Closing Decades of the Cold War The Vietnam War
A. 1946-1954 Communist leader Ho Chi Minh led an anti-colonial war against the French a. Vietnam was officially recognized as an independent nation along with Laos and Cambodia and the Geneva Conference in 1954 b. The Geneva Conference split Vietnam at the 17th parallel until general elections for a unified country could be held in 1956 B. Communists and Anti-Communists were divided in Vietnam a. North- led by Ho Chi Minh i. Communist ii. Capital in Hanoi iii. Repressive Regime b. South- led by Ngo Dinh Diem i. Anti-Communist ii. Western supported iii. Capital in Saigon iv. Authoritarian, inept, corrupt, and committed acts of coercion-especially against the country’s large Buddhist population v. Close to 1 million Vietnamese fled to the South vi. 1955- in a referendum South Vietnam established an independent republic vii. refused to participate in the general elections in 1956 C. Viet Cong (Communist guerilla forces) began to undermine the South Vietnamese government a. National Liberation Front- rival civil authority i. Won support by distributing land and denouncing South Vietnam as a puppet of the West D. Regular army units from North Vietnam began to reinforce the Viet Cong a. Ho Chi Minh received support from the Soviet Union and China E. South Vietnam turned to the U.S. for support a. President Eisenhower sent limited support i. A few hundred military advisors and military and economic aid ii. 1959- 2 military advisors killed in an attack north of Saigon b. JFK sent more advisors, money and arms i. 1961- sent additional advisors and troops ii. 1962- 4,000 US military in Vietnam; 1st battle deaths reported iii. with the help of the CIA the US intervened in South Vietnamese politics 1. helped overthrow Diem’s government in 1963 2. Diem and his brother were killed c. the US acted on the premise that it was not intervening in a civil war, but a war between two nations i. one communist, one anti-communist ii. one supported by the USSR and China, the other needed US support d. Vietnam was an undeclared war for the US
e. American intervention in Vietnam would span the administrations of 5 PresidentsEisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson, Nixon and Ford F. Johnson escalated US involvement in Vietnam a. Gulf of Tonkin Resolution- 1964 i. US alleged North Vietnamese torpedo boats in the Gulf of Tonkin attacked US destroyers ii. Johnson ordered immediate air strikes iii. Gulf of Tonkin Resolution- Congressional resolution that allowed the President to take “all necessary measures to defend the US and its ally” b. 1965- Marines arrived in Vietnam and heavy air raids on supply bases in the north and on Communist-controlled areas in South Vietnam began almost daily c. Viet-Cong remained evasive so US soldiers conducted “search and destroy” missions in villages and US planes dropped Napalm (a highly flammable chemical fire bomb) burning entire villages and defoliating hundreds of thousands of acres of land i. Thousands of survivors became refugees d. 1966- closed to 200,000 US troops were in Vietnam e. 1969- about 550,000 US troops were in Vietnam i. Thailand, the Philippines, Australia and New Zealand also sent troops f. 1965-1969 the US dropped more explosives than it had dropped against the Axis powers in World War II g. LBJ became obsessed with a need to win the war i. He was convinced it was in America’s vital interest to contain communism in Southeast Asia ii. If Vietnam fell, then Hawaii would fall, and then San Francisco… iii. Thought he was learning the lessons of appeasement from WWII iv. He refused to preside over the 1st war lost by the US G. The Tet Offensive a. Communist New Years offensive- 1968 i. Unsuccessful but shook American complacency ii. Made US realize a negotiated settlement would be necessary H. Critics of the War a. Charles DeGaulle (French leader)- “detestable for a great nation to ravage a small one” b. Riots and protests broke out in US cities and universities- “Hey, Hey LBJ, how many kids did you kill today?!” c. Should the US police the world against communist aggression? I. LBJ did not seek re-election in 1968 and halted bombings to allow peace negotiations to move forward- November 1968 a. Paris Peace Talks began in 1969 but fighting continued J. Vietnamization a. Nixon wanted to shift responsibility of the war from the US to the South Vietnamese b. Began withdrawing US troops c. BUT began to spread the war
i. Resumed heavy air attacks ii. Invaded Cambodia to cut off North Vietnamese supply lines iii. Laos also became involved K. US Withdrawal a. Nixon’s Secretary of State Henry Kissinger opened secret talks with North Vietnamese representatives and signed a cease-fire in January 1973 b. Hostilities between North and South continued i. They violated the cease-fire ii. Congress would not authorize additional expenditures of military aid iii. 1974- North Vietnam captured key South Vietnamese cities iv. April 1975- north Vietnam’s armies controlled ¾ of South Vietnam and Saigon fell v. North Vietnamese renamed Saigon Ho Chi Minh City L. Communist Vietnam a. “political reeducation” campaign b. nationalized property c. forcibly moved large numbers of people from the cities to the country d. Cambodia and Laos also fell under Communism e. Vietnam became the new military power in Southeast Asia M. Costs of War a. 1 in 3 Vietnamese died b. 58.000 US deaths c. US inflation due to war debts d. Mistrust of the Presidency e. De-moralized Veterans f. 1st US loss in war g. Khmer Rouge in Cambodia i. Harsh Communist Regime ii. Pol Pot- brutal dictator 1. inflicted horrible terror on his people 2. over 2 million died 3. forced labor, famine and mass executions 4. pro-Chinese iii. 1979- North Vietnam invaded Cambodia and overthrew Pol Pot 1. China couldn’t convince Vietnam to withdraw 2. late 1980s Soviets finally convinced Vietnam to withdraw from Cambodia
Brezhnev and Nixon
A. Leonid Brezhnev became the Soviet leader after Khrushchev was ousted from power in 1964 a. Wanted to build the country’s military and naval strength against the US b. Avoided direct confrontation c. Open rift with Communist China
B. “Prague Spring”- 1968 a. reform uprising in Czechoslovakia b. crushed by Soviet led Soviet, Polish, Hungarian and East German troops c. “Brezhnev Doctrine”- the USSR had the right to intervene in the name of “proletarian internationalism” in any Communist country to protect “socialism” against “internal or external forces” and prevent the “restoration of a capitalist regime” d. Czechoslovakia returned to a tight dictatorship with close ties to Moscow C. Nixon and détente a. Practiced a policy of systematic détente- other than in Vietnam b. Nixon and Kissinger believed each country’s long- range national self-interest and geopolitical concerns should count more than ideology c. Used economic concessions and other inducements for cooperation and peace d. US linked Western technology, trade and an investment to Soviet cooperation in international affairs i. Soviet economy, agriculture and technology were struggling and benefited from US détente ii. US and Western European bankers made large loans to East European nations D. Opening of China a. People’s Republic of China had emerged as a new power b. 1971- US withdrew its objections to the entry of China into the UN to replace Taiwan c. 1972- Nixon visited Mao in Beijing to discuss diplomatic and economic relations with China E. SALT I a. Strategic Arms Limitation Talks between the US and USSR b. Nixon and Soviet leaders reaffirmed the goal of “peaceful coexistence” c. Signed SALT I Treaty i. Each nation would reduce its antimissile defense system to make it possible to work toward equality in offensive weapons ii. Hold offensive weapons to a fixed number for five years d. did not halt the arms race but reduced fears and tensions F. Helsinki Accords a. 1975 b. 35 nations- 16 members of NATO, 7 members of the Warsaw Pact, and 12 unaffiliated nations met at a Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe c. worked for peace, economic and cultural cooperation, and the protection of human rights d. ratified European territorial boundaries established after WWII e. “Helsinki Watch Committees” set up to monitor human rights in the nations that signed the agreements
Cold War Rekindled
A. US politics a. Nixon resigned in 1974 b. Gerald Ford became President c. Election of 1976- Jimmy Carter becomes President i. Infused foreign policy with moral idealism ii. Would only continue détente with the USSR if they agreed to 1. permit freedom to dissenters 2. right of emigration for Soviet Jews and others 3. end the coercion of Poland B. SALT II a. January 1979 b. US and USSR agreed to parity in strategic (long-range) nuclear missiles C. USSR in Afghanistan a. 1979- USSR moved troops into Afghanistan to bolster its weak pro-Soviet regime b. Carter condemned it as an act of invasion and aggression i. Thought the Soviets could take control of much of the world’s oil supplies ii. Any attempt by an outside force to gain control of the Persian Gulf region would be regarded as “an assault on the vital interests of the United States” and would be repulsed by “any means necessary, including military force” iii. Withdrew SALT II treaty from the Senate, embargoed sales of grain and high technology to the Soviets, increased military budget and stepped up procedures for a renewal of the draft iv. The rest of Europe refused to support the US sanctions c. Afghanistan turned out to be the USSR’s Vietnam i. Unable to defeat the Muslim guerillas and withdrew after 8 ½ years D. Reagan Years a. President Ronald Reagan sworn into office in January 1981 b. The USSR represented “the focus of evil in the modern world”. An “evil empire” with “dark purposes” c. Increased defense appropriations, sponsored the largest peacetime military spending in US history and took a confrontational stand against communism everywhere d. Supported Afghanistan with arms shipments to Muslim guerillas and Pakistan e. Supported repressive authoritarian regimes in Latin America as long as they were anti-Communist
The End of the Cold War
A. Mikhail Gorbachev became leader of the USSR in 1985 a. Perestroika- a drastic modification of the centrally planned command economy
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i. Decentralization ii. Self-management for industry and agriculture iii. End of the rigidity imposed by the apparat (party and government bureaucracy) Glasnost- “openness” i. The right to voice the need for change, the freedom to criticize the existing system and the willingness to reexamine past mistakes and wrongdoings ii. Led to liberalization of Soviet society, freer press and an end to totalitarian control over political, cultural and intellectual life iii. People became freer and less fearful iv. Legal codes revised to encompass some civil liberties, allow freedom of expression and reduce police abuses v. Spoke of Stalin’s crimes, rehabilitated his opponents and victims and planned memorials Constitutional Reforms i. New national legislature and multi-candidate elections ii. March 1989- 1st openly contested multi-party elections iii. Congress of People’s Deputies elected 1. Chose a smaller standing legislative body to meet more frequently 2. Both could initiate legislation and debate issues Economic Reforms i. Only looked to reform, rather than abandon the old system ii. Encouraged individuals to start up businesses iii. Welcomed foreign capital for trade, investment and joint-ventures iv. Limited reforms in agriculture were mostly unsuccessful 1990- Congress of People’s Deputies create a presidency i. Gorbachev elected President 1. Gorbachev was criticized by some for going to far and by some by not going far enough- torn between the old guard who supported Communism and resisted changes and the new group of democratic reformers who wanted more extreme change 2. Reformers criticized Gorbachev’s a. Poor economic record b. Reluctance to revamp the agricultural system enough c. Repression of ethnic unrest d. Rejection of demands of constituent republics for greater freedom 3. In reality the military, industrial bureaucrats and Communist party were still in command Rise of Ethnic Tensions i. Azerbaijan and Armenia fought over disputed territory ii. Violence in Georgia iii. Every one of the 15 federated constituent republics began to demand their independence from Russia Practiced détente i. Became known as a negotiator, diplomat and Western style-politician
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Negotiated nuclear arms reduction agreements with the US Sought to reduce the USSR’s military burden on the economy Removed troops and weapons from Eastern Europe Encouraged reforms in Eastern Europe Supported human rights Viewed détente as essential to avoid catastrophe in a nuclear age
B. End of the Cold War a. Gorbachev and Reagan began summit meetings over a period of two and a half years to discuss arms reductions b. 1987- Gorbachev and Reagan agree to remove intermediate-range missiles from Europe and Gorbachev agreed to reduce the USSR’s short-range nuclear missiles i. The USSR agreed to destroy over four times as many missiles as the US ii. The USSR also agreed to let the US verify the destruction of the missiles iii. Agreed to continued negotiations on the reduction of strategic (longrange) nuclear weapons c. During the course of the meetings in Washington and Moscow, Gorbachev and Reagan were able mingle with each other’s people i. In Moscow Reagan spoke about Soviet repression of dissidents, the refusal to permit Jews to emigrate, religious persecution, and the ongoing war in Afghanistan 1. Gorbachev agreed to a withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan d. 1990- Gorbachev and President George H.W. Bush could jointly hail the end of the Cold War i. In 1991 they signed a strategic arms treaty pledging each nation to scale down by about 1/3 its arsenal of long-range nuclear missiles
Collapse of Communism in Central and Eastern Europe
A. By the mid-1980s Communist nations in Eastern and Central Europe were still controlled by strict Communist leaders, but they began to openly discuss the need for change a. Their centrally planned economies were stagnant b. Old industrial infrastructure was failing c. Environment was deteriorating d. Scarcity of economic capital prevented growth of new industries e. They were in debt to Western banks B. Poland a. Led by Wladyslaw Gomulka from 1956-1970 i. Persecuted church leaders, put down strikes, permitted anti-Semitic campaigns ii. Replaced by Edmund Gierek in 1970 after food riots broke out b. Gierek embarked on an economic development program financed by heavy borrowing from the west i. The country expanded exports at the expense of domestic consumption ii. The economy steadily deteriorated
iii. 1980- rise in food prices led to widespread strikes iv. Solidarity- an aggressive independent trade union federation became very popular 1. Led by Lech Walesa a. Militant leader and national symbol of protest b. Received Nobel Peace Prize in 1983 2. Called for free elections and a role for Solidarity in government v. USSR (still led by Brezhnev) put pressure on Polish government to curb Solidarity, oust Gierek and replace him with General Jaruzelski vi. As strikes and demonstrations continued Jaruzelski imposed martial law, banned Solidarity and arrested its leaders in 1981 vii. Once threat of Soviet intervention subsided and power of Solidarity was curbed Jaruzelski lifted martial law and initiated a reform program 1. Efforts at economic reform failed to improved the economic or placate resentment against the government c. 1989- Jaruzelski permitted parliamentary elections i. Solidarity was able to put forward candidates but Communists were guaranteed a fixed number of seats ii. Solidarity won a landslide victory in all contested seats 1. Communists became a minority iii. The new government restructured the economy into a free market iv. Lech Walesa was elected president in 1990 1. Differences emerged between him and his former allies and former Communists regained political influence, but Poland was no longer communist C. Hungary a. 1956 “counterrevolution” was suppressed by the Soviets and its leaders were hanged b. János Kádár ran the country for the next 32 years i. Moved away from a centrally planned economy, encouraged limited private enterprise and welcomed capital investment from the West ii. Economy initially expanded but resulted in no fundamental change iii. In 1985 after Gorbachev’s reforms in the USSR started, a new drive for reform surfaced in Hungary c. 1988- Kadar was eased out of office i. New leadership allowed opposition parties to surface and multiparty elections 1. Began to dismantle older party-state apparatus 2. Dissolved Communist party and reconstituted it along socialist and social democratic lines 3. Reclaimed 1956 revolution as progressive and condemned those who had invited Soviet intervention d. The country reasserted its national independence, restored self-government and civic freedom and opened the way to a market-oriented economy and a pluralist economy and a pluralist democracy e. Destroyed part of the bared-wire barrier on its Austrian border
i. 1989- East Germans vacationing in Hungary wished to emigrate to the West ii. Hungary opened its Austrian border and allowed them to exit 1. This provided East Germans with a safe way to leave their country D. German Democratic Republic a. Of all the Eastern European nations, East Germany had the strongest economy and highest per capita income i. Yet it still had fewer amenities than West Germany ii. The Berlin Wall still prevented East Germans from leaving for the West iii. Hundreds of thousands of East Germans seized the opportunity to leave that was opened to them by Hungary 1. 350,000 left by the end of 1989 alone 2. In West Germany they were guaranteed citizenship and assistance in finding homes and jobs b. Erich Honecker was in power from 1961-1969 i. Resisted reform c. Demonstrations against Honecker’s government mounted in 1989 and Gorbachev signaled that he would not send Soviet support i. The Communist party forced Honecker to resign d. The new leadership promised elections and confirmed the right of free and unrestricted travel i. November 9, 1989- the government opened up the Berlin Wall 1. Berliners on both sides tore it down 2. Exodus to West Germany continued e. The freedom of movement, the end of censorship, the new parliamentary supervision over the state security police and the promise of free elections were not enough i. People were furious over the admitted corruption in the government ii. Economic conditions had worsened in the last few years iii. The government had amassed an enormous debt iv. The party structure came crashing down 1. The Politburo and Central Committee resigned 2. Honecker and other leaders were arrested on charges of corruption and embezzlement f. A new Constitutional regime was created- East Germany was no longer Communist g. Pressure for reunification with West Germany surfaced i. Some other nations still worried about a unified Germany ii. Reunification required the approval of the four major allied powers from World War II 1. Britain and France were hesitant 2. The US argued it would be wrong to deny the Germany people the right to self-determination 45 years after the war had ended and the Federal Republic of Germany had demonstrated its commitment to democracy- a unified Germany would integrate East Germany into
a democratic system and Germany would remain part of democratic Western Europe and the European Community iii. The four Allied powers (U.S., Britain, France, and the U.S.S.R.) relinquished their occupation rights iv. Germany confirmed the earlier cession of territories in the east to the U.S.S.R. and pledged not to violate the German-Polish border h. October 3, 1990- East and West Germany formally united and became the Federal Republic of Germany i. They merged their economies and chose the Deutsche mark as their currency ii. Capital was moved to Berlin within a few years iii. West Germany Chancellor Helmut Kohl and the Christian Democrats won a sweeping victory in the first nationwide elections 1. Kohl and the Christian Democrats had played a large part in the reunification E. Czechoslovakia a. Ruling hard-liners disapproved of Gorbachev’s reform policies and worked to stifle dissent in Czechoslovakia i. Despite this dissidents grew numbers and influence ii. Charter ’77- an organization of intellectuals formed after the Helsinki accords 1. Rallied the struggle against dictatorship 2. Public was inspired by the disintegration of Communist power in Poland, Hungary and East Germany iii. Demonstrations broke out in the fall of 1989 1. The government arrested dissident leaders but thousands appealed for their release and the government’s resignation iv. When the USSR and other Warsaw Pact nations voted to express “regret” over the military invasion during the spring of 1968 the reform movement gained momentum b. November 24, 1989- 350,000 demonstrators in Prague demanded an end to the party-state dictatorship and a general strike threatened to bring the country to a standstill i. The government leaders all resigned ii. Alexander Dubček (a hero of the “Prague Spring” uprising) pledged free press and elections, dissolved the secret police and abolished compulsory teaching of Marxism-Leninism in the universities iii. The Communist party’s monopoly on power ended c. Vaclav Havel became the provisional president and led a new cabinet in which the Communists were a minority i. Gorbachev withdrew the 75,000 Soviet troops that had been stationed there since 1968 ii. “89” is “68” backwards iii. Moved rapidly toward a market-oriented economy and a pluralist democracy d. Slovak political leaders began to press for independence
i. In January 1993 Czechoslovakia was split in two: 1. The Czech Republic 2. Slovakia F. Bulgaria a. Mass demonstrations in the capital of Sofia demanded an end to the Communist dictatorship b. Pressure within the party forced the party chief (who had governed for 35 years) to resign i. Replaced by his foreign minister who promised new parliamentary elections, economic reforms, and an end to the party’s monopoly on power ii. Was basically a coup within the Communist party iii. Communists renamed themselves Socialists and worked with other parties to create a true democracy G. Romania a. Governed by dictator Nicolae Ceausescu since 1965 i. Ruled with the help of his wife and family ii. Built a cult personality around himself iii. Firmly controlled the party and the government iv. Had a large private security force v. Wanted to turn Romania’s backward agrarian society into a modern industrial society regardless of the cost 1. Borrowed heavily from the West 2. Demanded the country regularly pay the interest on its debt despite the cost on the population vi. Exerted his independence from the Soviet Union 1. Supported Israel in the Arab- Israeli wars 2. Refused to join the invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 b. December 1989- riots broke out in Timisoara (a provincial capital) i. When the military refused to fire on the demonstrators Ceausescu’s security force took over and killed hundreds ii. New protests emerged iii. Ceausescu was forced to flee c. A battle raged between the security forces who supported Ceausescu and the regular army who supported the revolutionists i. The security forces were defeated ii. Ceausescu and his wife were executed by firing squad d. the National Salvation Front took control of the country i. comprised of former officials of Ceausescu’s government and opposition leaders 1. the party’s authority ended and the most repressive dictatorship in the Eastern bloc nations came to an end H. 1989 Revolutions a. By the end of 1989 Communism had fallen in all of the Eastern bloc nations b. All revolutions were peaceful except in Romania
I. The Fall of the Soviet Union a. Despite Gorbachev’s reforms, the economy was still in trouble and production was declining b. The republics within the Soviet Union were pressing for sovereignty c. Gorbachev introduced new reforms in the fall of 1990 i. Abandoned his “500-Day” economic plan and replaced it with a market economy ii. Military was set to be deployed against the Baltic republics which had declared their independence in the spring of 1990 iii. Edward Shevardnadze, Gorbachev’s foreign minister and closest ally resigned iv. January 1991- without Gorbachev’s approval Soviet troops used military force against protesters in Lithuania with a loss of lives v. Reformers viewed Gorbachev as a barrier to change and he grew hostile towards them d. Boris N. Yelstin emerged as the democratic reformer’s leader i. Yelstin had been a Communist party boss and a member of the Politburo ii. He understood the inner workings of the Communist party iii. He had been dismissed from his posts when he openly attacked the privileges, prerequisites and incompetence of party officials in 1987 iv. Yelstin was elected to the Soviet legislature in March 1989 v. Elected to the Russian legislature (legislature of the Russian constituent republic) in 1990 1. Became chairman 2. Stepped up attacks against Gorbachev, the party and the central government 3. When Gorbachev allowed constituent republics to elect their own presidents, Yelstin was elected president of the Russian republic in June 1991 a. Overwhelming victory against Communist rivals b. The 1st Russian president in history to be elected by popular vote c. Yelstin demanded immediate independence for the three Baltic states and self-government for Russia and the other Soviet constituent republics vi. Gorbachev began negotiations with the presidents of the republics 1. Agreed to surrender more autonomy to the 15 republics including substantial control over the economic and financial resources a. Georgia and the Baltic republics refused to participate in the negotiations b. Russia and 10 other constituent republics signed Gorbachev’s “union treaty” e. Failed August Coup i. The day before the union treaty was to be signed, 8 “old-guard” Communist hard-liners tried to seize power
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1. They detained Gorbachev at his summer home and tried to persuade him to cooperate or relinquish power- he refused 2. They proclaimed the Committee of State Emergency to replace him a. They did not gain the popular support they expected 3. Yelstin rallied the Russian legislature in defense of Gorbachev, warned that anyone supporting the coup would be subject to criminal charges and appealed for popular support against a military show of force (which never occurred) ii. Without military support, the coup failed after four days iii. Gorbachev resigned as general secretary but continued to defend “socialism” and stressed the need to preserve the unity of the U.S.S.R. Yelstin issued a series of decrees denouncing the Communist party i. He suspended the Communist party’s activities and transferred its property, files and archives to the state ii. The Soviet Congress of People’s Deputies voted itself out of existence Gorbachev continued to preside over the federation council consisting of the presidents of the constituent republics i. The council immediately recognized the independence of the Baltic republics ii. Gorbachev still hoped to retain a “union of sovereign states” 1. But the republics pushed for full independence iii. The Ukrainian S.S.R. proclaimed itself independent immediately after the August coup iv. Yelstin announced that Russia would not remain in the union without Ukraine v. Ukraine, Russia and Belarus, the states that had created the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in December 1922, dissolved the union in December 1991 1. Gorbachev resigned as president 2. Yelstin took his office in the Kremlin vi. The other republics of the Soviet Union agreed to its dissolution Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) consisting of Russia and 10 other republics was created. The Soviet Union ceased to exist Russia replaced the Soviet Union in the UN Security Council