Week 16! YAY! Vietnam LBJ & Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (1964)-> used as justification to get us into Vietnam Conflict -> by 1967 had used more bomb tonnage than dropped on Italy, Germany & Japan during WWII (by 1969-> Nixon would exceed even the level dropped by LBJ from 1964-1967) Vietnamization-> Nixon's peace w/ honor-> gradual pull out of US troops to let S. Vietnam take over main fighting-> but as we gradually pulled out-> backing off made us seem weak ->during both Vietnam & Korean War -> Cong. could've stopped (stopped funding for/ passed resolution to prohibit use) 1969-> 550,000 troops committed 1970-> secret Cambodian bombings financed thru impounding $ -> purpose to clean out enemy forces bordering on S. VN-> but ev later showed that had been there for sometime but had been mostly evacuated (so only civilians) -records = burned & false info fed into Dept of Defense -> computers (as result War Powers Resolution Act 1973 passed to try to limit pres. pwr) 3) Mid-East -long been point of concern & have been staunch ally w/ Israel (in part because they support our strategic interests/part because ally in region/ part because of strong military powers -> give Israel about $2.4-3B in aid/yr -> 75% of this aid goes to purchasing US defense equipment -> see Cong. Research Service Report -> many have criticized -> 7.2M Palestinians around world -> Nov. 29 1947 General Assembly of the UN adopted Resolution 181, Partition Resolution because created “Jewish State" and an "Arab State" w/i borders of historical Palestine-> cities like Haifa & Jaffa which had been Palestinian became Israeli w/in yr -> 1948 Israel declared by minority population of Jewish migrant settlers & given UN recognition -> Egypt, Syria, Libya, Iraq, etc. promptly expelled over 500,000 Jews to Israel -> have been battling it out ever since -> last chance at real peace was 2000 summit w/ Clinton, Barak & Arafat-> had a deal & at last minute Arafat pulled out-> violence breaks out after that & no one has given serious attention to the “Road Map” (that peace plan established to get the warring factions back on the path to peace) Differences between Sunni and Shiite Muslims Comparisons between religious beliefs 1
Divisions not so clear-> cannot assume that monolithic agreement within Islam Sunni about 85% of Muslim world Shiite minority sect
-Al Qaeda -Iran -Iraq (under Hussein dominant Sunni) -Taliban -Hezbollah (Lebanon) -Indonesia -Iraq majority sect today -Pakistan -Egypt -Syria (but aligned with Iran) -Saudi Arabia (but note Sunni insurgency wants to overthrow Saudi Arabian govt. because of alignment with U.S.) -Kurds of N. Iraq (but they are not Arab, so fight with other Sunni Arabs. -Lebanon (has over 17 different Muslim & Christian sects
B) War-Making Power-> Congress has power to declare -> centralization Pres asserts pwer-> Cong acquiesces -> Pres has always claimed broad pwrs 1) Commander-in-Chief-> art. II, sect. 2 war-making pwrs = divided btw Cong. & Pres (art. I, sect. 8) -> Cong. has pwr to provide for common defence, raise & support armies, declare war -> Cong has only officially declared war 5 times a) War of 1812 (against Great Britain) b) Mexican American War 1846 c) Spanish American War 1898 d) WWI (1914-1918 but us not really involved in action until 1917) e) WWII (1939-1945) -> we have used force over 300 times since WWII -> why? -> ability of Pres. to assert authority dates back to Washington keeping US neutral when French & British @ war a) Congal attempts to limit power -> Pres role in Vietnam -> led Cong. to pass WAR POWERS RESOLUTION (1973) (Nixon vetoed, but Cong. passed anyway) -> this = what applies to this day 2
-> requires Pres to report to Cong. w/i 48 hrs after committing armed forces to combat 1) combat must end w/i 60 days unless specifically authorized by Cong to continue 2) can get addtl 30 days to allow w/drawal -> even w/i 60 days, Pres must discontinue if Cong gives concurrent resolution -> every single Pres has not followed w/ exception of Bush in Gulf War Gulf-> not WAR issue, but Cong. passed joint resolution supporting U.N. peacekeeping mission so sidestepped point (House vote 250-183 & Senate vote 52-47) -> under WPRA Pres. can introduce troops hostilities pursuant to: (1) a declaration of war, (2) specific statutory authorization, or (3) a national emergency created by attack upon U.S, territories, or armed forces. -> But really ?able whtr / not it = valid b) Congal failure to limit power 1975-> Ford sends help to merchant ship Mayaguez off Cambodia 1980-> Carter ignores in sending in attempt to rescue hostages (3 of 8 helicopters used failed in the dessert on takeoff & 8 military personnel killed 1982-> only real test of War Powers -> Reagan orders Marines into Beirut, Lebanon as part of peacekeeping mission (b/c no combat at issue Cong. not say anything) -> but after yr when terrorist drives truck into barracks w/ explosives-> 241 servicemen killed-> Reagan decides to w/draw 2) natl security machinery -> gets overhauled after WWII Marshall Plan-European Economic Recovery Program led us to be hegemonic leader (other countries follow because our values) to foster development after WWII (urged in 1948 by Secy of State George Marshall-> from 1948-51 US gave $12B aid in Europe gave $6B alone 1948-49 which was 10% of natl budget-> would be about $100B today -> limited ability also plan for Japan & they are only allowed to spend 1% of GDP on military b/c US not want them to get stronger -> many say this gave us strategic advantage to do whatever we wanted a) United Nations -> always an issue over how much we owe over dues & assessments-> routinely late in payments -> U.S on average over time tends to owe over $1B in back dues and assessments (periodic criticism leads to payment) -> member states http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/org1469.doc.htm http://www.un.org/en/members/index.shtml 3
i) Security Council-> 5 permanent members (US/China/Great Britain/France/Russia) -> works closely with Secretary General (Ban Ki-moon) to accomplish objectives (10 other countries rotate)-> responsible for peacekeeping -> to pass measure must be 9 votes & no vetoes from big 5 -> Japan & Germany would like seats b/c they have econ pwr http://www.un.org/sc/members.asp -> increasingly involved in conflicts -> w/i 3 yrs after Cold War fall-> UN involved in 14 peacekeeping missions (as many as had done since 1945) -> have 191 member states right now (has grown) high politics-> security & military issues= key ->each member has one vote -> decisions on procedural matters must have YES vote by 9 of 15 countries -> decisions on substantive matters must have 9 votes + all 5 of permanent members (rule of "great Power unanimity" = "veto" power) -> under U.N. Charter all members must accept/carry out decisions of Security Council -> other organs of U.N. can make recommendations to gvots -> only Sec. Council can make decisions that members states are obligated to carry out. Functions & Powers -> to maintain international peace and security in accordance with the principles and purposes of the United Nations; -> to investigate any dispute or situation which might lead to international friction; -> to recommend methods of adjusting such disputes or the terms of settlement; -> to formulate plans for the establishment of a system to regulate armaments; -> to determine the existence of a threat to the peace or act of aggression and to recommend what action should be taken; -> to call on Members to apply economic sanctions and other measures not involving the use of force to prevent or stop aggression; -> to take military action against an aggressor; -> to recommend the admission of new Members; -> to exercise the trusteeship functions of the United Nations in "strategic areas"; -> to recommend to the General Assembly the appointment of the Secretary-General and, together with the Assembly, to elect the Judges of the International Court of Justice. -> helps negotiate hot spots around world & deploys peacekeeping missions to resolve disputes & support notion of collective security – idea that we keep peace by joining together to resolve conflicts
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ii) General Assembly-> 192 member states = involved (Switzerland & East Timor joined Sept. 2002) -> Like Congress for the UN-> votes & makes recommendations to Security Council (seen as weak) -> doesn’t have its own broad authority & can’t put troops in to place low politics -> environment, human rts, econ problems b) Dept. of State (diplomacy) -> most concerned w/ overall conduct of state affairs Secy of State = highest in ranking member in Cabinet-> different Pres. use differently -> 3500 Eees @ State Dept. -> Pres appoints (w/advice & consent of Senate) ambassadors & receives (or refuses to acknowledge) other countries William Rogers (Nixon-> but mostly relied on Henry Kissinger-Natl Security Advisor to give info) Vance (resigned after fiasco in trying to save Iran hostages (Carter) Haig & Shultz (Reagan) Baker & Eagleburger (Bush #41) Warren Christopher, Madeleine Albright (Clinton) Colin Powell (Bush #43) Condoleezza Rice (Bush #43) Hillary Clinton (Obama) -> sometimes interagency rivalry -> common for Secy of State to disagree w/ Secy of Defense -> Powell wanted to push Bush further on getting Israel to negotiate w/ Palestinians over land (had been very close to agreement early in 2000 but Arafat pushed hard & refused to give in to Barak--Israeli leader at time-> Barak gets voted out of office & Ariel Sharon-hard liner comes into office & the whole peace process gets de-railed) -> Sharon = hawk (strong military) & became prime minister 2000 after violent outbreaks that followed his visit to side-by-side Jewish & Muslim holy sites in Jerusalem (many Palestinians saw it as provocation & attempt to undermine peace efforts)-> Sharon despised for leading attacks on refugee camps in Lebanon 1982 -> Powell & Secy of Defense Rumsfeld @ odds over this because Rumsfeld argued that if US pushes Israel into more negotiation that will seem like green light to bin Laden’s of world -> political appointees & civil service bureaucrats -> most political appointees = ambassadors, deputy secys. etc. (ambassadors = not all = political appointees, some 3500 foreign service officers who go back & forth btw home & abroad) -> carry on staff embassies & consulate work -> abt 200 of 15,000 taking foreign service exam get jobs 5
Goals: 1) maintain control or as much influence as possible over US foreign policy; 2) maintain relations with other nations (coalition bldg) ; 3) maintain amicable relations with intl organizations that can help w/ diplomacy c) Dept of Defense -> replaced War Dept. & Dept of Navy following WWII Natl Security Act 1947 biggie-> creates CIA, Natl Security Council, & Dept of Defense Pentagon – led by civilian (Pres. = also civilian so is not liable under Uniform Code of Military Justice which governs military conduct) -> has civilian leader (Secy of Defense-now Donald Rumsfeld) (only one Genl was ever Secy-> Gen. George Marshall of Marshall plan) Robert McNamara (JFK & LBJ) Melvin Laird (Nixon) James Schlesinger (Nixon, Ford) Caspar Weinberger (Reagan) Dick Cheney (Bush #41) Aspin, Perry & Cohen (Clinton) Donald Rumsfeld (Bush #43) -. fired after 2006 election -> Rumsfeld's hard nose won over Powell's softer approach (in genl State Dept. takes softer line) Robert Gates (Bush #43 & Obama) -> Pentagon wanted to pursue a more vigorous air war in Afghanistan at beginning but only allowed to do so in late Oct. after clear that State Department's strategy not working -> below Secy of Defense = civilian leaders of each branch of Army, Navy, Air Force, Marines) -> some concerns about inter-service rivalry, but that has really been minimized w/ last 15 yrs. by strengthening Joint Chiefs of Staff (for each of the branches -> Chief Staff Army, Air Force, Naval Operations, Commandant of Marine Corps-> do not sit on Cabinet / or NSC -> uniformed members apptd by Pres & approved by Senate-> serve 2 yr terms (not necessarily have to be rotated through the military branches -> prior to 1986 each had equal say -> but since 1986 Chair was given pwr as principal military advisor -> Unified Commands -> combat forces = assigned to different geographic areas & types of specified commands (have specialized forces (ex: space & its defense; transportation; special operations (army Rangers, navy Seals-> what you hear so much about in Afghanistan) -> before 1986, unified in name only-> each service tended to take orders from its own brass in Washington rather than from the Commander in Chief (CINC) of the Unified Command-> post 1986 law was designed to give the CINC more authority over the individual services (interservice rivalry minimized) Goals: 1) maintain prestige/avoid damage to public reputation (had been harmed by Vietnam but rescued after Gulf War; 6
2) avoid casualties during potentially divisive uses of force; 3) maintain/increase budget; 4) maintain traditional missions; 5) adopt new ones if resources are declining; 6) maintain ties with supportive members and outside supporters (coalition bldg) e) CIA Central Intelligence Agency b/4 WWII US not have permanent agency to do intelligence -> attack on Pearl Harbor changes that -> CIA to help deal w/ this stuff -> does other things besides "covert"operations & in fact most of its work is not in the covert area -> but charter allows "to perform other functions & duties related to intelligence affecting natl security as the Natl Security Council shall direct" which have included assassination attempts, espionage, coups, wiretaps, interception of mail & infiltration of protest groups Goals: 1) maintain position as preeminent intelligence agency; 2) establish control over intelligence community (not unlikely); 3) obtain support for controversial missions; 4) maintain secrecy; 5) protect assets, agents and methods of collecting info f) National Security Council http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/ -> permanent group of appointments by Pres. to do advising on foreign policy-> NSC = Pres., VP, Secy of State & Defense, Chair of JCS, & others who Pres appoints -> different Pres. use differently Ike & Nixon used much more than Truman & JFK -> under Nixon that you see it grow-> Kissinger (Nixon's asst. for Natl Sec. Affairs grew dept to over 100 Eees) -> Prior to Stephen Hadley, had “Conde” Rice -> Bush's most trusted foreign policy aide thru powers of conciliation & she has not tried to seize turf (Rumsfeld has been criticized for that) -> Rice criticized, however for bogging-down of interagency process -> in the past NSA, Defense & State have all jockeyed w/ each other in what has been callused “intramural competition” to help pres. hone options for his decisions Gen. James Jones (retired Marine Corps) promises to streamline the office & stop nonsense Goals: 1) maintain control over fast breaking national security matters, 2) access to president -> has others to assist ex: Zalmay Khalilzad-Afghan-American in charge of Afghanistan on NSC -obscure intellectual (Ph.D. & taught at Columbia as poli sci prof.) -> had been warning for past 2 yrs that problem w/ Taliban-> (he is 7
member of Afghanistan's dominant Pashtun majority-became US citizen) -> typical background experience-> has worked @ State Dept. & Rand Corp. prior to NSC experience (remember Rand is Defense Dept. think tank) g) War Cabinet & bios of trusted advisors (greatest hits of Bush admin & who is giving him close counsel on these issues) Vice Pres. / Secretary of State / Attorney-General / Secretary of Defense / FBI Director / Head of CIA / Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff / Deputy Secretary of Defense / Treasury Secretary/ Homeland Security / White House Chief of Staff (last one very important because acts as gatekeeper to Pres. & helps coordinate activities & meetings) http://www.whitehouse.gov/administration/cabinet/ C) Pres. = Chief Diplomat art. II, sect. 2-> allows Pres to negotiate & sign treaties w/ foreign countries BUT do not come into pwr until ratified by 2/3 vote in Senate -> Pres tends to be dominant person in determining treaties -> Pres may appt US ambassadors, but need majority vote by Senate to approve (art. II sect 3) -> may make foreign agrmnts, but cannot proceed if $ = to be spent 1) Executive Agreements & Treaties a) exec. agreements -> agreements Pres enters into w/ other countries = on par w/ fed leg & have status of supreme law of land -> since 1970's Cong has resisted allowing Pres to enter into secret agrmnts -> agrmnts abt military bases = exec. agrmnts -> Senate ratifies about 70% of treaties put forward (only 16 that have been put to vote have been rejected most notable is Treaty of Versailles submitted by Woodrow Wilson which was end to WWI & would've established US support for League of Nations, but NOT passed (isolationism = rampant) stats: -> 1st century of US -> 275 treaties & 265 exec. agrmnts -> 1945-1990 673 treaties & 12,017 exec. agrmnts -> Reagan alone-> 117 treaties & 2,837 exec. agrmnts -> some concerns about legality of executive agreements, but have always been upheld Nixon - “if the president does it, it’s legal” b) treaties Pres can negotiate-> only Senate can ratify (by 2/3rds) -SCt role has been lmtd-> Ct has never struck down any part of a treaty 8
-very few have been subject to Cal attack supremacy clause art. VI-> treaties = supreme law -> tied to art. 1, § 8 necessary & proper cl. gives Congress addtl authority to stand on -> Senate ratifies about 70% of treaties put forward (fewer than 20 that have been put to vote have been rejected) -> most attempts to regulate the different weapons of mass destruction done thru regulation of treaties -> nuclear, chemical (ex: poison gas) & biological (ex: anthrax) -> up until latest w/ Anthrax thought that nukes were much greater threat -> countries that have materials of mass destruction: U.S./Russia/India /Pakistan/ Iraq/Iran/Libya/North Korea/Syria/Sudan/Israel/Great Britain/ France/China and ?????? we can’t know for sure -> major talks that have covered nukes SALT I (Strategic Arms Limitations Talks not Treaty) -> Natl Sec. Adviser Kissinger, Nixon & Premier Brezhnev completed in 1972 -> agreed to limit ICBM (intercontinental ballistic missiles) & limit ABM (antiballistic missiles) -> Senate approves 88-2 -> Ford w/ Secy of State Kissinger agreed to more talks, but disputes about mistreatment of Soviet Jewish persons stalled-> Carter proposes more, but Brezhnev refuses-> then w/ US starting diplomatic relations w/ China-> & SU needing economic help-> Carter meets w/ Brezhnev 1979 in Vienna & agreed to …SALT II which limited strategic nuke launching missiles-> ran into opposition in Senate & Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979 doesn't help anything -> so talks continue to stall but finally -> 1982 Reagan agrees to… START I & II (Strategic Arms Reduction Talks) -> ongoing talks to reduce levels of nukes ultimately led to Nunn-Lugar Threat Reduction Plan -> 5,700 Russian nuclear warheads have been separated from missiles. -> nuke material (highly enriched uranium or plutonium) safely stored -> 30,000+ tactical nuclear weapons collected & stored -> & able to get Russia to agree to destroy all chemical weapons by 2002 (40,000 metric tons of chemical weapons stored in 7 locations awaiting destruction)-> issue of Russian bilogical materials less certain -> who is in the Nuclear Club? United States Russia (successor state to the Soviet Union) the United Kingdom France China have all agreed to monitoring 9
India Pakistan N. Korea have (but do not agree to monitoring) Israel neither confirms/denies it has them (it has them)
Since the NPT entered into force in 1970, three states that were not parties to the Treaty have conducted nuclear tests, namely India, Pakistan, and North Korea -> may be a bigger problem w/ CBWs (Chemical & Biological Weapons) -> Chemical like nukes are made by humans -> Biological occurs naturally but can be re-created by humans to be used a as a weapon -> Chemical & Biological Weapons banned by the 1972 Weapons Conventions (treaties)– requires the US to destroy its weapons & entered into force in 1997 when Senate ratified it – not signed by many rogue states – are allowed to do defensive research on bio weapons Nye-> low likelihood of great power conflict, but there is a likelihood of regional hegemons rising up and causing war, esp. if they try to acquire weapons of mass destruction (because that equalizes pwr differential btw small & big states Nye-> US will lead shifting coalitions on different issues and will have to work on the infrastructure, troops, equipment, conflict resolution mechanisms and leadership to get at problem-> why all concerned about bin Laden having “dirty weapons” (suitcase nuclear devices or chemical/biological weapons that could be used) why has so much more attention been paid to ballistic missile defense rather than protecting against weapons of mass destruction 1) strategic inertia from cold war, 2) an old aversion to civil defense 2) executive orders? -> this is what Bush has been using to justify his powers on military tribunals & creating “Office of Homeland Security” -> such orders have force of law & have been upheld by US SCt -> standard is whether the pres. has the authority Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer (1952) 6-3 (= natl/domestic case)-> but Pres was placing in context of intl emergency during Korean War 10
FA: Truman natlized steel mills during Korean war to prevent strike-> issued Exec. order & not ask for Congal approval -> steel cos. sought injunction to prevent & was granted RE: w/o consent of Congress, Pres. sidestepped Congal pwr-> cannot be justified under Commander-in-Chief principles b/c too removed from theatre of war-> Pres carries out laws, not make them -> Pres pwrs not fixed but fluctuate-> categories: 1) implied/express authorization of pwrs (pres pwrs= max) 2) concurrent pwrs-> medium & distribution = uncertain 3) when Pres acts in contradictory manner to Cong-> on shaky grounds
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