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China Lecture Introduction About 4 billion people, 60% of all people on Earth, are Asian. Implications of this (political, economic, etc.). Increasing economic and political associations with the rest of the world. Forecast: Asian Studies will become more popular as students realize the need to understand Asia. For people born in the U.S., especially of non-Asian ancestry, Asia is a remote, exotic phenomenon; little understood. Asia, especially China, is the antithesis of western civilization in many ways. Exotic, often incomprehensible nature of Asian culture to “outsiders” (smells, sights, sounds). Hollywood and classical western literature contribute to the misconceptions and superstitions with stereotypical portrayals of Asia and Asian people…Charlie Chan, war movies made in the west, Susie Wong, The Flower Drum Song, the Geisha Girl mystique, Kung Fu movies, etc. Dangerous stereotypes…portray people as “less human”, easily demonized on the eve of conflict and warfare. Courses such as this counter these misconceptions, providing valid portrayals of Asian cultures. Asia…one of the hearths of world civilization. China and India two of the oldest, continuous civilizations on Earth.
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China: over 6,000 years of continuity in several areas (subsistence, writing, family structure, etc.). China: isolated from the outside world…only two major outside influences until recently: Buddhism from India after the fall of the Han dynasty in 220 A.D. and modern western economic and political influence (especially Marxism) and more recently, capitalist incentives. Both of these introductions experienced “Sinification” in the process. Asia has greatly influenced the rest of the world in art, inventions, food, philosophy, and in many other ways. A possible pitfall in such a course…tendency to compare Asia with modern technologically advanced nations, such as the U.S. or Japan. Better to compare China‟s own past to its present for a fairer assessment of its progress. For example: the concept of “freedom”. In the U.S. “freedom of” and “freedom to”, while in China, it‟s “freedom from”. Ropp text…western perceptions of China from the past to the present. Marco Polo (1254-1325)…called “Marco Millions”. Jesuit missionary, Matteo Ricci, 1580s. History written by Gonzalez de Mendoza, 1584-5. Early writings on China in Europe and the U.S. were largely derogatory (see Ropp, Chapter 1: Charles Dickens, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Rousseau, Voltaire, Boulanger, Condorcet, Hegel,
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Marx…eventually results in the final Exclusion Act of 1904, after a decade of discriminatory legislation in the U.S.). Pearl Buck‟s novels, esp. The Good Earth, 1931, begin to reverse this trend somewhat. Some differences between East and West: 1. Larger population in China, greater population density. 2. Better climate of China 3. Chinese isolation 4. Social control, family based (over 1 million villages) 5. Massive public works, megalithic architecture. Who are the Chinese? Over 1.3 billion people. 94% Han, over 70 minorities, more than a dozen over 10 million people. Chinese government minority policies are informative regarding the value of diversity. All tied together by a national language and political unity. China is a gigantic social experiment…population control, blend of Socialism w/ capitalist incentives, hasty development (soon to be a world power), etc. What is China? “Mainland” of China, Taiwan, “Overseas” Chinese of Southeast Asia and elsewhere. We will use the PRC as China for this course unless otherwise specified. Chinese word for China (Middle Kingdom) or “Center of the Earth” (surrounded by “barbarians”). “Stagnant” civilization? No, significant developments through time, but some elements are very consistent over the years.
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Religion: An amalgam of three major belief systems. Why Study Asia? (some facts) 60% of world‟s population The rest of the world is growing at 2% per year, Asia is growing at 6% per year. By 2010, eleven of the world‟s largest populated areas will be in Asia. Asia already is the major trading partner of the U.S. 250,000 Asian students are studying in U.S. colleges or universities. Meanwhile, only 5,000 U.S. students are currently studying in Asia, Implications of this disparity? 40,000 Japanese students are studying in the U.S., but only 1,000 U.S. students are currently studying in Japan. There is a serious shortage of U.S. minorities studying Asia or Asian languages, so U.S. minorities will be severely underrepresented in the future of Asia. Geography and Cultural Ecology Size of China: 3,692,000 square miles (2nd largest nation on Earth after Canada). U.S. is third w/ 3,618,000 square miles (only 74,000 square miles different). Longitude about the same as the U.S., different weather patterns, however, and topography is decidedly different.
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Geographical isolation of China. North and West Gobi desert (called the “Dead Heart” of Asia), to the East and some of the South, the largest ocean on Earth. Also to North and West, the highest mountain range on Earth (Himalayan range). Therefore, relatively little contact w/ outside world. Most contact was from China to other areas, e.g. to Japan, Korea, Vietnam and other Southeast Asian nations. China had little impact on India, but India had great impact on China, especially Buddhism. Mountains…Himalayan range and Tibetan plateau, highest mountain on Earth, Mt. Jolmo Lungma at 29,000 feet, renamed Everest in 1852 after a British official in India. Pamir mountains border Afghanistan, Tienshan mountains in the North. Tsingling mountains divide Yellow river drainage from the Yangtze (dividing North and South China). Geographical isolation is both external and internal. 3,400 islands dot the coast, mostly in Southeast coastal area. South and Southwest gorges and rain forests of W. Yunnan, bordering Myanmar (Burma), many tropical diseases like malaria, yellow fever, and others. Great Wall in the North, over 1,400 miles long to keep the “Northern barbarians” out of China. Due to these isolating natural and human barriers, the great civilizations of Europe (Greek, Roman), the Middle East (Babylonian, Assyrian), South Asia (Harappan), Africa (Zimbabwe), and the Americas (Mayan, Aztec, Incan) were largely ignorant of China and vice-versa.
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The Relationship between Chinese society and the geographical base: Cultural Ecology…Anthropological theory of Julian H. Steward (19021972). To understand culture, examine the “culture core” of any society first (how they make their living or get food). The culture core gives rise to “secondary features” (all else of culture such as religion, family structure, arts and crafts, etc.). In China, the primary subsistence mode is agriculture since the Neolithic period (6,000 years ago). China: greatest agricultural productivity on Earth, 2 or 3 times more productive per acre than anywhere else. Intense agricultural activity necessitates strict rules of behavior to ensure cooperation and to minimize conflict (irrigation, timing of planting and harvesting, etc.). Wet rice is the second most labor intensive crop on Earth (after tobacco). My master‟s thesis…need for vast labor pools necessary for intense agriculture gave rise to the extensive kinship system. Chinese great respect for nature as reflected in art and early spirituality (animism or “folk” religion). Relate the Pan Ku creation myth. Three great river systems, all flow from higher elevations of the East to the West: Yellow river…drains North 1/4 of the country, loess soil gives its color, much silting, so dykes are higher than surrounding countryside. Traditional flooding, “China‟s Sorrow,” 3,000 miles long. Yangtze river…all of central China, 1/4 of all Chinese live along its margins and tributaries, much of it is navigable, 3,200 miles long. West river…South and Southwest drainage, empties at Hong Kong. Great benefits of the rivers…alluvium fertilizes fields at spring floods and flows, creating a naturally fertile soil.
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Water is the cheapest and only available means of transportation for bulk goods beyond local markets…rails are currently correcting this shortcoming. Coastline…many good ports, sandy shore in the North, Shanghai is the largest port, shore in the South is mountainous right to the water, but with good ports. Climate: gross climatic variation in 20 degrees of latitude, e.g. Manchuria, short summer, long, cold winters, droughts are common. South China, tropical with much vegetation and monsoons from June to August. Triple cropping, unbroken growing season year-round. Precipitation…100-400 mm in West (4-16 inches), 500-1,500 mm in East (20-100 inches) (100mm=4 inches). For comparison, New York has 42 inches/yr, while Tokyo has 60 inches/yr, and Southern California has 10-20 inches/yr. Domesticates: primarily cereals, tubers, legumes, and vegetables. Rice in the South, wheat in the North. Soybeans, kaoliang, sweet potatoes, peanuts, corn, various peppers, barley, etc. Animals: pigs (sign for home is a pig under a roof), poultry (chickens and ducks), some sheep, little beef (in NW Moslem areas), lots of fish and other seafood. Natural Resources: good coal reserves, little oil, iron ore, alimony, tin, tungsten, some fissionable ores (have nuclear weapons). Currently reforesting. Demographics: 15% urban, most of population are rural peasants living in more than a million villages.
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Prehistory Ropp reader, Chapter 2, “Early Civilizations in China…” by Keightley: comparisons w/ Mesopotamian, Greek, and Roman Civilizations are “antisinitic” (disparage China by pointing out what China “lacked”). Major differences…Chinese history is not focused on personalities like these other cultures. People are seen as part of society. A widespread assumption in the morality of leadership so we find no safeguards against absolute power within the state (the people‟s willing acceptance of hierarchy, filiality, and obedience). Extreme social stratification reflected in archeological evidence such as burial tombs and grave goods, skeletal material, and historical records. Late Neolithic scapulamancy and plastromancy (explain “oracle” bones). Shang sites such as Anyang in north Honan, thousands of such bones. Creation myths…How do the Chinese themselves account for their origin? All people have cosmological myths and they tend to reflect the basic philosophy of a people. China is no exception with the legend of P‟an Ku. (Relate the myth and show its correlation with Chinese worldview through art, philosophy, etc.). Written records in China go back to the Shang Dynasty (c. 2,000 B.C. or 4,000 B.P. or years ago). Before that time we rely on archeological evidence such as early cities, burials, skeletal material, etc. Early archeological material…most famous site is Chou-K‟ou-Tien, 26 miles sw of Beijing, found in 1918, excavated by J. Gunnar Anderssen, a Swedish mineralogical consultant to Chinese gov‟t. Remains of twenty-some individuals found in this cave, called Sinanthropus pekinensis, actually Homo erectus (2mya to c. 500kya). “Evidence” for cannibalism subsequently refuted. “Chopper” industry (see pictures in
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both blue book and in Ropp text). All artifacts lost at beginning of WWII (1937), since more was found. Neolithic sites (10kya) w/ evidence of food production such as cultivation of rice and millet, domestication of dog, pig, chicken, horse, and sheep. Artifacts and features w/ silk industry, pottery, shelters, etc. (See photos and drawings in both books). Earliest archeological Neolithic sites Yang Shao 5-3kya, “painted pottery” period (white, red, black). Jars, bowls, knives, axes, villages w/ communal round huts w/ thatched roofs, e.g. site of Pan P‟o in Shensi province. Women buried w/ more wealth, probably matrilineal society. Lung Shan (“black pottery” period), 3-1kya, had potter‟s wheel, course black pottery, impressed w/ cord and basket pattern, defensive walled cities of pounded earth (could be windbreak). Type site Lung Shan in Shantung province, first scapulamancy. Lung Shan spread over entire Yellow River “North China Nuclear Area.” Reverence for elders, one of the keystone features of Chinese philosophy, reflected in the concept of filial piety (hsiao). Linked with age veneration that promotes stability and traditionalism. Enforced by (li) or principles of social decorum (appropriate behavior related to gender and status). These two principles are the primary principles of Confucianism upon which all other principles rest. Chinese “middle names” often reflect this preoccupation, e.g. “son number one”, “number two”, etc. Archeologically demonstrated w/ burial customs and grave goods. Until Chin Shr Huang Ti (emperor from c. 200 B.C.), court, soldiers, concubines, wives, etc. all killed and buried with emperor. Huang Ti substituted terra cotta figurines. Hsiao is also shown in the celebration of Ching Ming (“Tomb Sweeping”) holiday and in feeding ancestors and divination blocks (explain).
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Hsia Dynasty, a mythological early period, said to extend from 22001800 BC, remains unverified archeologically. True history begins with the earliest dynasties of Shang and Chou. Highlights of Dynastic History Dynastic Cycle...four stages, repeated ca. 15 times from about 2000 BC to the end of the dynastic era in 1911, average length ca. 300 yrs. 1. In the midst of civil war, social disorder and political fragmentation, one leader or faction prevails and unifies/pacifies the country. 2. Under the new leadership, country flourishes, often extends its borders, and enjoys peace and goodwill. 3. After two or three centuries domestic unity and well-being begin to disintegrate due to corruption and waste, exploitation and oppression, higher taxes, more suffering and instability. Growing inequality between the rich and poor, warfare, warlordism, etc. The loss of the "Mandate of Heaven" is signaled...the whole system becomes overextended. 4. Dynasty ends amid social disorder, rebellion and warfare, w/ numerous warlords dominating local areas. Chaos reigns. Dynastic Highlights Shang...1700-1100 BC...best known for its bronze casting (copper, tin, and lead). Greatly stratified society...elaborate burial vaults, warfare, etc. First historical dynasty...first writing and the origin of the Chinese state. Capital Chang An (Xian). Chou...Western Chou 1100-800 Eastern Chou divided into: Spring and Autumn: 800-500
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Warring States: 500-221 BC Territory expanded greatly...looks more like China today. Feudalism begins w/ taxation. Structure of feudalism in China (is it the same as European feudalism?): 1. Decentralized admin of territories (manors) by appointment of the emperor (same as Europe). 2. Dependence on personal loyalties serf to lord, lord to emperor (same as Europe). 3. Fragmented political and economic authority in hands of minority of warrior/lords over majority of peasant serfs (same as Europe). 4. Serfs owed service to the lord (military and public works in addition to agricultural production) (same as Europe). Differences from European feudalism: 1. Often kinship ties between lords and serfs 2. Lord also religious leader (not in Europe w/ priest class) 3. peasants could own the land they worked (produce still owed to the lord who "protected" the serfs from hostile neighbors and from the loss of solvency from economic downturns 4. Peasants could move from place to place (in Europe serfs were part of the land on which they lived and were part of land sales). Much warfare during Chou...mounted cavalry in addition to chariots...expeditionary forces, imperial armies. Golden era of Chinese philosophy...legalism, Confucianism, Mencius, etc. etc. Confucian classics, Taoism, etc. Ch'in...221-207 BC Unification of all China (name China from this)...Huang Ti ruled. Iron weapons...standardization, united most of territories into modern sized China.
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Han...Western or Former 200 BC to beginning of Christian era Eastern or Later beginning of Christian era to ca. 200 AD Empire extends to include Vietnam, Mongolia...name of "Han" people from the greatness of the Han...capital city of Chang An...beginning of large bureaucracy. Ever-normal granaries (welfare system), silk route, poetry, painting, Buddhism introduced 1st cent AD Six Dynasties...200-580 AD. Further advancements in the structural organization of China...bureaucracy, rise of gentry class, etc. Sui…580-618 AD. The north and south of China are unified and the Grand Canal is completed connecting Beijing in the north with Hangchow in the south, 1,100 miles long. T'ang...618-900 AD. "Golden Age of the Chinese Empire" Largest spread of China to include Tibet (Korea after two failed attempts to conquer it, tribute paid to the court from all the known world. Empress Wu ruled 690-705 strong leader, some say wicked person, others fair and just leader (Buddhist nun, so Buddhism spread during her reign). Much prosperity...capitol Chang An (Xian)...largest city in world at the time (over 2 million pop, end of silk route, people from everywhere, 5 x 6 mile walls around city. Invention of paper, paper money, printing, gunpowder, porcelain, flour, etc. Sung...divided into Northern 900-1100 AD and Southern 11001300..."barbarian" menace increased, especially from the north (wall extended and rebuilt). Taxes increased 3x former amounts...great pop increase, commercialization developed...movable type (opposed to block printing), imports/exports, tea and cotton industries. Creative arts flourished. Yuan (Mongol) dynasty 1300-1400. One of two foreign rule dynasties. Mongols became Sinicized (ruled w/ the Chinese, allowed China to
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continue being "Chinese" w/ Mongols at helm, ruled with the Chinese not over them). Genghis Khan and Kubla Khan (the great Khan) conquered the known world, explain incredible battle strategy...empire most of Asia, to Europe, parts of Mideast, Korea, Southeast Asia, Vietnam, all known world. Attacked Japan but "Divine Wind" prevented success (Kamikaze)..Marco Polo visited China and sat in the court of the Kublai Khan 17 yrs. (His writings inspired the “Age of Discovery”, the very foundation of the modern world). Ming...1400-1600 Stable government, China largely at peace, not modernizing much while Europe and Japan greatly advanced in technology and militarism at the same time. China repulsed by things foreign...the great Ming needed nothing from “foreign devils”. Capitol at beginning Nanking, (largest city on Earth), later Beijing (1421 onward). Chinese ships sailed over much of Africa, to Middle East, Southeast Asia, etc. Porcelain best (Ming Vase), dwarf trees (Ming trees) now called Bonzai. Jesuit Matteo Ricci at court, European influence in art, math, astronomy, map making, etc. Ch'ing...1600-1911. Second foreign rule dynasty (Manchus of Northeastern China)...distinctive hair style of Chinese established at this time (queue)...to show their subservience to the Manchu. Paintings flourished, much literature, painting, short stories, ceramics. Much change occurred as outside world influenced China more and more. Increasing pop., first contact w/ Portuguese, later over a dozen foreign countries, wanted China land, labor, new markets for foreign goods. Missionaries arrive and begin a largely unsuccessful attempt to convert the Chinese to Christianity.
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Fall of Ch'ing in 1911...due to foreign influence...founding of the Republic of China modeled on the U.S. constitution actually. Father of Modern China Sun Yat-Sen. (China's George Washington). Philosophy & Religion These two features of culture are usually linked. Spirituality is a hallmark of humanity (as old as our species). Functions: 1. explain the unknown 2. reduce anxiety 3. sanction human conduct 4. promote social solidarity 5. define reality The earliest belief systems still exist in the modern world (Earth-based, female power of generation and nurturance, awe of Nature, etc.). Animism…define and relate to early China. Ancestor worship: a central feature of Asian spirituality (linked to hsiao or filial piety) and is indicative of a traditional, stable society. Traditional China…San Jyao, Yi Jyao (three religions are actually one religion)…Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism are often mutually followed by the same people. The vast proportion of traditional Chinese practice an eclectic amalgam of these three belief systems, mixed with animistic or folk religion. Fewer than 10% of the population identify with Islam (mostly NW regions) or Christianity (largely practiced in secret). Chinese often comment that throughout their lives they “switch” religions based on their stage of life: as carefree youth, they are Taoist, free-spirited children of Nature; they convert to Confucianism as more serious-minded adults, pursuing employment, seeking bureaucratic stability and Earthly success; in old age, they convert to Buddhism to prepare themselves for reincarnation into a higher form of life.
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Taoism: (ok to spell it Daoism, since that‟s its pronunciation), means the “Way”, the “Path”, this is the “do” of Karatedo, Judo, Aikido, etc.. Lao Tzu wrote the Tao Te Ching, a contemporary of both Confucius and Buddha (500 BC), was concerned with coping in the world. Second famous person, Chuang Tzu (book of the same name). Criptic, enigmatic messages based on Nature. Basic philosophy is atheistic, though it is considered a religion, has temples, monks, nuns, “scripture”, etc. Great influence on art and literature. Search for everlasting life…immortality (Chinese alchemy w/ potions, etc.). Reference to Nature and naturalism. Basic principles: wu-wei (Nonaction, or no unnatural action), balance in life. Meditation and breathing exercises. Spontaneity and unity with all things. Like Buddhism, requires renouncing the material world. Influenced Zen Buddhism of Japan (control the mind). Buddhism: essentially a foreign notion that was Sinicized. Arrived in China around the beginning of the Christian era (first Sutras brought to China then). Began w/ Siddhartha Gautama the Buddha, India, 500 BC. Influenced art and literature (lots of sculpture, paintings, metallurgy, etc.). Due to its reclusive nature, it was periodically persecuted by Chinese officials. Spread across China at end of Han (c. 200 AD). Principles: 4 Noble Truths and the Eight-Fold Path.
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Principles of reincarnation, karma, Nirvana, Boddhisattva (Gwan Yin or Avalokiteshvara). Tantric Buddhism…sexual union is closest a human can get to God (sustain sexual ecstasy as a form of worship and adoration). Confucianism: after Confucius (also 500 BC). Is it a religion? No: No organized “church”, no holy scriptures, no clergy. Yes: Sacrificed to Heaven, Earth, and ancestors; influenced morality, ethics, values; the Classics (Analects and others) served as a source of truth and inspiration, same as scripture elsewhere. Primarily concerned with self-cultivation and the ordering of society. Mencius (a follower of Confucius), believed in the goodness of people. Another follower, Hsun Tzu, believed the opposite, that humans are by nature evil and therefore need strong negative sanctions to behave. Confucius‟ birthday, Sept. 28th is “Teachers‟ Day” in China. Christianity: Despite nearly 500 years of missionary work in China, fewer than 1% of the population self-identify as Christians. First arrived in China w/ the Portuguese in 1514. Chinese were not impressed by this “Barbaric” religion and periodically rose up against it (see the Steve McQueen movie, “Sand Pebbles” for a depiction of one such antiChristian rebellion based on historical facts). Why this rejection? An interesting case of cultural incompatibility and misunderstanding, e.g. missions set up orphanages (not seen in China before then), Chinese believed the missionaries were collecting orphans and using them as food—a good example of how rumors can distort reality. Missions also took in divorced women, widows, prostitutes, female beggars, and other destitute women as part of their charity work.
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Chinese suspected that the missions were becoming brothels and that the missionaries were taking in women for their own sexual pleasure. Missionaries responded by requesting that only mission families work in China, single men were discouraged from applying. Chinese could not accept the son of God (Jesus), remaining unmarried, and gaining achievement beyond his father‟s Earthly achievements. They also rejected the idea of a virgin birth, the concept of original sin, and the divinity of Jesus (gross misunderstanding of the Christian doctrine, misinterpreted through the Chinese worldview). Christian missionaries also set up missions in the poorest areas of China and offered meals to people who attended religious services (a common recruitment technique). Those who attended the services were counted as “converts” and added to inflated statistics to show economic supporters back home the “successes” of the foreign missions. The Chinese saw this, however, as a form of blackmail, and spread more rumors about the “Foreign Devils” and their immoral activities in China. By 1522, due to Chinese intolerance of Christian activities, all missionaries were expelled from China. More “successful” Christian impact on China were the Jesuit missionaries, highly educated, trained scientists and mathematicians, gained the court in the late Ming dynasty and early Ching (c. 1600). They learned Mandarin Chinese, taught science and math. Most famous person was Matteo Ricci (1552-1610), who wore Confucian gowns in place of monk robes. He presented Christianity as an element of advanced science, math, and medicine. He introduced geography, the mechanical clock, and other impressive western technology. By 1700, there were many Christian sects doing missionary work in China, mostly Jesuits, Franciscans, Dominicans, Augustinians, and others (c. 300,000 total missionaries) spread over much of China. Later joined by Protestant and other Catholic groups by the 1800s. Even
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today, Bibles continue to be smuggled into China and underground Christian services take place in many cities and throughout the countryside. During the 1720s Christianity was aggressively suppressed in China and throughout the 1800s, fierce anti-Christian riots periodically flared up since the missionaries were the “front line” of colonialism throughout the Chinese countryside. Since the founding of the PRC in 1949, the government officially rejects all organized religion under Marx‟s concept of the “Opiate of the Masses.” Political Organization and the Law Politics= the study of power, Who has it? How is it distributed? There are only two options: egalitarianism (adults is more or less in charge of themselves; self-directing) or stratified society (power is concentrated in the hands of a small number of people who control all others). During prehistory, egalitarianism prevailed in China and elsewhere until the Neolithic Revolution (beginning of Yang Shao in China). PRC claims that all of China since 1949 is moving toward egalitarianism again (leveling wages, “iron rice bowls”, social security, etc.). For most of China‟s history, stratified political organization prevailed w/ extreme inequality…vast differences between the small number of nobility (never more than 2-3% of total population) and the huge number of peasants. Emperors, being theocratic despotic rulers (presented themselves as gods w/ absolute, unchallenged power), could easily abuse their privileged position, and often did. Bureaucratic officials were given many opportunities for self-enrichment at the expense of the masses (tax collection, control of the legal system
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and commerce, etc.), favoritism, corruption, and graft were often “normal” political realities. Jurisdiction over more than 1 million villages was left to regional officials who were often corrupt and harsh in their treatment of the peasants (built up hatred was finally released throughout the decades leading to the founding of the PRC w/ “Speak Bitterness Meetings”). Traditional China as a harsh example of the Patriarchy (rule by males), e.g. females were under the control of fathers and brothers until marriage when they were controlled by husbands, and if they survived the husband, their sons controlled them in old age. Institutionalized sexism took the forms of female infanticide (“to raise a daughter is like watering your neighbor‟s garden”)…an effect of the Patrilocal Post-Marital Residence Rule. Another form of institutionalized sexism…Bride Price (the purchase of a bride). “A wife is like a pony, to be ridden or beaten as a man sees fit.” As Mao Tse-Tung said, men have many oppressors (government, religion, military, etc.), but women are oppressed by these AND by men…they are, in actuality, more oppressed than men and therefore more in need of liberation. The Civil Service Exam…based on the five Confucian Classics: the Book of Documents, the Book of Poetry, the Book of Change, and the Book of Rites, and the Analects. Aspirants for public office memorized these works (a considerable task), and took local written examinations. If successful, the candidate could accept a local position or move on to the regional exams. Again, if successful, the candidate could accept a regional civil service position or move to the highest level of exam, that of the palace exam in the presence of the emperor himself.
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This system fostered the following benefits: It provided upward mobility based on skill, rather than wealth (for those who could afford the required training). It freed the emperor from dependence on the aristocracy. It created the gentry class who were qualified office-holders. Exams were begun much earlier, but reached their pinnacle during the Sung dynasty (900-1300 AD). The formal legal system in China was based traditionally on the Confucian Classics. The State was thought to be, and was administered, like a “national family.” The emperor was the father, the magistrates served beneath him (as “revered elders” within the family), and the masses were thought to be, and were treated like, the dependent children of the national family. All knew their place in society and the Rights, Roles, and Responsibilities (3 R‟s) associated with their status in life. One‟s behavior was a reflection not just of themselves, but of their entire kin group. Shame brought on the family by one‟s behavior was a strong negative sanction against inappropriate or unacceptable behavior. These features of traditional China, the examination system, and strict behavior guidelines, also served as stabilizing cultural factors. Economics Definition: the way in which goods and services are produced, distributed, and consumed in the context of the culture being considered. Each of these three features of the economy require that decisions be made with respect to the individual function:
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1. What will be produced? (society cannot produce everything its members want or even need), 2. How will what is produced be distributed? (equitably or in a stratified way), 3. Who will consume the goods and services produced? (equitably, so that everyone gets an equal amount, or will goods and services be concentrated in the hands of a privileged elite at the expense of the vast majority?). Capitalist societies clearly organize and operate their economies as stratified societies, while Socialist societies, at least in theory, aspire to egalitarianism (as humans lived for most of our existence in prehistory…called “primitive” communism). (Mention the “Gilligan‟s Island” economic exercise). Currently, China, the most populous nation on Earth, is attempting to establish “scientific” Communism as its economic/political system, though it has “Sinicized” it to include some elements of Capitalism such as profit motive and private ownership of certain businesses, called “Market Socialism”. For most of its existence, however, the Chinese economy was identical to the extended family…the family owned the farms, fields, shops, and factories that sustained the nation. Principles of Confucian hsiao (filial piety), and li (rules of decorum or “proper” behavior) serve to stabilize the economy through time. (These customs have been identified as “feudal” customs by modern Chinese, who have been uprooting these beliefs and behaviors since the founding of the PRC). China‟s economic system is divided into two eras: Traditional and Modern. The Traditional economy had no preconditions for economic growth:
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It had low agricultural productivity, small plots worked with intensive human labor, so little economic expansion occurred. The system was more like gardening than agriculture, based on the huge supply of human resources. The means to convert surplus into investment capital was absent (Chinese simply invested their surplus in the only stable element of the economy, land). This is a primary reason China did not have an Industrial Revolution (Ropp text, Chapter 9, covers this topic). Characteristics of China‟s traditional economy: 1. urban/rural discontinuity 2. millions of family-owned economic enterprises 3. key feature was agricultural enterprise Subsistence farming typified China until the Sung dynasty (900-1300) when wet rice farming spread across the south and began to predominate agricultural production. Remember the link between agricultural activity and the dynastic cycle (economic disruption during the “disintegrative” phase of the cycle when millions might starve or be killed in uprisings, etc.). Population growth through time, coupled with innovative agricultural advancements, increased productivity through time, enriching the process. Counterbalanced by such practices as inheritance laws that, at times, broke large farms into small plots, one for each married son. As individual sons built up larger and larger farms, the extended family was enriched, but each generation saw the division of the large farm into smaller plots, depending upon the number of sons in the family. Final considerations of China‟s traditional economy. Agriculturally based, for the most part, coupled with the rise of a merchant class
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beginning in the Ch‟in (221 B.C.) and the subsequent diversification of the economy after the Ch‟in into various sectors: Agriculture (the largest sector), the government (a huge bureaucracy), industry (actually more like handicrafts since the businesses were largely family-owned and operated), and trade, both domestic and international (at times quite profitable, especially in the areas of foreign trade in the “Big Three” commodities: tea, silk, and spices). Extensive agricultural need for irrigation gave rise to the Chinese state (Karl Wittfogel‟s theory of Oriental Despotism or the Hydraulic Theory)…explain. Both the extended family and the state in China are derivative of intensive agriculture. Society traditionally structured to show the preeminence of agriculture: Shih…officials (gentry), c. 2% of society Nung…farmers, c. 90% of society Kung…artisans (craftsmen), c. 4% of society Shang…merchants, c. 4% of society (proportion increases as we move toward the present) The Family The family, especially the extended family, is the core of traditional Chinese society (the model for the state)… Confucianism, a guide to life for the family, is also the pattern for a successful government. Traditional patriarchy…rule by males in all areas of life, underscored in the family structure (give examples of the patriarchy). Patrilineality also typified traditional China (see Ropp, chapter 8). Matrilineality preceeded patrilineality (as it did everywhere).
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Chinese practice surname exogamy (explain). Most of the population practiced monogamy, but, for the gentry class, concubinage was common, as was “shau tai” polygamy. Bride price was practiced (explain it as “institutionalized sexism”), as was the dowry system (gifts and money to the new couple… controlled by the husband). Three of the five cardinal relationships of Confucianism are within the family (fa-son, husband-wife, elder bro-younger bro). The other two (ruler-subject and friend-friend) are outside the family. So the family is the core of Chinese society. The smallest family unit is the chia, or “the family”. It consists of husband and wife (or wives) and children. The chia often coincided with the hu or household (sometimes not). Functions of the family: economic unit, reproductive unit, basis of the “web or relationships” that holds society together. Families maintain a common budget, hold common property, and are the smallest economic/political entity (a corporate group). Other forms of “family”: Stem family: conjugal family + one married son‟s family Joint family: conjugal family + 2 or more married sons and their families (the ideal is 5 generations in one hu). The clan tsu is also a significant feature of the Chinese family. Defined as a common descent group through an assumed or known ancestor (often has a common surname…mention my clan in Taiwan Lou Da-an). (I also have a Mongol name Na An-chuen, closer to my given name, but was discouraged in Taiwan). Clans performed ancestor worship, held common property, made loans to members, conducted funerals, performed mutual self-defense,
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monitored clan member behaviors and activities, among other functions. Clans members could number in the thousands. Women and Children In the patriarchal society, women and children were subordinate to men. Such practices as arranged marriage, bride price, and the patrilocal postmarital residence rule ensured the ongoing subordination of women to men through these practices of institutionalized sexism. Children were integrated into productive labor very early, given responsible chores within their families. Children were customarily married at puberty, so there was virtually no adolescence. Female children had a hard life, “to raise a daughter is the same as watering your neighbor‟s garden.” “The birth of a girl-child is like a thief in the night.” (a cause for mourning)…compared with the celebratory birth of a son (“social security”, enrichment of the family estate, carrying on the family name, and performing ancestor worship ceremonies after the parents‟ death). Footbinding (see the reader for illustrations) began around the year 1000 A.D. and lasted until 1911 (1,000 years). Prohibition of footbinding is a model of radical social change (may be used as an example of other potential prohibitions, like female and male genital mutilation, slavery, warfare, etc.). Polygyny, a form of polygamy wherein a man may have multiple wives (syau tai), tended to promote rapid population growth. Concubinage, the system of having “live-in” lovers also prevailed in traditional China, but only for those men wealthy enough to be able to support multiple mates and the ensuing offspring. The popular Chinese novel The Dream of the Red Chamber focuses on such a large extended family.
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Bride price, the payment of goods and/or services, from the groom‟s family to the parents of the perspective bride in exchange for her hand in marriage, is said to “compensate her family for the loss of her labor power”, but actually constitutes the commodification of women. For children, the combined principles of filial piety, age veneration, and ancestor worship guaranteed complete and absolute obedience and devotion to parents, thus maintaining the generational subordination of children. In the rather harsh conditions of the ordinary peasant life, most children assumed important farm and family tasks early in life. Since daughters “married out” of the family of birth (patrilocal postmarital residence rule), daughters were less valued than sons which encouraged such practices as female infanticide, differential investment of time, energy, and money in raising sons versus daughters, and the institutionalized continued oppression and abuse of females. Comparing modern Chinese women‟s freedoms and privileges to these miserable conditions in traditional China, we may gauge the progress of social transformation. Science and Medicine China and the rest of the world developed advanced science and medicine independently of one another. Chinese inventions of large seaworthy ships (five times larger than the ships of Columbus and other European seafarers), the compass, a good knowledge of astronomy, charts, and navigation sent several fleets to India and East Africa in the 15th century under the admiral Zheng He. The Chinese were basically unimpressed with the civilizations they found and neither established colonies, nor returned to these locations.
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(How might history have unfolded had they established colonies or engaged in ongoing trade)? See the article in the class reader for the details on this topic, I will herein merely summarize Chinese inventions and developments in science and medicine. From about 600 AD until 1500 AD, China was the world‟s most scientifically advanced society. After 1500, the aggressive encroachment of foreigners (Manchus in addition to Japanese and Europeans), combined with internal corruption, political divisiveness, and natural calamities, weakened China considerably. In this weakened state, aggressive foreigners devastated China‟s economy and social wellbeing. Considering China‟s advancements in several areas of science and medicine, we celebrate the following: In astronomy, Chinese predicted eclipses with amazing accuracy for more than 2,000 years. Carefully dated observations of celestial events, such as supernovas, the appearance of comets, sunspots, and eclipses, provide the world‟s astronomers with the most accurate and the earliest astronomical records. China developed the world‟s first armillary (moveable interlocking wheels that measure the coordinates of celestial bodies) in the first century AD. The world‟s oldest observatory dates from the 11th century BC, while the world‟s first planetarium dates from 900 years ago—both in China. In the first century AD, the earliest seismograph was invented (see the reader), and various mechanical contrivances irrigated fields, ground grain, and hauled loads (the world‟s first wheelbarrow).
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In medicine, Chinese doctors were the world‟s first to practice “holistic medicine”—treating the patient‟s total person (diet, sleep, exercise, attitude, as well as physical ailments and injuries). For over 2,000 years, moxibustion (“cupping”), “coining”, acupuncture, and herbalism were often mixed in the treatment by individual healers or doctors. Over 5,000 different herbal drugs were found in the Chinese apothecary in the forms of pills, powders, pastes, and tonics (taken as tea). Health-conducive physical regimens such as Tai Chi Ch‟uan, kept people in vigorous health into old age. Architecturally, the post and lintel construction style as opposed to the West‟s supporting walls design, provided amazing earthquake proof buildings. Curved roofs, adorned with sacred mythical animals and the fondness for bright primary colors add to the decorative motif of China. Chinese porcelains and metals are some of the world‟s earliest and finest. Gunpowder, accidently discovered in the alchemic quest for the elixir of immortality, transformed the world. Printing and paper making were already discussed, but suffice to say, literacy and the storage of human wisdom in books, constitutes one of the single greatest achievements of people on Earth. The oldest book on Earth (868 AD), the first movable type (1045 AD) 400 yrs. Before Gutenberg‟s Bible of 1445 AD. Literature The Ropp text has several articles, one on poetry, one on fiction that will be our focus in this section. Unlike in the West where many may write
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poetry in youth, but few go on to become professional poets, in China this medium is open to all literate people and is often a lifelong pursuit. In the Ropp text, poetry is called “the highest form of speaking to someone else…” (p. 295). Since both paintings and the calligraphy of poems use the same materials and the same “strokes”, artists were de facto poets and viceversa. We often see, therefore, most paintings with some lines of poetry included—the observer may therefore appreciate the scene, as well as a deep thought or musings the painter/poet simultaneously experienced. The Chinese language adds delightful complexity to poetry. Tonality is an inherent feature of some poetic styles—the tones must be synchronized as well as the phonemes (the words rhyme and are matched in intonation). The paucity of distinct phonemes results in great potential for puns: Mama chi ma, ma man, Mama ma ma. Nyounyou chi nyou, nyou nyou, Nyounyou nyou nyou. One of the Confucian classics, the Book of Songs, composed between 1000 BC and 600 BC, is a collection of lyrical poetry, one of the oldest collections in the world. This poetry addresses every aspect of life in the Chou dynasty (see examples in Ropp). Chinese poetry reached its apex during the T‟ang dynasty (600-900 AD). Ordinary (literate) people wrote poems for any and every occasion…they made great gifts.
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Fiction in China, especially in the form of novels, was, until recently debased. Called syao shwo, or “lesser writing” (compared to the Classics), many considered it a waste of time, that “glorified vile behavior.” Several of the more famous classic novels of China (all of which, like Russian novels, are filled with characters), are Water Margin, Three Kingdoms, Journey to the West, The Scholars, and The Dream of the Red Chamber. Most novels are based on historical events and contain good use of humor and moral lessons. Art and Language Various types of art: performing arts (dance, drama), studio or fine arts (painting, sculpture), language arts (poetry, fiction), martial arts (kung fu, tai chi), etc. Commonalities? Creativity and artistic expression that define the range of human experience through the beauty of symbolic representation. Language: The distinctly human ability to communicate in the limitless forms of expression of speech and literature. More than 6,000 languages, including many more dialects of those languages world wide. Moving toward universal language due to global communication and international cultural influences (WTO, rock and roll, fast foods, and blue jeans). Art, in traditional China, includes the following: painting (black ink on silk or paper), metallurgy (mostly bronze), textiles (mostly silk), sculpture (mostly jade, some ivory), performing (opera), and numerous forms of “folk art” or handicrafts (art of the masses of peasants). Central themes of painting reflect Chinese world view (some human subjects of venerated emperors or revered ancestors, some scenes in the lives of the aristocracy), mostly nature studies with people (if any) as
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very minor elements (as opposed to portraiture of western art with nature as a “background” element). Shang and Chou themes are zoomorphic (also reflect nature, especially the t’ao t’ieh “monster” motif on the lower half of bronze vessels) while themes after the T‟ang (600-900 AD), are primarily devoted to depicting shan shwei (mountains and water) or nature themes. Artists were permitted to explore the “zen” or essence of nature since exact photographic representation was never the quest of artists. Most painting look alike—all are black ink on white paper or silk with common themes. Interesting sidelight; Chinese paintings lack perspective until the arrival and influence of an Italian missionary, Guiseppe Castiglione, who introduced the concept to Chinese painters during the Ching dynasty. After the arrival of Buddhism in China around the beginning of the Christian era, much art is devoted to the Buddhist pantheon (simply gazing at the representation of a diety bestows spiritual grace). The Ropp text has some excellent examples of traditional art. There is a hostility toward abstract expression and themes are rather severely restricted (artists seldom depict war, studies of nudes, violence in any form, death, or cityscapes—to name a few taboos). Calligraphy is not just writing words. Styles are varied, change through time, and are a revered feature of traditional China. Chinese art was unknown in the west until the sixteenth century. The art was largely misunderstood and disparaged until the west began to understand the philosophy that guides the art—Buddhism and Taoism. The national language of China (including Taiwan) is Mandarin. It is spoken by more people on Earth than any other language and should therefore be the world‟s “universal language” if we base our choice on
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number of speakers. English and French have wider geographical distribution and English is now the preferred language of technical and instructional literature (1/2 of all publications on Earth). International meteorology and commercial aviation have also adopted English (not due to its simplicity). Chinese is one of the world‟s easiest languages to learn to speak in terms of grammar (noninflectional, so there are no word changes according to number, gender, case, tense, voice, or mood). No conjugations or declensions. E.g. Wo kan gao. (I see the dog). Gao kan wo. (The dog sees me). Wo kan gao. (I saw the dog, I will see the dog, I should see the dog, I have seen the dog, etc.). Chinese is a tonal language, as opposed to say, English or Japanese which are atonal, which presents a problem to foreign students of Chinese language. There are only 420 different morphemes in Chinese, while English has 1,200, so there are many homophones (words that sound the same with different meanings, such as, in English, their, they‟re, and there). Consequently, the 420 morphemes are differentiated by adding tonality (four tones: e. g. ma, ma, ma, ma…mother, hemp, horse, scold). The morpheme ma actually has 18 homophones. Of the more than 50,000 Chinese words in a Chinese dictionary, many are homophones. Yi, for example, has 126 meanings in the fourth tone alone. When written, however, Chinese is absolutely unambiguous since each word is written individually and each of the different morphemes has a different written form. Problems arise with the introduction of foreign words. In order to pronounce them correctly, they are written phonetically, e.g. Dr. Chan‟s experience with “Horse kills chicken” in the newspaper (ma sz ji). There is much more to Chinese language…I recommend at least an introductory Mandarin course since, as we anthropologists say, language
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bounds reality and learning the language will unlock the mysteries of Chinese culture. Period of Transition; Cuisine As an introduction to Modern China, the period of transition covers the time period from the first significant foreign incursion into China (Russia in the mid-1600s, Great Britain in the late 1600s, U.S. in the late 1700s, France in the mid-1800s, and Japan in the late 1800s) until the modern period (begins w/ the founding of the Republic in 1911). At first, China resists modernization in technology and military weaponry and strategy. The result is the “Century of Humiliation” (roughly 1850 w/ Opium Wars to 1950 and the founding of the People‟s Republic of China). China‟s rejection of the west‟s offer to trade western products inspires the British, in cooperation w/ France, Germany, U.S., and a half-dozen other nations to resort to “gunboat diplomacy”. River towns were shelled, many killed until China signed unequal treaties conceding: 1. unrestricted opium traffic (depleted treasury) 2. extraterritoriality for foreigners (above the law) 3. unrestricted movement of foreigners 4. unlimited missionization 5. paying of indemnities 6. opening of port cities 7. Chinese territory to foreign nations a. Germany got Shantung province b. G.B. got Hong Kong c. France got the Southeast (VN) d. Russia got Manchuria e. U.S. got concessions
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Series of wars and uprisings resulted: Opium Wars 1840s-„50s, Arrow War in 1850s, T‟ai P‟ing Rebellion 1850-‟64, Sino-Japanese War 1894, and the Boxer Rebellion 1898. Eventually, the T‟ung-Chih Restoration (1860-1895) attempted to restore China‟s dignity through the acceptance of western technology and military science and weaponry. Foreign affairs government agencies established, military schools, colleges of foreign languages, sent Chinese students to study overseas (esp. Europe and Japan), developed China‟s infrastructure, etc. The founding of the Republic of China in 1911 begins the Modern Era. Cuisine Why this topic? Virtually any cultural element may be used to provide insight into people‟s “reality.” Food eaten, how it‟s grown, harvested, prepared, served, and consumed—provides helpful information regarding people‟s worldview. Chinese cuisine is one of the world‟s three leading types, w/ French and Italian. Key features: most of the meal preparation is done before the actual cooking (selection of ingredients, marinading meats and fish, chopping vegetables, mixing herbs and spices, etc.). Due to the nature of Chinese cooking, largely done in the “flash” style chau, all ingredients must be prepared and at hand before the wok is heated. Flash cooking due to cost of fuel, but also to sear moisture and preserve color and freshness (vegetables still have “snap”), meats and fish are seared to preserve flavor. Very healthy cuisine. Taoist principle—serve food close to its natural state.
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Rice fan is synonymous with “food” (Ni chr fanle, meiyou?) (Have you eaten?). Rice serves as the white “canvas” on which colorful dishes are served. Central food considerations: 1. taste…5 flavors: sour (lemon), pungent (spicy, peppers, ginger), bitter (vinegar), sweet (sugar), and salty. 2. aroma…harmony, contrast, accent. 3. texture…soft, elastic, solid, crisp, and variations. 4. color…white rice w/ green, yellow, and red accents. 5. name…poetic, e.g. “ Coral and Jade” is crab and spinach. 6. atmosphere of the room…yin/yang in lighting, furniture, table setting, scented napkins, etc. 7. variation in dishes…soups clear the palate, often as many courses as guests, small taste of each dish. 8. frugality…meat is a flavoring, not the main ingredient (at least in China). Four principal cuisines: Mandarin…Northern China, so rice is not central, instead noodles and wonton skin-wrapped foods like dumplings. Light mildly seasoned foods, soy sauce flavorings, garlic, sesame oil, and green onion flavorings. Cantonese…Southeastern provinces centered around Hong Kong. The first to arrive in Western U.S., so most common in Western world. Rice is a staple, much seafood (maritime provinces), steaming is featured,
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small appetizers (dim sum), chop suey, chow mein (first dishes in the U.S.)…invented in U.S. to deal w/ leftovers. Szechuan…(similar to Hunan). No salt due to being landlocked provinces, so used peppers as preservatives (in everything). Also ginger, garlic, sesame oil, and green onions. Sweet, spicy, hot and sour predominate. This type of cooking is both tasted and felt (spicy). Shanghai…Much European influence w/ addition of tomato sauces and dairy products. Cooking w/ soy, fish and mushroom based socks. Sugar is a common seasoning. Delicate seafood dishes are common, w/ “red cooking” also (soy and wine slow boiling of meat). Tea is central to Chinese cuisine…many types, flavors, etc. Preparation, serving, and consumption are ritualized. End of Introduction to Chinese culture…
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