In a species that reproduces sexually, is an attraction, usually, to other members of the same species for sexual or erotic activity. This type of attraction often occurs amongst individuals of a sexually-reproducing species, although in many species it serves no immediate reproductive goal – indeed, some sexual behavior among primates is undertaken as a social activity. PeopleNology Gregory Bodenhamer Nollijy University Research GregoryBodenhamer@Live.com
sexual attraction
Certain aspects of what is sexually attractive to humans may differ amongst particular cultures or regions. Influencing factors may be determined more locally among sub-cultures, across sexual fields, or simply by the preferences of the individual. These preferences come about as a result of a complex variety of genetic, psychological, and cultural factors. The sexual attraction of one person to another depends on both people.
Human sexual attractiveness Physical attractiveness
Much of human sexual attractiveness is governed by physical attractiveness. This involves the impact one's appearance has on the senses, especially in the beginning of a relationship: • Visual perception (how the other looks and acts); • Olfaction (how the other smells, naturally or artificially; the wrong smell may be repellent); • Audition (how the other's voice and/or movements sound). Sexual attraction in animals See also: Mating system As with other animals, pheromones may also enter into the picture, though less significantly. Theoretically, the "wrong" pheromone may cause someone to be disliked, even when they would otherwise appear attractive. Frequently a pleasant smelling perfume is used to encourage the member of the opposite sex to more deeply inhale the air surrounding its wearer[citation needed], increasing the probability that the pheromones from the individual will also be inhaled. The importance of pheromones in human relationships is probably limited and is widely disputed,[1] although it appears to have some scientific basis.[2]
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Other aspects Many people exhibit high levels of sexual fetishism, and are sexually stimulated by other stimuli not normally associated with sexual arousal. The degree to which such fetishism exists or has existed in different cultures is controversial. See also • Attraction trigger • Erotic capital • Human height • Human physical appearance • Interpersonal attraction • Lookism • Physical attractiveness • Semiotics of Ideal Beauty • Sexual arousal • Sex in advertising • Sexual dimorphism • Sexual field • Sexual selection In psychology, visual perception is the ability to interpret information from visible light reaching the eyes. The resulting perception is also known as eyesight, sight or vision. The various physiological components involved in vision are referred to collectively as the visual system. Hermann von Helmholtz is often credited with the first study of visual perception in modern times. Helmholtz examined the human eye and concluded that it was, optically, rather poor. The poor quality information gathered via the eye seemed to him to make vision impossible. He therefore concluded that vision could only be the result of some form of unconscious inferences: a matter of making assumptions and conclusions from incomplete data, based on previous experiences. Inference requires prior experience of the world: examples of well-known assumptions based on visual experience - are: • light comes from above • objects are normally not viewed from below • faces are seen (and recognized) upright [4] PeopleNology Gregory GregoryBodenhamer@Live.com Bodenhamer Nollijy University Research
The study of visual illusions (cases when the inference process goes wrong) has yielded
much insight into what sort of assumptions the visual system makes. Another type of the unconscious inference hypothesis (based on probabilities) has recently been revived in so-called Bayesian studies of visual perception. Proponents of this approach consider that the visual system performs some form of Bayesian inference to derive a perception from sensory data. Models based on this idea have been used to describe various visual subsystems, such as the perception of motion or the perception of depth Olfaction (also known as olfactics or smell) refers to the sense of smell. This sense is mediated by specialized sensory cells of the nasal cavity of vertebrates, and, by analogy, sensory cells of the antennae of invertebrates. For air-breathing animals, the olfactory system detects volatile or, in the case of the accessory olfactory system, fluid-phase chemicals. For water-dwelling organisms, e.g., fish or crustaceans, the chemicals are present in the surrounding aqueous medium. Olfaction, along with taste, is a form of chemoreception. The chemicals themselves which activate the olfactory system, generally at very low concentrations, are called odors PeopleNology Gregory GregoryBodenhamer@Live.com Bodenhamer Nollijy University Research
Hearing (or audition) is one of the traditional five senses. It is the ability to perceive sound by detecting vibrations via an organ such as the ear. The inability to hear is called deafness. In humans and other vertebrates, hearing is performed primarily by the auditory system: vibrations are detected by the ear and transduced into nerve impulses that are perceived by the brain (primarily in the temporal lobe). Like touch, audition requires sensitivity to the movement of molecules in the world outside the organism. Both hearing and touch are types of mechanosensation An attraction trigger is part of the sexual selection system of animals. It is a biological switch that turns on in the presence of legitimate replication value. The triggers vary between men and women. Men's attraction triggers are keyed to respond to attributes such as specific hip-to-waist ratios, breast shape and size, facial and body symmetry, and other indicators of youth and health. Women's triggers are set to respond to attributes such as preselection (in which a woman is attracted to a man whom other women are demonstrating attraction toward); confidence; health and fitness; etc Erotic capital is power possessed by an individual as a result of their sexual attractiveness to others. It is one among other species of capital, including social capital, symbolic capital, and cultural capital. The concept has been systematically developed by sociologist Dr. Adam Isaiah Green (University of Toronto), who builds on Pierre Bourdieu's (1980) concept of capital. Green defines erotic capital as the quality and quantity of attributes that an individual possesses which elicit an erotic response in another. Some of these attributes may be classified as natural, immutable attributes (e.g., height, skin shade), while others can be acquired (e.g., body sculpting through breast augmentation surgery and liposuction, enhanced musculature through bodybuilding, or a makeover of wardrobe and hair style). Erotic capital is
interconvertible with other forms of capital, as when actors parlay erotic capital into financial capital or social capital. There is no single hegemonic form of erotic capital. On the contrary, currencies of erotic capital are quite variable, acquiring a hegemonic status in relation to the erotic preferences of highly specialized audiences that distinguish one sexual field Variations in the physical appearance of humans, known as human looks, are believed by anthropologists to be an important factor in the development of personality and social relations in particular physical attractiveness. There is a relatively low sexual dimorphism between human males and females in comparison with other mammals. However humans are acutely sensitive to variations in physical appearance, some theorize for reasons of evolution. Some differences in human appearance are genetic, others are the result of age or disease, and many are the result of personal adornment. Some people have traditionally linked some differences in personal appearance such as skeletal shape with race, such as prognathism or elongated stride (but this is a controversial and sensitive matter). Different cultures place different degrees of emphasis on physical appearance and its importance to social status and other phenomena Interpersonal attraction (known as biological attraction in animals) is the attraction between people which leads to friendships and romantic relationships. The study of interpersonal attraction is a major area of study in social psychology. In a colloquial sense, interpersonal attraction is related to how much we like, love, dislike, or hate someone. Interpersonal attraction can be thought of as a force acting between two people tending to draw them together, and resisting their separation. According to a personality psychologists' view, interpersonal attraction is a person's qualities that tend to attract by appealing to another person's desires.[1] When measuring interpersonal attraction, one must refer to the qualities of the attracted as well as the qualities of the attractor to achieve predictive accuracy. It is suggested that to determine attraction, personality and situation must be taken into account. Repulsion is also a factor in the process of interpersonal attraction, one's conception of "attraction" to another can vary from extreme attraction to extreme repulsion Many factors leading to interpersonal attraction have been studied. The most frequently studied are: Physical attractiveness Propinquity Familiarity Similarity Complementarity Reciprocal liking Reinforcement [edit] Similarity The notion of “birds of a feather flock together” points out that similarity is a crucial determinant of interpersonal attraction. According to Morry’s attraction-similarity model (2007), there is a lay belief that people with actual similarity produce initial attraction.
Perceived similarity develops for someone to rate others as similar to themselves in on-going relationship. Such perception is either self-serving (friendship) or relationship-serving (romantic relationship). Newcomb (1963) pointed out that people tend to change perceived similarity to obtain balance relationship. Additionally, perceived similarity was found to be greater than actual similarity in predicting interpersonal attraction. PeopleNology Gregory GregoryBodenhamer@Live.com Bodenhamer Nollijy University Research
[edit] Similarity in different aspects Findings suggest that interpersonal similarity and attraction are multidimensional constructs (Lydon, Jamieson & Zanna, 1988), in which people are attracted to others who are similar to them in demographics, physical appearance, attitudes, interpersonal style, social and cultural background, personality, interests and activities preferences, and communication and social skills. A study conducted by Theodore Newcomb (1961) on college dorm roommates suggested that individuals with shared background, majors, attitudes, values, and political views became friends. • Physical appearance The matching hypothesis proposed by Goffman (1952) suggests why people become attracted to their partner. It claims that people are more likely to form long standing relationships with those who are equally physically attractive as they are. The study by Walster and Walster (1969) supported the matching hypothesis by showing that partners who were similar in terms of physical attractiveness expressed the most liking for each other. Murstein (1972) also found evidence that supported the matching hypothesis: photos of dating and engaged couples were rated in terms of attractiveness. A definite tendency was found for couples of similar attractiveness to date or engage. • Attitudes According to the ‘law of attraction’ by Byrne (1971), attraction towards a person is positively related to the proportion of attitudes similarity associated with that person. Clore (1976) also raised that the one with similar attitudes as yours was more agreeable with your perception of things and more reinforcing s/he was, so the more you like him/her. Based on the cognitive consistency theories, difference in attitudes and interests can lead to dislike and avoidance (Singh & Ho, 2000; Tan & Singh, 1995) whereas similarity in attitudes promotes social attraction (Byrne, London & Reeves, 1968; Singh & Ho, 2000). Miller (1972) pointed out that attitude similarity activates the perceived attractiveness and favorability information from each other, whereas dissimilarity would reduce the impact of these cues. The studies by Jamieson, Lydon and Zanna (1987, 1988) showed that attitude similarity could predict how people evaluate their respect for each other, and social and intellectual first impressions which in terms of activity preference similarity and value-based attitude similarity respectively. In intergroup comparisons, high attitude similarity would lead to homogeneity among in-group members whereas low attitude similarity would lead to diversity among in-group members, promoting social attraction and achieving high group performance in different tasks (Hahn & Hwang, 1999). Although attitudinal
similarity and attraction are linearly related, attraction may not contribute significantly to attitude change (Simons, Berkowitz & Moyer, 1970) • Social and cultural background Byrne, Clore and Worchel (1966) suggested people with similar economic status are likely to be attracted to each other. Buss & Barnes (1986) also found that people prefer their romantic partners to be similar in certain demographic characteristics, including religious background, political orientation and socio-economic status. PeopleNology Gregory GregoryBodenhamer@Live.com Bodenhamer Nollijy University Research
• Personality Researchers have shown that interpersonal attraction was positively correlated to personality similarity (Goldman, Rosenzweig & Lutter, 1980). People inclined to desire romantic partners who are similar to themselves on agreeableness, conscientiousness, extraversion, emotional stability, openness to experience (Botwin, Buss, & Shackelford, 1997), and attachment style (Klohnen & Luo, 2003). • Interests and activities Activity similarity was especially predictive of liking judgments, which affects the judgments of attraction (Lydon, Jamieson & Zanna, 1988). Lydon and Zanna (1987, 1988) claimed that high self-monitoring people were influenced more by activity preference similarity than attitude similarity on initial attraction, while low selfmonitoring people were influenced more on initial attraction by value-based attitude similarity than activity preference similarity. • Social skills According to the post-conversation measures of social attraction, tactical similarity was positively correlated with partner satisfaction and global competence ratings, but was uncorrelated with the opinion change and perceived persuasiveness measures (Waldron & Applegate, 1998). PeopleNology Gregory GregoryBodenhamer@Live.com Bodenhamer Nollijy University Research
Reasons of spouse similarity (Watson et al., 2004) Social homogamy refers to “passive, indirect effects on spousal similarity” (Watson et al., 2004, p.1034). The result showed that age and education level are crucial in affecting the mate preference. Because people with similar age study and interact more in the same form of the school, propinquity effect (i.e., the tendency of people to meet and spend time with those who share the common characteristics) plays a significant impact in spousal similarity. Convergence refers to an increasing similarity with time. Although the previous research showed that there is a greater effect on attitude and value than on personality traits, however, it is found that initial assortment (i.e., similarity within couples at the beginning of marriage), rather than convergence, plays a crucial role in explaining spousal similarity. Active assortment refers to direct effects on choosing someone similar as self in mating preferences. The data showed that there is a greater effect on political and religious attitudes
than on personality traits. A follow-up issue on the reason of the finding was raised. The concepts of idiosyncratic (i.e., different individuals has different mate preferences) and consensual (i.e., a consensus of preference on some prospective mates to others) in mate preference. The data showed that mate preference on political and religious tend to be idiosyncratic, for example, A Catholic prefers to choose the one who is a Catholic, rather than a Buddhist. Such idiosyncratic preference produces high level of active assortment which plays a vital role in affecting spousal similarity. In summary, active assortment is the most powerful in explaining spousal similarity, whereas convergence has little evidence on showing such effect. Effects of similarity on interpersonal attraction Similarity has effects on starting a relationship by initial attraction to know each other. It is showed that high attitude similarity resulted in a significant increase in initial attraction to the target person and high attitude dissimilarity resulted in a decrease of initial attraction (Gutkin, Gridley & Wendt, 1976; Kaplan & Olczak, 1971). Besides, similarity also promotes relationship commitment. Study on heterosexual dating couples found that similarity in intrinsic values of the couple was linked to relationship commitment and stability (Kurdek & Schnopp-Wyatt, 1997). Complementarity The model of complementarity explains whether "birds of a feather flock together" or "opposites attract". Studies show that complementary interaction between two partners increases their attractiveness to each other (Nowicki and Manheim, 1991). Complementary partners preferred closer interpersonal relationship than non-complementary ones (Nowicki & Manheim,1991). Couples who reported the highest level of loving and harmonious relationship were more dissimilar in dominance than couples who scored lower in relationship quality. (Markey & Markey (2007). Mathes and Moore (1985) found that people were more attracted to peers approximating to their ideal self than to those who did not. Specifically, low self-esteem individuals appeared more likely to desire a complementary relationship than high self-esteem people. We are attracted to people who complement to us because this allows us to maintain our preferred style of behavior (Markey & Markey (2007), and through interaction with someone who complements our own behavior, we are likely to have a sense of self-validation and security (Carson, 1969). Similarity or Complementarity? Principles of similarity and complementarity seem to be contradictory on the surface (Posavac, 1971; Klohnen & Mendelsohn, 1998). In fact, they agree on the dimension of warmth. Both principles state that friendly people would prefer friendly partners. (Dryer & Horowitz, 1997) The importance of similarity and complementarity may depend on the stage of the relationship. Similarity seems to carry considerable weight in initial attraction, while complementarity assumes importance as the relationship develops over time (Vinacke, Shannon, Palazzo, Balsavage, et-al, 1988). Markey (2007) found that people would be more satisfied with their relationship if their partners differed from them, at least, in terms of
dominance, as two dominant persons may experience conflicts while two submissive individuals may have frustration as neither member take the initiative. Perception and actual behavior might not be congruent with each other. There were cases that dominant people perceived their partners to be similarly dominant, yet in the eyes of independent observers, the actual behavior of their partner was submissive, in other words, complementary to them (Dryer1997). Why do people perceive their romantic partners to be similar to them despite evidence to the contrary? The reason remains unclear, pending further research. PeopleNology Gregory GregoryBodenhamer@Live.com Bodenhamer Nollijy University Research
Social Exchange Theory People's feelings toward a potential partner are dependent on their perception of rewards and costs, the kind of relationships they deserve, and their likelihood for having a healthier relationship with someone else. Rewards are the part of a relationship that makes it worthwhile and enjoyable. A cost is something that can cause irritation like a friend overstaying his welcome. Comparison level is also taken into account during a relationship. This suggests that people expect rewards or costs depending on the time invested in the relationship. If the level of expected rewards are minimal and the level of costs is high, the relationship suffers and both parties may become dissatisfied and unhappy. Lastly, the comparison of alternatives means that satisfaction is conditional on the chance that a person could replace the relationship with a more desirable one. Attraction = Friendship Warren Kubitschek and Maureen Hallinan, University of Notre Dame, social psychologists who suggested that attraction is the result of the propinquity and similarity effects and the status of each party involved. Their study was about the tracking program that organizes students according to their level of ability to learn. This is mostly implemented in middle and almost all of high school. Their goal is to prove that students on the same track have a higher probability of becoming friends compared to those in different tracks according. Other organizational based groupings should also follow these factors. The propinquity effect creates an ideal environment where students are in close physical proximity with each other and have the chance to build familiarity that leads to friendship. Similarity in tracking students is important because they found that track students tend to become friends with others who have the same academic achievement and expectations as themselves. They also found that students on the same level of status concerning grades will likely name them than those who are on lower level than their own. They conclude that although the factors mentioned do have great influence on friendship, they are not exclusive for organized program like tracking. Attraction = Romantic Relationship The triangular theory of love by Robert Sternberg is based on commitment. Consummate love being the strongest type of love aspects: intimacy+passion+commitment. The idea of this theory is one component alone or any combination of the three parts: commitment.
intimacy, passion, and which consists of three that love can consist of intimacy, passion, and
There are many factors taken into account when a relationship turns into love. One big factor is culture. This is a common issue among two people who come from very different cultural backgrounds. In a study done by Phillip Shavers and his colleagues, they interviewed participants from different parts of the world and found that love has "similar and different meanings cross-culturally. The Chinese participants had several different love concepts such as "sorrow-love","tenderness-pity", and "sorrow-pity". This ties into another study done by Rothbaym and his partner Tsang in 1998 in which they researched popular love songs from American and Chinese artists. The difference was that the Chinese love songs "had significantly more references to suffering and to negative outcomes than the American love songs". This may be due to beliefs that interpersonal relationships are predestined, and thus have no control over love lives. Evolutionary theories The evolutionary theory of human interpersonal attraction states that interpersonal attraction most often occurs when someone has physical features indicating that he or she is very fertile. The only purpose of relationships is reproduction, thus people invest in partners who appear very fertile to increase the chance of their genes being passed down to the next generation. This theory has been criticized because it does not explain relationships between same-sex couples or couples who do not want children. Another evolutionary explanation suggests that fertility in a mate is of greater importance to men than to women. According to this theory, a woman places significant emphasis on a man's ability to provide resources and protection. The theory suggests that these resources and protection are important in ensuring the successful raising of the woman's offspring. The ability to provide resources and protection might also be sought because the underlying traits are likely to be passed on to male offspring. Evolutionary theory also suggests that people whose physical features suggest they are healthy are seen as more attractive. The theory suggests that a healthy mate is more likely to possess genetic traits related to health that would be passed on to offspring. People's tendency to consider people with facial symmetry more attractive than those with less symmetrical faces is one example. Although a test was conducted that found that perfectly symmetrical faces were less attractive than normal faces. PeopleNology Gregory GregoryBodenhamer@Live.com Bodenhamer Nollijy University Research
It has also been suggested that people are attracted to faces similar to their own. Case studies have revealed that when a photograph of a woman was superimposed to include the features of a man's face, the man whose face was superimposed almost always rated that picture the most attractive. This theory is based upon the notion that we want to replicate our own features in the next generation, as we have survived thus far with such features and have instinctive survival wishes for our children. Another (non-evolutionary) explanation given for the results of that study was that the man whose face was superimposed may have consciously or unconsciously associated the photographically altered female face with the face of his mother or other family member. Breaking Up
Breaking up is the ending of a relationship whether its a friendship or romantic relationship. There are several reasons that a relationship may come to an end. One reason derives from the equity theory (rewards and costs are equal to both parties), if a person in the relationship feels that the costs of them being in the relationship outweigh the rewards there is a strong chance they will end the relationship, this also may go for the rewards outweighing costs in some cases. • • • • • • • •
Dating Human bonding Infatuation Limerence Love (scientific views) Platonic love Puppy love (crush) Seduction
Lookism is discrimination against or prejudice towards others based on their appearance. The term is not in widespread use, though it appears in major English language dictionaries.[1] Lookism has received scholarly attention both from a cultural studies and an economics perspective.[2] In the former context, lookism relates to preconceived notions of beauty and cultural stereotyping based on appearance as well as gender roles and expectations. Important economic considerations include the question of income gaps based on looks, as well increased or decreased productivity from workers considered beautiful or ugly by their co-workers ethics values business integrity web skills hr mba coaching quotes powerpoint inspiration teaching development learning self-improvement training 2.0 management ebook free leadership vision mission book little leadership leader peoplenology Gregory Bodenhamer women sex nudity sexual passion free ebook download psychology teamwork compliance service value growth revenue seminars workbooks management operations peopletopia peopletopia nollijy university evolution biology science principles techniques secrets fortune 100 warehouse distribution fulfillment simulations presentations art vintage antique classic expert Physical attractiveness is the perception of the physical traits of an individual human person as pleasing or beautiful. It can include various implications, such as sexual attractiveness and physique. Judgment of attractiveness of physical traits is partly universal to all human cultures, partly dependent on culture or society or time period, and partly a matter of individual subjective preference. Despite the existence of universally agreed upon signs of beauty in both genders, both heterosexual and homosexual men tend to place significantly higher value on physical appearance in a partner than women do.[1] This can be explained by evolutionary psychology as a consequence of ancestral humans who selected partners based on secondary sexual characteristics, as well as general indicators of fitness (for example,
symmetrical features) enjoying greater reproductive success as a result of higher fertility in those partners, although a male's ability to provide resources for offspring was probably signalled less by physical features.[1] There appear to be universal standards regarding attractiveness, such that raters agree who is and isn't attractive both within and across cultures and ethnicity.[2] PeopleNology Gregory GregoryBodenhamer@Live.com Bodenhamer Nollijy University Research
Physical attractiveness can have a significant effect on how people are judged, in terms of employment or social opportunities, friendship, sexual behavior, and marriage.[3] In many cases, humans attribute positive characteristics, such as intelligence and honesty, to attractive people without consciously realizing it. Physical attractiveness is distinct from sexual attraction; humans often regard children and young individuals—both human and animal—as being highly attractive for various reasons, but without sexual attract Research has found that male physiques with slim waists are rated as being attractive, particularly by females.[4] Participants also identified physiques with relatively broad shoulders as being attractive. In addition, chest muscularity resulted in slightly higher attractiveness ratings.[4] Preference can also emerge for muscularity, though research has shown that Western men have a tendency to overestimate the amount of muscle considered ideal by women by as much as thirty pounds, whereas Asian men collectively do not exhibit such a misconception.[5] A normal level of the hormone testosterone is a possible indicator of good sexual health. In the absence of normal testosterone levels, a man may exhibit physical symptoms of less muscle development and physical height reduction. A near-universal sexually attractive feature of a man is a v-shaped torso: a relatively narrow waist offset with broad shoulders. While some cultures prefer their males huskier and others leaner, the rule of a v-shaped torso generally holds true. Consistently, men with a waist-toshoulder ratio of 0.75 or lower are viewed as considerably more attractive than men with more even waists and shoulders. [6] PeopleNology Gregory GregoryBodenhamer@Live.com Bodenhamer Nollijy University Research
It has been shown that women prefer more masculine men during the fertile period of the menstrual cycle and more feminine men during other parts of the cycle.[7] This distinction supports the sexy son hypothesis, which posits that it is evolutionarily advantageous for women to select potential fathers who are traditionally masculine rather than the best caregivers.[8] Masculine facial features are characterized by a strong brow, a larger nose, a high forehead[citation needed] and a broad jaw whereas feminine features are less pronounced. Female's sexual attraction towards a male can be partly determined by the height of the man.[9] Women seem more receptive to an erect posture than men, though both prefer it as an element of beauty; this fact appears correlated to the preference for males who demonstrate confidence, physical strength, and a powerful bearing. This preference can be explained by evolutionary psychology as the fact that ancestral women who were attracted to
tall, physically powerful men benefited from better protection and therefore gained evolutionary fitness.[10] Additionally, height in men is associated with status in many cultures, which is beneficial to women romantically involved with them.[10] Cosmopolitan Magazine published an article stating that women are most attracted to men who are 1.1 times their own height. In addition, it was found that women have these different preferences for height depending on the phase of their menstrual cycle at the time. While women usually desire men that are at least the same height as themselves or taller, other factors also determine male attractiveness
Features such as a symmetrical face, full lips, and low waist-hip ratio, are commonly considered physically attractive when part of a female, because they are thought to indicate physical health and high fertility to a potential mate. The determinants of female physical attractiveness include those aspects that display health and fitness for reproduction and sustenance. These include correlates of fertility such as youth,[13] waist-hip ratio,[14] mid upper arm circumference,[15] body mass proportion[16] and facial symmetry.[17][18] Signals of youth Because female fecundity typically declines after the late twenties, youth is an important aspect of physical attractiveness[19]. One study across 37 cultures showed men desire, on average, a woman 2.5 years younger than themselves for a wife, with men in Nigeria and Zambia at the far extreme, desiring their wives to be 6.5 to 7.5 years younger. As men age, they also desire a larger age gap from their mates.[13] The reasons for this preference are currently debated. This preference for youth has also led to a preference of neotenic and youthful-appearing features. Full lips, clear, smooth skin, clear eyes, lustrous hair, and good muscle tone are all viewed as attractive in women.[13] Large breasts have also been shown to be attractive to men in Western societies, with the explanation that larger breasts will more explicitly show the aging process, hence an "honest" indicator of fertility.[20] PeopleNology Gregory GregoryBodenhamer@Live.com Bodenhamer Nollijy University Research
Proportion of body mass to body structure The Body Mass Index (BMI) is another important universal determinant to the perception of beauty.[16] The BMI refers to the proportion of the body mass to the body structure. However, the optimal body proportion is interpreted differently in various cultures. The Western ideal considers a slim and slender body mass as optimal while many historic cultures consider an embonpoint or plump body-mass as appealing.[21][22] Men don't seem to have evolved to hold a particular build as more attractive, but rather to be drawn to whichever build associates with social status.[22] However, it should be noted that, in the United States, women overestimate men's preferences for thinness in a mate. In one study, American women were asked to choose what their ideal build was and what they thought the build most attractive to men was. Women chose slimmer than average figures for both choices, though when American men
were independently asked to choose the female build most attractive to them, they (the men) chose figures of average build, indicating that women may be misled as to how thin men prefer women to be.[22] The attraction for a proportionate body also influences an appeal for erect posture.[23]
PeopleNology Gregory GregoryBodenhamer@Live.com Waist-hip ratio
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Notwithstanding wide cultural differences in preferences for female build, scientists have discovered that the waist-hip ratio (WHR) of any build is very strongly correlated to attractiveness across all cultures.[22] Women with a 0.7 WHR (waist circumference that is 70% of the hip circumference) are usually rated as more attractive by men from European cultures. Such diverse beauty icons as Marilyn Monroe, Sophia Loren,PeopleNology Gregory Bodenhamer Nollijy University Research GregoryBodenhamer@Live.com and the Venus de Milo all have ratios around 0.7.[24] In other cultures, preferences vary,[25] ranging from 0.6 in China,[26] to 0.8 or 0.9 in parts of South America and Africa,[27][28][29] and divergent preferences based on ethnicity, rather than nationality, have also been noted.[30][31] Height Most males exhibit a preference for females of shorter physical stature than themselves, and studies indicate that women of below average height have greater reproductive success.[32] An advantage to smaller size may be that it is be seen as more youthful, and males find pedomorphic characteristics in females attractive.[33] Another possible (but unproven) explanation is that shorter females may reach sexual maturity earlier than their taller counterparts.[32]It can also be argued that a shorter, and often generally smaller, female is more attractive to males by bringing out the traditional instincts of protection, which women of smaller stature may more easily bring out. Prototypicality as beauty Averageness Besides biology and culture, there are other factors determining physical attractiveness. The more common features a face bears, the more highly it is usually judged to be attractive. This may be a result of the familiarity of common facial features, an example of the mere exposure effect. When many faces are combined into a composite image (through computer morphing), people usually view the resulting image as more familiar, attractive, and beautiful than the faces that were combined to make the composite.[34] One interpretation is that this shows an inherent human preference for prototypicality. That is, the resultant face emerges with the salient features shared by most faces, and hence becomes the prototype. The prototypical face and features is therefore perceived as symmetrical and familiar. This may reveal an "underlying preference for the familiar and safe over the unfamiliar and potentially dangerous."[17] However, critics of this interpretation point out that compositing computer images also has the effect of removing skin blemishes such as scars, and generally softens
sharp facial features. Classical conceptions of beauty are essentially a celebration of this "prototypicality." This may show the importance of prototypicality in the judgment of beauty, and also explain the emergence of similarity of the perception of attractiveness within a community or society, which shares a gene pool. PeopleNology Gregory GregoryBodenhamer@Live.com Bodenhamer Nollijy University Research
Skin tone Another feature is skin color on the spectrum of dark to light. As with many determinants of attractiveness, there are cultural differences: lighter tones are preferred by some cultures, while in others, tanned or darker skin is preferred. For some time after the Victorian era, lighter skin was preferred, as it was considered a marker of a more "cultured" individual or "gentlewoman" who did not have to engage in outdoor labor.[citation needed] In the 20th and 21st centuries Western world, tanned skin has often been considered highly attractive for both men and women. Here, the tan has come to carry with it connotations of having an active outdoor lifestyle or frequent vacations in the sun, thus better (implied) physical health or wealth.[citation needed] In eastern parts of Asia, including Southeast Asia, this preference for lighter skin remains prevalent. In East Asia in particular, PeopleNology Gregory Bodenhamer Nollijy University Research GregoryBodenhamer@Live.com fair skin is associated with youth, since skin darkens with exposure to the sun and aging. This conflation of youth and beauty is not exclusive to East Asia, and can be linked to the phenomenon of neoteny. Thus, sales of skin whitening cosmetic products are popular in East Asia. A preference for fair skin however is not a recent development, and in China, for example, can be traced back to ancient drawings depicting women and goddesses with fair skin tones. Social effects of attractiveness A low waist-hip ratio is cross-culturally considered physically attractive when part of a female, because it is thought to indicate physical health and high fertility to a potential mate. When a person is seen as attractive or unattractive, assumptions are brought into play. Across cultures, what is beautiful is assumed to be good. Attractive people are assumed to be more extroverted, popular, and happy, and attractive people do tend to have these characteristics. However, this is probably due to self-fulfilling prophecy; from a young age, attractive people receive more attention that helps them develop these characteristics.[35][36] Physical attractiveness can have real effects. A survey conducted by London Guildhall University of 11,000 people showed that those who subjectively describe themselves as physically attractive earn more income than others who would describe themselves as less attractive.[37] People who described themselves as less attractive earned, on average, 13% less than those who described themselves as more attractive, while the penalty for being overweight was around 5%. Another study indicated that physical attractiveness in men plays
an even larger role for salary than it does for women, contributing as much as 40% to earnings.[citation needed] It is thought that these figures are similar around most of Europe, including France, Germany and Spain. It is important to note that other factors such as selfconfidence may explain or influence these findings as they are based on self-reported attractiveness as opposed to any sort of objective criteria; however, as one's self-confidence and self-esteem are largely learned from how one is regarded by their peers while maturing, even these considerations would suggest a significant role for physical appearance. Some have proposed that discrimination against or prejudice towards others based on their appearance should be referred to as Lookism. Many have asserted that certain advantages tend to come to those that are perceived as being more attractive, including the ability to get better jobs and promotions, receiving better treatment from authorities and the legal system, having more choices in romantic partners and, therefore, more power in relationships, and marrying into families with more money.[38][35][36] Both men and women use physical attractiveness as a measure of how 'good' another person is. However, in terms of sexual behavior, some studies suggest little difference between men and women. Symmetrical men and women have a tendency to begin to have sexual intercourse earlier, to have more sexual partners, to engage in a wider variety of sexual activities, and to have more one-night stands. They are also prone to infidelity and are more likely to have open relationships.[39] Symmetrical men and women are also best suited for their environment, and their physical characteristics are most likely to be inherited by future generations.[40][41][42][43] The notion of a Semiotics of Ideal Beauty examines whether there can ever be an objective measurement of beauty or whether the concept and appreciation of beauty will always remain in flux as cultures evolve and establish new standards of physical attractiveness. Some people use signs to associate themselves with the most successful groups within their society. In cultures where being overweight is considered a sign of success, health, and beauty, people modify their diet to achieve a body image reflecting the consensus of thought among those within the social group they aspire to join (e.g. in modern Ghana the popular view is that "the thicker and heavier, the richer and more attractive a woman is.").[citation needed]) PeopleNology Gregory GregoryBodenhamer@Live.com Bodenhamer Nollijy University Research
Dietary intake and relative obesity may be a result of social factors in some cultures. In other cultural circumstances, dietary intake and the variety of of available food-types may be a primary contributor to the development of a specific idealized body type. [1] The contours of the female form are partially defined by fat-deposition during puberty. Onset of puberty can be initiated by a large fat:lean mass ratio in young girls or by large amounts of dietary Vitamin C. In the Medieval and Renaissance eras, Northern European girls ate relatively Vitamin C impoverished diets. Puberty was, for them ,triggered by a large amount of body fat.This led to the development of the Junoesque figures depicted in the works of painter Peter Paul Reubens.In Southern Europe Vitamin C was easily obtained in the readily available citrus
fruits of the Mediterranean basin. As a result, girls entered puberty younger and leaner than their Northern European counterparts. Their relatively boyish figures can be seen today in paintings such as those of Sandro Boticelli. Sexual arousal for a man results in an increased blood flow to the penis, to produce an erection. In a woman, the vagina becomes lubricated in anticipation of sexual intercourse. Unlike most animals, human beings of both sexes are potentially capable of sexual arousal throughout the year; therefore, there is no human mating season. Things that precipitate human sexual arousal are colloquially known as turn-ons. Turn-ons may be physical or mental in nature. Given the right stimulation, sexual arousal in humans will typically end in an orgasm, but may be pursued for its own sake, even in the absence of an orgasm. Sexual arousal causes different physical chang PeopleNology Gregory GregoryBodenhamer@Live.com Bodenhamer Nollijy University Research
Over the past two decades, the use of increasingly explicit sexual appeals in consumeroriented print advertising has become almost commonplace. Sexuality is considered one of the most powerful tools of marketing and particularly advertising[citation needed]. Postadvertising sales response studies have shown it can be very effective for attracting immediate interest, holding that interest, and, in the context of that interest, introducing a product that somehow correlates with that interest. Further evidence comes from Gallup & Robinson, an advertising and marketing research firm which reports that in more than 50 years of testing advertising effectiveness, it has found the use of the erotic to be a significantly above-average technique in communicating with the marketplace, "...although one of the more dangerous for the advertiser. Weighted down with taboos and volatile attitudes, sex is a Code Red advertising technique ... handle with care ... seller beware; all of which makes it even more intriguing." This research has led to the popular idea that "sex sells". The use of sex in advertising can be highly overt or extremely subtle: from relatively explicit displays of sexual acts, down to the use of basic cosmetics to enhance attractive features
A sexual field is an arena of contestation whereby sexual actors compete for sexual status. The term builds on Pierre Bourdieu's (1980) concept of field and has been defined as a "set of interlocking institutions" (Martin and George 2006) and an "institutionalized matrix of relations" (Green 2005, 2008) that confers status upon sexual actors based on individual variation in erotic capital. Relative to those with an erotic capital deficit, actors in possession of erotic capital reap the rewards of the sexual field--including the ability to select desired sexual partners and the acquisition of social significance. Sexual fields are themselves distiniguished by the institutionalization of distinct "currencies of erotic capital" (Green 2005, 2008), the latter which are quite variable, acquiring a hegemonic status in relation to the preferences of highly specialized audiences. For example, Green (2005, 2008) argues that the characteristics which confer erotic capital in one field may not in
another. Thus, in a gay leather bar, a bearded, stocky White man in his late-thirties dressed in Levi's jeans and a leather jacket will possess an optimal form of erotic capital, whereas the same man in a swanky Martini bar catering to a twenty-something, high-fashion, urban gay customer base will face an erotic capital deficit. This variation in power and status occurs because a gay leather bar and a gay Martini bar are physical sites organized by the logic of two distinct sexual fields with contrasting currencies of erotic capital (Green 2005, 2008)--i.e., distinct "hegemonic systems of judgment" (Martin and George 2006). For sociological theory, the concept of the sexual field offers a framework that addresses the problem of order in the domain of modern sexual life. To the extent that sexual stratification is related to but not isomorphic with the structure of alternative fields, PeopleNology Gregory Bodenhamer Nollijy University Research GregoryBodenhamer@Live.com so the study of sexual fields cannot be subsumed to the study of an economic or political field, for example. Nevertheless, to the extent that race, class, gender, ethnicity, age and ability, among others, are organizing features of sexual status within a given sexual field, so the relationship of sexual fields to broader historical systems of stratification requires consideration (Green 2005, 2008). History of human sexuality · History of erotic depictions · Sexual revolution Sexual acts Sexual intercourse (foreplay · positions) · Oral sex · Anal sex · Anal-oral sex · Group sex · Sexual sublimation · Barebacking · Dirty talk · Facial · Fingering · Fisting · Masturbation · Handjob · Non-penetrative sex · Sumata · Quickie Physiological events PeopleNology Gregory Bodenhamer Nollijy University Research GregoryBodenhamer@Live.com Ejaculation · Erection · Insemination · Orgasm · Pregnancy · Sexual arousal Health and education Andrology · Birth control · Erectile dysfunction · Gynaecology · Hypersexuality · Safer sex · Sexual dysfunction · Sex education · Sexually transmitted disease · Urology Identity Sexual identity · Sexual orientation Law Age of consent · Obscenity · Public indecency · Rape · Sexual assault · Sexual abuse · Sexual harassment Relationships and society BDSM · Incest · Marriage · Paraphilia · Prostitution · Religion and sexuality · Romance · Sexual abstinence · Sexual attraction · Sexual ethics · Sexual objectification · Sex surrogate · Sex tourism · Abortion An aphrodisiac is an agent which is used in the belief that it increases sexual desire.[1] The name comes from Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of sensuality. Throughout history, many foods, drinks, and behaviors have had a reputation for making sex more attainable and/or pleasurable. However, from a historical and scientific standpoint, the alleged results may have been mainly due to mere belief by their users that they would be effective (i.e., the placebo effect). In particular, medical science has not substantiated claims that any particular food increases sexual desire or performance.[2] A rhinoceros horn, falsely believed by some to have aphrodisiac properties. (In fact, however, the particular Chinese medicine shown in the picture is not an aphrodisiac but an antipyretic.) Some aphrodisiacs gain their reputation from the principles of sympathetic magic, for
example oysters, due to their shape. The same factor explains the trade in the phallic-looking horn of the rhinoceros, a trade which is seriously endangering the animal. Other animalbased aphrodisiacs gain their reputation from the apparent virility or aggressiveness of the animal source, such as tiger penis (a reputation which is similarly endangering to that species).
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Baby face is a quality of human facial appearance. It is the retention of juvenile facial features through puberty and adulthood. These visual facial features are: • Small head • Curved forehead • Facial elements (eyes, nose, mouth) located relatively low • Large, round eyes • Small, short nose • Round cheeks • Small chin Psychological and social research on facial attractiveness has pointed out that the presence of childlike facial features increases attractiveness. A prototype for a "child woman" is Jean Harlow. Some researchers claim that the reason why childlike women are perceived as being more attractive, is a biological one: Evolutionary biologists argue that men have a reproductive advantage when preferring young women as mating partners since they are likely to be healthy and still having a long period of fertility ahead of them. Thus, he can have many children with young women which means that he can successfully pass on his genes to his descendants. Babyfaceness appears throughout humanity, within all human races and nationalities. But its occurrence is not uniform throughout as there is a variability in how prevalent it is. Cuteness is a kind of attractiveness commonly associated with youth and appearance, as well as a scientific concept and analytical model in ethology, first introduced by Konrad Lorenz. It is usually characterized by (though not limited to) some combination of infant-like physical traits, especially small body size with a disproportionately large head, large eyes, a small nose, dimples, and round and softer body features. Infantile personality traits, such as playfulness, fragility, helplessness, curiosity, innocence, affectionate behavior and a need to be nurtured are also generally considered cute The body mass index (BMI), or Quetelet index, is a statistical measurement which compares a person's weight and height. Though it does not actually measure the percentage of body fat, it is a useful tool to estimate a healthy body weight based on how tall a person is. Due to its ease of measurement and calculation, it is the most widely used diagnostic tool to identify obesity problems within a population. However it is not considered appropriate to use as a final indication for diagnosing individuals.[1] It was invented between 1830 and 1850 by
the Belgian polymath Adolphe Quetelet during the course of developing "social physics"[2]. Body mass index is defined as the individual's body weight divided by the square of their height. The formulas universally used in medicine produce a unit of measure of kg/m2, however in the US the imperial units lb/in2 or lb/ft2 are used: Human position refers to a position of a human body. There are several synonyms that refer to the human position, often used interchangeably, but having specific flavors.[1] • position is a general term for a configuration of the human body • posture means the intentionally or habitually assumed position • pose implies artistic or aesthetic intention of the position • attitude refers to postures assumed for purpose of imitation, intentional or not, as well as in some standard collocations in reference to some distinguished types of posture: "Freud never assumed a fencer's attitude, yet almost all took him for a swordsman."[2] • bearing refers to the manner, of the posture, as well as of gestures and other aspects of the conduct Although quiet standing appears to be static, modern instrumentation shows it to be a process of rocking from the ankle in the sagittal plane. The sway of quiet standing is often likened to the motion of an inverted pendulum. [3] There are many mechanisms in the body that are suggested to control this movement, e.g. a spring action in muscles, higher control from the nervous system or core muscles. Although standing per se isn't dangerous, there are pathologies associated with it. One short term condition is orthostatic hypotension, and long term conditions are sore feet, stiff legs and low back pain Sitting requires a more or less horizontal structure, like a chair or the ground. Special ways of sitting are with the legs horizontal, and in an inclined seat. While on a chair the shins are usually vertical, on the ground the shins may be crossed in the lotus position or be placed horizontally under the thigh in a seiza.
This is intermediate between standing and sitting, a posture with both feet flat on the ground but with knees and hips fully flexed so that the buttocks are near the heels. It may be used as a posture for resting or working at ground level when the ground is too dirty to sit or kneel; for defecation (the normal such posture in the many parts of the world that use squat toilets); or as a temporary position during lower body squat exercises
When in lying position, the body may assume a great variety of shapes and positions. The following are the basic recognized positions. • Supine: lying on the back with the face up. • Prone: lying (or laying) on the chest with the face down ("lying down", "laying down", or "going prone"). See also "Prostration". Lying on either side, with the body straight or bent/curled forward or backward. The fetal position is lying or sitting curled, with limbs close to the torso and the head close to the
knees.
Kneeling is standing not on the feet, but on one or both knees or shins approximately parallel to the ground, possibly raised to an angle depending on the position of the feet. The torso is usually upright but can be considered kneeling at other angles not touching the ground. Hanging Humans can hang in various positions. "Hanging" means a position when the support is above the center of gravity. Hanging may be both voluntary and involuntary.
Marilyn Monroe (born Norma Jeane Mortenson; baptised Norma Jeane Baker June 1, 1926 – August 5, 1962) was an American actress, singer and film producer. After spending much of her childhood in foster homes, Norma Jeane Baker began a career as a model, which led to a film contract in 1946. Her early roles were minor, but her performances in The Asphalt Jungle and All About Eve (both 1950) were well received, and as her career progressed she became known as a HYPERLINK "/wiki/Sex_symbol"sex symbol. She was praised for her comedic ability in such films as Gentlemen Prefer Blondes, How to Marry a Millionaire and The Seven Year Itch, and became one of Hollywood's most popular performers. The typecasting of Monroe's "dumb blonde" persona limited her career prospects, and she broadened her range. Her marriage to baseball player Joe DiMaggio failed. While married to playwright Arthur Miller, she studied at the Actor's Studio and formed Marilyn Monroe Productions. Her dramatic performance in Bus Stop was hailed by critics, and she won a Golden Globe Award for her performance in Some Like it Hot. The final years of Monroe's life were marked by illness, personal problems and a reputation for being unreliable and difficult to work with. The circumstances of her death, from an overdose of barbiturates, have been the subject of conjecture. Though officially classified as a "probable suicide," the possibility of an accidental overdose has not been ruled out, while conspiracy theorists argue that she was murdered. In 1999 Monroe was ranked as the sixth greatest female star of all time by the American Film Institute. Koinophilia is a term used in biology, meaning that when sexual creatures seek a mate, they prefer that mate not to have any unusual, peculiar or deviant features. Stated differently, sexual creatures prefer mates with a preponderance of common or average features. Natural selection results, over the course of generations, in beneficial (or "fit") features replacing their disadvantageous counterparts. This is the fundamental force which drives evolution, and is the major insight into Biology which immortalized Charles Darwin. Thus, natural selection causes beneficial features to become increasingly more common with each generation, while the disadvantageous features become increasingly rare. A sexual creature, therefore, wishing to mate with a fit partner, would be expected to avoid individuals sporting unusual features, while being especially attracted to those individuals displaying a predominance of common or average features. This is termed "koinophilia". It has, as an important side effect, that mates displaying mutant features (the result of a genetic mutation)
are also avoided. (The mutation causes the individual to look odd, or different.) This, in itself, is also advantageous, because the vast majority of mutations are disadvantageous. Because it is impossible to judge whether a new mutation is beneficial or not, koinophilic creatures will avoid them all with equal determination, even if this means avoiding the very occasional beneficial mutation. Thus, koinophilia, although not perfect or infallible in its ability to distinguish fit from unfit mates, remains, on average, the best strategy when choosing a mate. It will be right far more often than it will be wrong. Even when it is wrong, a koinophilic choice always ensures that the offspring will inherit a suite of thoroughly tried and tested features.
In attractiveness studies, averageness is one of the characteristics of physical beauty in which the average phenotype, i.e. outward appearance, of the individual theoretically characterizes averaged genotypes, thus indicating health and fertility. The majority of averageness studies and theories have to do with photographic overlay studies, in which images are morphed together. Other factors involved in measuring attractiveness are symmetry and youthfulness.
Beauty is a characteristic of a person, place, object or idea that provides a perceptual experience of pleasure, meaning or satisfaction. Beauty is studied as part of aesthetics,
PeopleNology Gregory Bodenhamer Nollijy University Research GregoryBodenhamer@Live.com sociology, social psychology and culture. As a cultural creation, beauty has been extremely commercialized. An "ideal beauty" is a person who is admired, or possesses features widely attributed to beauty in a particular culture. A number of historical individuals have become icons of beauty, including Cleopatra VII, Helen of Troy, and Marilyn Monroe. The subjective experience of "beauty" often involves the interpretation of some entity as being in balance and harmony with nature, which may lead to feelings of attraction and emotional well-being. "Beauty is in the eye of the beholder" is a common phrase that expresses this concept.[1] In its most profound sense, beauty may engender a salient experience of positive reflection about the meaning of one's own existence. An "object of beauty" is anything that reveals or resonates with personal meaning. The classical Greek adjective beautiful was καλλός. The Koine Greek word for beautiful was " ρα ος",[2] an adjective etymologically coming from the word " ρα" meaning hour. In Koine Greek, beauty was thus associated with "being of one's hour". A ripe fruit (of its time) was considered beautiful, whereas a young woman trying to appear older or an older woman trying to appear younger would not be considered beautiful. ρα ος in Attic Greek had many meanings, including youthful and ripe old age
Evolutionary psychology (EP) attempts to explain mental and psychological traits—such as memory, perception, or language—as adaptations, that is, as the functional products of natural selection or sexual selection. Adaptationist thinking about physiological mechanisms, such as the heart, lungs, and immune system, is common in evolutionary biology. Evolutionary psychology applies the same thinking to psychology. Evolutionary psychologists argue that much of human behavior is generated by psychological adaptations that evolved to solve recurrent problems in human ancestral environments. They hypothesize, for example, that humans have inherited special mental capacities for acquiring language, making it nearly automatic, while inheriting no capacity specifically for reading and writing. Other adaptations, according to EP, might include the abilities to infer others' emotions, to discern kin from non-kin, to identify and prefer healthier mates, to cooperate with others, and so on. Consistent with the theory of natural selection, evolutionary psychology sees organisms as often in conflict with others of their species, including mates and relatives. For example, mother mammals and their young offspring sometimes struggle over weaning, which benefits mother more than the child. Humans, however, have a marked capacity for cooperation as well. Evolutionary psychologists see those behaviors and emotions that are nearly universal, such as fear of spiders and snakes, as more likely to reflect evolved adaptations. Evolved psychological adaptations (such as the ability to learn a language) interact with cultural inputs to produce specific behaviors (e.g., the specific language learned). This view is contrary to the idea that human mental faculties are general-purpose learning mechanisms. Fields closely related to EP are animal behavioral ecology, human behavioral ecology, dual inheritance theory, and sociobiology.
Secondary sex characteristics are traits that distinguish the two sexes of a species, but
that are not directly part of the reproductive system. They are believed to be the product of sexual selection for traits which give an individual an advantage over its rivals in courtship, and aggressive interactions. They are distinguished from the primary sexual characteristics: the sex organs. Well known secondary sex characteristics include facial hairs of male lions, and long feathers of peacock. In humans, the most visible are breasts of females and beard and moustache of males. Secondary sex characteristics include the tusks of sea lions, the plumage of many male birds, the chemical indicators of many insects, etc PeopleNology Gregory GregoryBodenhamer@Live.com Bodenhamer Nollijy University Research
Sexual differentiation begins during gestation, when the gonads form. General habitus and shape of body and face, as well as sex hormone levels, are similar in prepubertal boys and girls. As puberty progresses and sex hormone levels rise, differences appear, though puberty causes some similar changes in male and female bodies. Male levels of testosterone directly induce growth of the testicles and penis, and indirectly (via dihydrotestosterone (DHT)) the prostate. Estradiol and other hormones cause breasts to develop in females. However, fetal or neonatal androgens may modulate later breast development by reducing the capacity of breast tissue to respond to later estrogen. In males, testosterone directly increases size and mass of muscles, vocal cords, and bones, deepening the voice, and changing the shape of the face and skeleton. Converted into DHT in the skin, it accelerates growth of androgen-responsive facial and body hair, but may slow and eventually stop the growth of head hair. Taller stature is largely a result of later puberty and slower epiphyseal fusion. In females, breasts are a manifestation of higher levels of estrogen; estrogen also widens the pelvis and increases the amount of body fat in hips, thighs, buttocks, and breasts. Estrogen also induces growth of the uterus, proliferation of the endometrium, and menses.
female sex characteristics In humans, secondary sex characteristics include: • Male • growth of body hair, including underarm, abdominal, chest, and pubic hair • growth of facial hair • enlargement of larynx and deepening of voice[1] • increased stature; adult males taller than adult females, on average • heavier skull and bone structure • increased muscle mass and strength • broadening of shoulders and chest; shoulders wider than hips[2] • increased secretions of oil and sweat glands, often causing acne and body odor [1] • coarsening of skin texture • a prominent Adam's apple • fat deposits mainly around the abdomen and waist[ • higher waist to hip ratio than prepubescent or adult females or prepubescent males, on average • on average, larger hands and feet than prepubescent or adult females or prepubescent males[ • lower digit ratio, on average • Female • enlargement of breasts[3] • growth of body hair, including underarm and pubic hair • vaginal and uterine growth [4] • decreased stature; adult females shorter stature than adult males, on average • widening of hips[5]; lower waist to hip ratio than adult males, on average
• • •
increased secretions of oil and sweat glands, often causing acne and body odor [1] changed distribution in weight and fat; more subcutaneous fat and fat deposits mainly around the buttocks, thighs and hips higher digit ratio, on average
The vagina provides a path for menstrual blood and tissue to leave the body. In industrial societies, tampons, menstrual cups and sanitary napkins may be used to absorb or capture these fluids. Sexual activity The concentration of the nerve endings that lie close to the entrance of a woman's vagina can provide pleasurable sensation during sexual activity, when stimulated in a way that the particular woman enjoys. During sexual arousal and particularly stimulation of the clitoris, the walls of the vagina self-lubricate, reducing friction during sexual activity. Research has found that portions of the clitoris extend into the vulva and vagina.[6] With arousal, the vagina lengthens rapidly to an average of about 4 in.(8.5 cm), but can continue to lengthen in response to pressure.[7] As the woman becomes fully aroused, the vagina tents (last ² expands in length and width) while the cervix retracts.[8] The walls of the vagina are composed of soft elastic folds of mucous membrane skin which stretch or contract (with support from pelvic muscles) to the size of the penis. With proper arousal, the vagina may stretch/contract to accommodate virtually any penis size (or sex toy/object within reason).[9][10] G-spot For more details on this topic, see G-spot. An erogenous zone referred to commonly as the G-spot is located at the anterior wall of the vagina, about five centimeters in from the entrance. Some women experience intense pleasure if the G-spot is stimulated appropriately during sexual activity. A G-Spot orgasm may be responsible for female ejaculation, leading some doctors and researchers to believe that G-spot pleasure comes from the Skene's glands, a female homologue of the prostate, rather than any particular spot on the vaginal wall.[11][12][13] Some researchers deny the existence of the G-spot.[14] Childbirth During childbirth, the vagina provides the channel to deliver the baby from the uterus to its independent life outside the body of the mother. During birth, the vagina is often referred to as the birth canal. The vagina is remarkably elastic and stretches to many times its normal diameter during vaginal birth. Sexual dimorphism (two forms) refers to the general phenomenon in which male and female forms of an organism display distinct morphological characteristics or features. Sexual dimorphism in humans is the subject of much controversy, especially relating to mental ability and psychological gender. (For a discussion, see biology of gender, sex and intelligence, gender, and transgender.) Obvious differences between men and women include all the features related to reproductive role, notably the endocrine (hormonal)
systems and their physical, psychological and behavioural effects. Such undisputed sexual dimorphism include gonadal differentiation, internal genital differentiation, external genital differentiation, breast differentiation and hair differentiation. Some biologists theorise that a species' degree of sexual dimorphism is inversely related to the degree of paternal investment in parenting. Species with the highest sexual dimorphism, such as the pheasant, tend to be those species in which the care and raising of offspring is done only by the mother, with no involvement of the father (low degree of paternal investment). This would also explain the moderate degree of sexual dimorphism in humans, who have a moderate degree of paternal investment compared to most other mammals. Biological text books state that humans have a high degree of sexual dimorphism, but closer study by science fiction writer David Brin (2004) has shown that this is not the case.[Full citation needed] Brin also published a popular essay, 'Neoteny: A Paleo-Anthropological Speculation', in 1996. Comparative and social psychologists[who?] have observed that males and females, in general, differ in the way they carry books while walking. Upon using a classification system of the five common methods of carrying books, a high percentage of females will partially cover their body with the books they are carrying, such as by holding them in front of the chest. Most males carry their books at the side of body, leaving the front uncovered (Jenni, M.A. 1976).[Full citation needed] The most common explanation of this observation is that women typically have less upper body strength than men, making it difficult to balance, and resulting in the need to rest the objects they are carrying on their bodies. Some psychologists hypothesize that it is a maternal instinct in many women causing them to carry inanimate objects in a protective manner On average, men are taller than women[1] (See sexual dimorphism). On average, men have a greater capacity for cardiovascular endurance. This is due to the enlargement of the lungs of boys during puberty, characterized by a more prominent chest. On average, men are stronger than women. This is due to a greater capacity for muscular hypertrophy as a result of men's higher levels of testosterone. Men usually have more body hair than women. Men’s skin is thicker (more collagen) and oilier (more sebum) than women’s skin[1]. Women generally have a smaller waist in comparison to their hips (see waist-hip ratio). In men, the second digit (index finger) tends to be shorter than the fourth digit (ring finger), while in females the second tends to be longer than the fourth (see digit ratio). On average women tend to have skin that is 3-4% lighter than men[citation needed]. Scientists believe this is an adaptation required for increased production of Vitamin D during pregnancy. Vitamin D is necessary to help the body absorb calcium and deposit it in the bones of fast growing embryos. By having lighter skin more of the sun's UV radiation can penetrate the skin to and increase their ability to produce vitamin D.[2] Women tend to have a lower center of gravity (shorter legs, longer torso, relative to height) and a larger hip section than men[citation needed]. Men have a more pronounced 'Adam's Apple' or thyroid cartilage due to larger vocal cords in men. Female fertility declines after age 25 and ends with the menopause.[3][4] Pregnancy in the 40s or later has been correlated with increased chance of Down's Syndrome in the children.[5] Men are capable of fathering children into old age, although very recent research points to a possible correlation between a father's age and the inclination to have children
with autism.[6] Adriana Iliescu was reported as the world's oldest woman to give birth, at age 66. Her record stood until Maria del Carmen Bousada de Lara gave birth to twin sons at Sant Pau Hospital in Barcelona, Spain on December 29, 2006, at the age of 67. In both cases IVF was used. The oldest known father was former Australian miner Les Colley, who fathered a child at age 93.[7] Men typically produce billions of sperm each month[8], many of which are capable of fertilization. Women typically produce one egg a month that can be fertilized into an embryo. Thus during a lifetime men are able to father a significantly greater number of children than women can give birth to. The most fertile woman, according to the Guinness Book of World Records, was the wife of Feodor Vassilyev of Russia (1707-1782) who had 67 surviving children. The most prolific father of all time is believed to be the last Sharifian Emperor of Morocco, Mulai Ismail (1646-1727) who reportedly fathered more than 800 children from a harem of 500 women. Women live longer than men in most countries (notable exceptions are Afghanistan and Pakistan)[3]. One possible explanation is that more men die young because of war, criminal activity, and accidents. The gap between males and females is decreasing in many developed countries as more women take up unhealthy practices that were once considered masculine like smoking and drinking[4], and more men practice healthier living. In Russia, however, the sex-associated gap has been increasing as male life expectancy declines [5]. The World Health Organization (WHO) has produced a number of reports on gender and health [6]. The following trends are shown: • Overall rates of mental illness are similar for men and women. There is no significant gender difference in rates of schizophrenia and bipolar depression. Women are more likely to suffer from unipolar depression, anxiety, eating disorders, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Men are more likely to suffer from alcoholism and antisocial personality disorder. • Worldwide, more men than women are infected with HIV. The exception is subSaharan Africa, where more women than men are infected. • Adult males are more likely to be diagnosed with tuberculosis. • Before menopause, women are less likely to suffer from cardiovascular disease. However, after age 60, the risk for both men and women is the same. • Overall, men are more likely to suffer from cancer, with much of this driven by lung cancer. In most countries, more men than women smoke, although this gap is narrowing especially among young women. • Women are twice as likely to be blind as men. In developed countries, this may be linked to higher life expectancy and age-related conditions. In developing countries, women are less likely to get timely treatments for conditions that lead to blindness such as cataracts and trachoma. • Women are more likely to suffer from osteoarthritis and osteoporosis. Anterior cruciate ligament injuries, especially in basketball, occur more often in women than in men. Certain conditions are X-linked recessive, in that the gene is carried on the X chromosome. Genetic females (XX) will have the disease only if both their X chromosomes are defective with a similar deficiency, whereas genetic males (XY) will have the disease if their only X chromosome is defective. For this reason, such conditions are far more common in males than in females. Examples of X-linked recessive conditions are color blindness, hemophilia,
and Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Females have a more sensitive sense of smell than males, both in the differentiation of odors, and in the detection of slight or faint odors. [7] Females have more sensitive hearing than males. [8] There is also indication that females are better at discerning differences in colours, while males are more aware of, and capable of discerning movement. This is further reinforced by the higher incidence of colour blindness in males. [9] Females have a higher sensitivity to pain than males in facial tissue. [10] Males have a more developed sense of direction. [11] Males have a more developed sense of spatial awareness. [12] Females' voices are usually of a higher pitch than males'. Female screams carry further than males' On average, male brains have approximately 4% more cells and 100 grams more brain tissue than females do. However, both sexes have similar brain weight to body weight ratios. Men have larger left inferior parietal lobes[13], while women have larger Wernicke's and Broca's areas [14]. Evidence of gender differences in the size of the corpus callosum is ambiguous. Women generally have faster blood flow to their brains and lose less brain tissue as they age than men do. [15] Depression and chronic anxiety are more common in women than in men, due to difference in the brain’s serotonin system