long ago. I had to tell you now because—I mean… She’s dead. W: For God’s sake. Bob, why are you telling me all this? H: Sheila, I am telling you because she had a child. W: And we have two---so who? H: He’s mine. The boy is mine. W: Oh, no, it can’t be true. 28 Man Woman and Child H: Yes, it’s true. I didn’t know about him. Sheila. Please believe me. W: Why? Why should I believe anything you tell me now? H: Sheila, listen— W: No. I’ve heard enough. W: Bob, why’d you have to tell me? Why? H: Because I don’t know what to do. And because I somehow thought you’d help. W: You can’t know how it hurts. I trusted you. I trusted.--H: Please, honey, I’ll do anything to make it right. W: You can’t. H: You don’t mean that you want to split…? W: Robert, I don’t have the strength right now. For anything. You could do me a big favor. H: Anything? W: Sleep in your study, please. 29 Chapter II The Sentence I. Elements of Sentence A sentence is recognized by a period or an exclamation mark or question mark at the end. A sentence is composed of a set words, or rarely, just one word, so structured as to constitute a complete grammatical unit. The typical English sentence follows this pattern: ―subject +predicate ‖ 30 II. Characteristics of an Effective Sentence • 一. Correctness • 1. Fragment and Ellipse • A fragment is a part of sentence (such as a phrase or dependant/ subordinate clause) which begins with a capital letter and ends as a sentence does. E.g. • [Fragment] The result being that he lost the presidential election. • [Sentence] The result is that he lost the presidential election • More fragments: 31 She guided us to the edge of the region. Leaving us to find our own way to the outpost. Revised: What I consider to be good writing. Sentence fragment Revised: s Where to go, when to start and what other things we should pay special attention to. Revised: Fragment-like sentences As exclamations oh! Nonsense! Well done! What a day! What a pity! How kind of you! George in Beijing ? Susan a singer? In dialogue A: how about this? B: very good! A: your name and your address, please. B: all right , here 33 Ellipse: A: where to? B: this way, please. A: what then? B: nothing. As transitions And a final instance To return from our digression Now, a few more words about the meeting today. 34 For emphasis and vividness There is a price to pay for success. The demanding price of self denial, the price of blood and sweat and tears. The teachers at the public school didn’t seem to care if I learned anything. They let the kids run wild. But not here. 35 2. The differentiation between danglers and general-action designators Looking up at the sky, the sun went under a cloud. Looking up at the sky, he saw the sun went under a cloud. To swim properly, a course of instruction is necessary. To swim properly, a beginner should take a course of instruction is necessary. He is quick to see his own mistake when pointed out to him. He is quick to see his own mistake when it is pointed out to him. 36 General-action designators don’t relate an action to any particular person, but refer to general action. (1) non-finite verbs Considering everything, his suggestion was reasonable. Judging from that, our project is not bad at all. Talking about ghosts, that really scared me. (2) adjective Curious enough, that accident never bothered him. Needless to say, both sides cherish their friendship. Strange to say, ever since he came he had never been homesick. (3) infinitives To tell the truth To start with to be strict to generalize to do it justice to put the question plainly to make things worse 37 二、Unity A sentence should express a single complete idea, no more, no less. If it contains too much, then the sentence becomes confusing . If it contains too little, then the idea in it is incomplete. 38 1.Chopped-up sentence 爱咪出版社 公司内部档案·数据目录 The idea of one unified sentence is chopped into several short sentences. E.g. Bad: my best friend in high school was our literature teacher. Her name was Wang Li. She taught us literature for three years. → My best friend in high school was our literature teacher, Wang Li, who taught us for three years. Idea not closely related: born in a small town in South China in 1937, he grew up to be a musician. → He was born in a small town in South China in 1937,(other details) he grew up to be a musician. 39 2.Fused sentence: several ideas are fused into one sentence. Fused: you enter the city you small the gasoline refineries. Improved: As you enter the city ,you small the gasoline refineries. Fused: they did not win the game so far as I could see they did not even try. Improved: they did not win the game; so far as I could see, they did not even try. 40 Fused: she suddenly paused and it seemed wonderful that she could speak so easily but she was usually bashful. Improved: she suddenly paused ; it seemed wonderful that she could speak so easily ,but she was usually bashful. 41 A sentence violates the principle of unity if it contains ideas that are not closely related, on the hand, a sentence is not unified if it does not express a complete thought. Ideas not closely related: Born in a small town in South china in 1937, he grew up to be a great musician. Idea incomplete: the girl Is too young. 42 3 wordiness: wordiness also violates the principle of unity, the idea gets blurred by unnecessary words which obscure it like clouds and smoke. Sorry, I’m not in a position to offer assistance to him. → Sorry, I am unable to help him. The maid put the letter that came from Prague on my desk. → The maid put the letter from Prague on my desk. There are several advantages to buying a motorbike. → Buying a motorbike offers several advantages . I’d like to take the opportunity to say thank you. → Thank you. 43 3. Clarity Clarity requires that a sentence should be written with its meaning unmistakably clear. misunderstanding is often caused by: (1) The position of modifiers the meaning of a sentence can be change drastically by changes in the position of modifiers. I borrowed my sister’s bike. (only) she decided not to go. she did not decide to go. Nanjing University has many well known proffers at home and abroad. 44 I really don’t mind waiting. I don’t really mind waiting ... In the dining room, there’s a buzzer for summoning the maid on the floor underneath the table. Squinting modifiers: the modifier is so positioned in a sentence they may refer either to what has gone before or to what comes after. All the people who go to Jamaica sooner or later fall in love with it. In one word, the modifier must be placed as near to the modified as possible. 45 (2) Reference of person They sent a chair to the repair department that is damaged. It tells here in this chapter about Columbus’s fourth voyage. Peggy held a piece of bread and jam in one hand and the telephone in the other. She kept eating it while she talked. 46 (3) Vague Comparison The things to be compared to must be specified, avoid illogical and ambiguous comparison. E.g. My hometown is closer to Nanjing than Shanghai. Bob is stronger than any men in his team. My English is not better than you. Its price was even higher than gold. The proposal you made is much practicable than he made. 47 4. Coherence • Coherence requires that the parts of a sentence are so arranged that they stick together, and that the ideas progress in a logical sequence. • (1) Parallelism e.g. • I forgot that my research paper was due on Tuesday and my teacher had said he would not accept late papers. 48 When food is tasteless, no one likes to eat it; when an article is effectively written, it will echo in your mind a long time to come. • If some food is deliciously cooked, its taste remain with you for days; if an essay is effectively written, its imprint stays with you for long. 49 In parallel construction it is necessary to balance word for word, phrase with phrase, clause with clause, sentence with sentence. It is sometimes necessary to repeat the introductory word or phrase or clause. (not parallel) The child was pretty and had brains. (parallel) The child was pretty and intelligent. He sat down and was beginning to work. He sat down and began to work. I will wait until you call or she comes. I will wait until you call or until she comes. She is a swimmer and artist. She is a swimmer and an artist. I went to the dance with a girl from Memphis and who has a southern accent. I went to the dance with a girl who is from Memphis and who has a southern accent. 50 (2) Consistency A. keep the same grammatical subject unless there is good reason for changing. The cast first discusses the play and then nightly rehearsals begin. → The cast first discusses the play and then begin nightly rehearsals. B. Keep the person of pronoun consistent. Shift: Having eaten our lunch, they departed by boat. → Having eaten their lunch, they departed by boat. 51 C. Keep the number of nouns and pronouns consistent Being a student, we all wish to learn to write well. One can never write effectively, unless they write as much and as often as they can. 52 D. Keep the mood and the voice that you have decided upon. First build a fire and then you should make the coffee. He drove the car into the garage and the motor was quickly stopped. 53 Subordination Correct subordination clarifies the relationships between ideas, thus strengthens the coherence of a sentence. Subordination leads to greater economy in writing, permitting one to express oneself in the fewest possible words. In subordination, the most important thing is to clarify the clause that express the major idea. Make that clause the main one, then subordinate the others. 54 It can be achieved by turning the other clause into: (1)an adverbial clause introduced by an appropriate conjunction;(2) an adjective clause introduced by a relative pronoun; (3) a present participial phrase;(4) a past participial phrase;(5) an appositive I was in college. I had a roommate. He was studying to be a lawyer. I ran out of ink, thus being unable to finish my theme. The dean issued a bulletin, and it said the library would remain open on weekends. The boys were caught in a sudden rainstorm and they took refuge in a haystack. 55 5. Emphasis: emphasis is the means by which you give desired force to your writing. (1) positioning for emphasis The sentence end---the place of strongest emphasis The sentence beginning---the place of secondary emphasis The middle --- the place of least emphasis E.g. He will not have the endurance needed for the long training required to be a dentist, I think. Attention: move the point to be emphasized, out of order, to the front, this process is often called fronting or inversion. E.g. This I will never do. 56 (2).use of the appropriate voice for verbs In general the active voice is preferable because it is more direct and precise, but sometimes the passive is more appropriate than the active. E.g. The advice which was given to me by you will be followed by me. Passive voice is preferable in the following instances: A: when the doer of the action is unimportant and inconsequential. B: when the agent is vague or unknown. C: when the agent is to be especially emphasized. 57 (3) Climatic order it is the order that goes from the least important to the most important or that goes from the general to the specific. • Unemphatic: she was kind-hearted, good –looking, and well-mannered. • Note: • The opposite of climatic order results in anticlimax. it is often used deliberately for humorous effects. • E.g. at one fell swoop, he lost his wife, his child, his household goods, and his dog. 58 英语 写作 教程 (4) rhetorical question A rhetorical question differs from an ordinary question in that it does not need an answer, it is used for emphasis. The rhetorical question is often reserved for special occasion to exert its great force. A positive rhetorical question is like a strong negative statement, while a negative rhetorical question is like a strong positive statement. E.g. Is that the reason for despair? If winter comes, can spring be far behind? (5) The balanced sentence The balanced sentence, by positioning together two or more parallel items, makes for poignancy and emphasis. E.g. Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact man. ----Francis Bacon: “Of Studies” 60 III. The kinds of sentences 1. Grammatically In structure: (1) a simple sentence (2) a compound sentence (3) a complex sentence (4) a compound-complex sentence In function: (1) declarative (2) interrogative (3) imperative (4) exclamatory 61 Rhetorically Loose Sentence Periodic sentence The balance sentence The cumulative sentence The anticlimactic sentence Rhetorical question 62 2. The usage of each sentence patterns (1) the simple sentence The simple sentence consists of one independent clause with no dependent clause. e.g. The storm is over. Note: the simple sentence does not mean to express a single idea, in fact it can carry a lot of information at the level of phrase. e.g. They did not know any of the people they passed on their way to and from their room. Rhetorically, the simple sentence can be made complex in form and in content . 63 The complexity of simple sentence involves the modification A. Pre-modification The tall, thin, sickly-looking man (adj.) The college administration building (n.) A day-by-day arrangement (adverb phrase) A do-it-yourself book (sentence) 64 B. Post-modification a. Skill in writing ( prepositional phrase) b. skill to survive (infinitive phrase) c. skill requiring speed (participle—ing phrase) d. skill learned at school (participle—ed phrase) e. skill which requires speed (restrictive attributive clause) skill ,which requires speed (attributive clause) 65 C. Apposition (a) Equivalence 1 the general manager, Tom Jones (appellation) 2 a general manager, Tom Jones (identification) 3 Tom Jones, the general manager (designation) 4 the PLA or the People’s Liberation Army (rewording) (b) attribution The captain, an old man The young woman, the victim of the gang assault 66 (C) Inclusion 1. large cities, such as (like) Shanghai, New York and Hong Kong 2. famous novelists, for example Dickens and Hardy 3. Chinese food, particularly Sichuan cuisine. 4. Children, especially very young children (particularization) (D) appositive clause 67 (2) Compound Sentence A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses with no dependent clause. E.g. the storm is over, but the ground is still wet. The independent clauses in A compound sentence are of equal status i.e. they are paratactic in relationship. It is also called multiple sentence. The evening came, and the work went on. (sequential) The evening came, but the work went on. (contrastive) You could work on, or you could go home. (alternative) 68 (3) Complex Sentence A complex sentence consists of one independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. E.g. Although the storm is over, the ground is still wet. A complex sentence makes clear the logical relationship between events or ideas through subordination. 69 (4) Compound –Complex Sentence Compound –Complex Sentence consists of two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. E.g. Although the storm is over, the ground is still wet; we cannot go for walk. 70 Loose sentence A loose sentence is the one that may be brought to a grammatical close before the end is reached. It puts the main idea before all supplementary information. e.g. she was interested in music, but she finally came to this institute to study English. 71 Periodic Sentence A periodic sentence is the one that is grammatically close before the end is reached. It puts the main idea after all supplementary information. e.g. Though she was interested in music, she finally came to this institute to study English. 72 Chapter 4 Developing Paragraphs I. General Introduction to Paragraph: 1.In form: set off by indentation or spacing 2. In content: closely-related sentences… 73 II. Typical structure of paragraph Topic Sentence Supporting Details Closing Sentence 74 Topic sentence What is the topic sentence? The topic sentence is the first sentence in a paragraph. What does it do? It introduces the main idea of the paragraph. How do I write one? Summarize the main idea of your paragraph. Indicate to the reader what your paragraph will be about. 75 Supporting sentences What are supporting sentences? They come after the topic sentence, making up the body of a paragraph. What do they do? They give details to develop and support the main idea of the paragraph. How do I write them? You should give supporting facts, details, and examples. 76 Closing sentence What is the closing sentence? The closing sentence is the last sentence in a paragraph. What does it do? It restates the main idea of your paragraph. How do I write one? Restate the main idea of the paragraph using different words. 77 Example There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries in the world. First, Canada has an excellent health care system. All Canadians have access to medical services at a reasonable price. Second, Canada has a high standard of education. Students are taught by well-trained teachers and are encouraged to continue studying at university. Finally, Canada's cities are clean and efficiently managed. Canadian cities have many parks and lots of space for people to live. As a result, Canada is a desirable place to live. 78 III. Requirements for paragraph writing 1. (1) (2) (3) (4) Unity Singleness of purpose Fullness Brevity Topic sentence 79 Requirements for paragraph writing 2. Coherence (1)Ways of developing paragraph (2) Transition 80 Ways of developing paragraph Definition Paragraph Classification Paragraph Description Paragraph Compare and Contrast Paragraph Sequence Paragraph Choice Paragraph Explanation Paragraph Evaluation Paragraph 81 Requirements for paragraph writing 3.Emphasis (1)Proportion (2)Position (3)Climatic order (4)Repetition and parallelism 82 Chapter 5 Summarizing A summary is a brief , concise restatement of the main facts or points of a passage or a book. It is different from a composition in that it does not express the writer’s but someone else’s ideas. 83 Requirements for summary writing generally a summary should not be longer than a third of the length of the original passage. it should be faithful to the original, with no change in facts or views, and no important points left out. it should be written in continuous prose, not in the form of an outline. 84 Procedures reading writing omitting the details reducing the examples simplifying the descriptions eliminating all repetition making phrases do the work of clauses or sentences using general words instead of specific words using the shortest possible transitions avoiding figurative language revision 85 Chapter 6 Essay Writing I. Basic Organization Introduction (beginning) Body (middle) Conclusion (end) 86 Introduction Paragraph What is an introduction paragraph? What does it do? How do I write one? E.g. Hockey has been a part of life in Canada for over 120 years. It has evolved into an extremely popular sport watched and played by millions of Canadians. The game has gone through several changes since hockey was first played in Canada. 87 Supporting Paragraphs What are supporting paragraphs? Supporting paragraphs make up the main body of your essay What do they do? They develop the main idea of your essay. How do I write them? 1. List the points that develop the main idea of your essay. 2. Place each supporting point in its own paragraph. 3. Develop each supporting point with facts, details, and examples. 88 Summary Paragraph What is a summary paragraph? What does it do? How do I write one? Example: Overall, the changes that occurred in hockey have helped to improve the game. Hockey is faster and more exciting as a result of changes in the past 120 years. For these reasons, modern hockey is a better game than hockey in the 1890s. 89 II. Steps Essay writing Prewriting Essays Writing Essays Editing Essays Publishing Essays 90 III. Types of outlines A topic outline uses words or phrases for all entries and uses no punctuation after entries. Advantages: presents a brief overview of work and is generally easier and faster to write than a sentence outline. A sentence outline uses complete sentences for all entries and uses correct punctuation. Advantages: presents a more detailed overview of work including possible topic sentences and is easier and faster for writing the final paper. 91 IV. Types of Writing 92 Narration 1. What is narration? The method of development in which the writer tells a story to support a point. Narrative writing tells a story. In essays the narrative writing could also be considered reflection or an exploration of the author's values told as a story. The author may remember his or her past, or a memorable person or event from that past, or even observe the present. 93 2．Essential Features Context--the writer makes clear what happened, when, where, and to whom Point of view--the writer takes a consistent point of view in relation to the action, writing either as a participant (first person -- using "I") or as a spectator (third person -- using "he," "she," "it," "they"). Selection of detail--the writer focuses only on the actions and details that further the story and promote the point, minimizing or eliminating others. Organization--the writer organizes the events of the story in a chronological order using time transitions. Purpose—there's a reason for telling the story. One way to find it is to complete the statement, "The moral of the story is..." 94 Chapter 7 Writing for Practical Purposes 95 Notices Contemporary British Theatre Speaker: Prof. Bernard Holland Professor of English Literature, Cambridge University Author of The Experimental Theatre Date: Monday, 6 October Time: 10 a.m. Place: Rm.201 All Welcome 96 Notes of introduction 2 Feb.2006 Dear Mr. Smith, This is to introduce Mr. Ma Ming. He is a graduate student in linguistics at our university. Mr. Ma is looking for a teaching assistant’s post. Any assistance rendered him would be highly appreciated. Jones 97 Thank-you Notes 28 July,2005 Dear Pam & Sam, I’m writing to thank you for the lovely dinner yesterday. We enjoyed the evening greatly. It was most kind of you to introduce some new friends to us. We loved to meet those interesting people. Please accept our warmest thanks. Cathy 98 Notes of invitation 20March,2005 Dear Helen, We are going to have an English evening in our classroom this coming Saturday. The time is 7:00pm. Would it be possible for you to join us? We would be very happy if you could be with us. Drop me a line if you are interested. Yours, Jianhua 99 Notes of Appointment 15 May,20__ Dear Sydney, I’d like to discuss with you about our new project. Could we meet for about an hour at the Cooper’s on Monday afternoon at 3 o’clock? If you are otherwise engaged, please ring me to make another time. Thank you. Paul 100 Notes of Congratulation August 8,20____ Dear Rosemary, The news of your music scholarship to the University made my day. No one could have been more deserving. How exciting it must be for to realize your dream after all those years of faithful practice and proficient performance. Your diligence combined with your innate talents indicates a dynamic future. I wish you all the best in your college years. Kate 101 Notes of Apologies 4 October,20__ Dear Betty, I’m terribly sorry I failed to meet you in your office yesterday afternoon. One of my friends got injured in a car accident, so I had to send him to hospital and looked after him all night. I should have called to tell you, but I was rather busy then. Do please forgive me. Peter John 102 Chapter7 Manuscript Form and Punctuation A.L. is the son of Mrs. R.W. and a high school graduate. When the burglar was arrested, he had several Mercedes, a yacht and $250,000 in cash stashed under his mistress. 103 I. Punctuating Compound Sentences 1.A comma is used in a compound sentence of which the clause are joined by a conjunction. --He bought a red evening dress, and he gave it to his wife for her birthday. 104 I. Punctuating Compound Sentences 2. Use a semicolon before independent clauses. (1) when they are not joined by the coordinating conjunction such as “as, and, but, for, or, nor”. --Smoking is dangerous in the woods; it may result in a fire. (2) When they are joined by such connectives as:“for example, nevertheless, otherwise, that is, besides, therefore, accordingly, however, also, consequently, hence, still, stead, thus”. The section after the semicolon expresses ideas which a stage further the thought in the proceeding section. --I waited for him; therefore, I saved him a seat. (3)when there are commas within the clauses, that is, when the clauses are internally punctuated by commas. --The travel agency, the first one to open in our city, offered special tours at reduced rates to any city within the province, and some cities in neighboring provinces to newly weds, and groups organized by peasants associations and workers unions; and within three weeks over 1,000 people bought tickets. 105 I. Punctuating Compound Sentences 3. Use a semicolon or a colon between impendent clauses when the second clause explain or restates the idea in the first. --Exposure to the sun will not cause these drape to fade: they are made of a color-fast synthetic material. 4. when a compound sentence is very short, a comma before the conjunction is not essential. --The thunder roared and the lightning flashed. 106 II. Punctuating Series 1.place a comma after each item in a series except the last one. ----They sent books for son, records for the daughter, and a set of dishes for parents. 2.If all of the items in a series are connected by “and” or“or”, do not use commas. --They telephoned Ruth and Alice and Jane. 3. Do not use a comma before the final adjective in a series if the adj, is thought of as part of the noun. --It was a hot , humid, bright August day. 107 II. Punctuating Series 4. Short independent clauses in a series may be separated by commas. --We worked, we swan, we read, we slept, and we saw the summer pass by too quickly. 5. use a colon before a series of appositives ,or a series of any kind introduced by such words as “the following” or “as follows” --They locked the cabin and carried in our furniture: a couch, four chairs, a table, and two beds. 6. Use a semicolon between items in a series if the items contain internal commas. --Three men were selected to the board of directors: Arthur Crane, an insurance executive; Geogore Blakeley, the owner of a lumber mill’ and Fred Blankenship, the manager a department store chain. 108
