CHINA

CLASSICAL PERIOD 1000 BCE ~ 500 CE INDIA OVERVIEW  India 3rd great center of classical civilization – Mediterranean – Middle East (Greece, Persia, Rome) – China  Fall of Harappan Society – 1500 BCE  Nomadic Aryan Invaders – 1500~500 BCE – Formative Period  Vedic Age – 1500~1000 BCE  Epic Age – 1000~600 BCE  Alexander the Great Invades (327 BCE)  Mauryan Dynasty (322~298 BCE) – Chandragupta Maurya – Ashoka (269~232 BCE)  Kushans (~220 CE)  Gupta Empire (319~535 CE)  Huns PRE-CLASSICAL  Nomadic Aryan Invaders – 1500~500 BCE – Aryans (Indo-European)  Indo-European migrants  Hunting & herding people  Originally from Central Asia  Gradually came to terms w/ agriculture  Iron tools to clear dense vegetation  Laid pre-classical foundations during Formative Period (Vedic/Epic Ages)  Kings of divine descent  Ganges River Plains – fertile farmland (cleared forests – climate change)  Social & family forms become increasingly influential – Tight levels of village organization – Village chief drawn from leadership of one of Aryan tribes  Organize village defenses and regulate property relationships – Patriarchal – Extended families  Nomadic Aryan Invaders – 1500~500 BCE – Aryans (Indo-European)  Polytheistic – Many gods and goddesses 1 CLASSICAL PERIOD 1000 BCE ~ 500 CE INDIA – Gods regulated natural forces (fire, sun, death etc.) – Gods possessed human qualities – Bore resemblance to Greek / Scandinavian mythical gods & goddesses - Derived from same Indo-European oral heritage - Epic Period – offer hymns and sacrifices to gods - Certain animals viewed as sacred – embodying divine spirit - Monkey / cattle - Epic poems reflect life after death - Religious approach to world of nature - Upanishads reflect this ideology – foundations for Hinduism - End of Epic Age – Diverse religious beliefs - Many continue to emphasize ritual to gods of nature - Produced mystical strands – unifying diving force – seeking union with this force - Gautama Buddha – built on this mysticism – establish Buddhism Formative Period  Vedic Age – 1500~1000 BCE – Brahmans (Vedic priests) dominant force – Agriculture extend from Indus River valley to more fertile Ganges – Vedas - Literary Epics (source of pre-classical Indian history)  Initially oral stories by Aryans  Later written in Sanskrit - 1st literary language of new culture – Rig-Veda  First Aryan epic  1028 hymns dedicated to Aryan gods  By various priests  Epic Age – 1000~600 BCE – Upanishads  Epic poems w/ more mystical religious flavor  Shallowness of worldly concerns  Riches & health unimportant  Attack Brahman ritualism – Mahabharata & Ramayana  Mahabharata – India’s greatest epic poem  Real & Mythical Battles  Reflect more settled agrarian society  Reflect better organized political units  Indian Caste System Develops During Formative Period – Initially developed as means of establishing relationship between Aryan conquerors and indigenous people (regarded as inferior) 2 CLASSICAL PERIOD 1000 BCE ~ 500 CE INDIA – Promote tolerance by not forcing full integration of cultures & values  Varnas (Indian Social Classes) – 1. Kshatriyas – warrior or governing class (initially ranked 1st) – 2. Brahmins – priestly class (later ranked 1st during Epic Age) – 3. Vaisyas – traders & farmers – 4. Sudras – common laborers – 5. Untouchables – few jobs; transport dead bodies & haul refuse  5 social classes later becomes hereditary – Jati (livings) – smaller subgroups of each caste – Regulated social relationships, work roles & social habits – Low caste system have few legal rights – abuse common but mostly not extreme due to religious restraints – Castes living in peasant village have little access to upper castes – Village leaders protect peasants from interference by landlords & rulers  After Epic Age – Hereditary principles grow stronger – social mobility virtually impossible – Few exceptions (i.e. merchant class king – but mostly from warrior class) – Intermarriage forbidden and punishable by death – Jatis grew up to 300 and further divided into more subcastes – Falling in caste possible through intermarriage or inappropriate work – Oddly tolerant – Diversity of people live side by side / absence of slavery POLITICS  Irregular political eras – – – Little formal political theory Landmark invasions through mountain passes in NW Powerful regional states (End of Epic Age ~ 4th Century BCE )  16 major states exist by 600 BCE  Regionalism most persistent political tradition Mix of monarchies & republics (assembly of priests/warriors) Warfare common Magadha – one regional state dominate considerable empire Invasion by Alexander the Great (327 BCE) prompt political action Classical India alternate between widespread empires & network of smaller kingdoms Periods of regional rule does not signify instability  Economic & cultural advance – – – – – – MAURYAN DYNASTY  Mauryan Dynasty – Reaction to Alexander the Great’s incursion 3 CLASSICAL PERIOD 1000 BCE ~ 500 CE INDIA – – Chandragupta Maurya seized power along Ganges River  1st rulers to unify almost entire subcontinent  Highly autocratic – heavy reliance on ruler’s personal & military power  Kautilya (chief minister) – Wrote important treatise on politics – Methods of maintaining power – Encourage efficient authority but not political value or political service Ashoka (269~232 BCE)  Chandragupta’s grandson  Greater than Chandragupta  Studied nature & intense spiritualism (Brahmin - Hinduism & Buddhism)  Extend Mauryan conquest – most of India except for southern tip  Bloodthirsty tyrant  Encourage trade & communication (road improvements)  Conversion to Buddhism – Dharma – law of moral consequences – Ethical guide that might unite diverse people under his rule – Sent Buddhist missionaries to Middle East, Sri Lanka & Hellenistic Kingdoms – Urged humane behavior  Mauryas (Late 4th Century BCE) – Largest Indian empire in pre-modern India – Short-lived – Followed by another round of nomadic invasions  Mauryan Politics  Borrow from Persian political model or Alexander the Great  Depend heavily on power of the army – fear of betrayal & attack  Maintained large armies – thousands of chariots & elephant-borne troops  Substantial bureaucracy  Sponsor postal service  Never establish durable roots – fall after Ashoka  Regional kingdoms reemerge KUSHANS  Kushans (~220 CE) – – New invaders push into central India Kanishka  Greatest Kushan King  Convert to Buddhism (hurt religion’s popularity – association w/ foreign rule) 4 CLASSICAL PERIOD 1000 BCE ~ 500 CE INDIA GUPTA  Gupta Empire (320 ~ 535 CE) Golden Age of Classical India – Powerful new dynasty – Patronage of Hinduism – reassert Brahmins’ dominance – Splendid Achievements  Architecture, painting, sculpture, philosophy, literature, science – No influential rulers but greater impact – Politics  Rulers prefer negotiations with local princes & intermarry families  Negotiations expanded influence without dissent  Rulers allow defeated rulers to maintain regional control after submission to Gupta dominance  Personal representatives sent to each ruler’s court to ensure loyalty  Rulers use divine descent to consolidate support  Hinduism believed in such gods so preferred it over Buddhism  Greatest period of political stability  Smaller territory than Mauryan  Not very extensive bureaucracy  No single language imposed – loose structure  Promoted Sanskrit among educated but no impact on linguistic diversity  Spread uniform law codes  Sponsored road building & cultural activities (university, art, literature)  Demanding taxation system – Up to 1/6th of agricultural produce GEOGRAPHY  Distinctive culture due to geography  Northwest – Important passes through mountains link India to Middle East  Subcontinent – Partially separated from rest of Asia – East Asia by northern mountain ranges (Himalayas)  Full political unity difficult – characterized by division  Indus & Ganges Rivers – most important agricultural regions  Linguistic Diversity  Racial Diversity  Economic Diversity  Mountainous northern region – Herding economy  Southern coastal rim – Separated by mountains and Deccan plateau – Trading & seafaring economy 5 CLASSICAL PERIOD 1000 BCE ~ 500 CE INDIA  Greater diversity than China  Closer to other civilizations than China – Influences from Middle East & Mediterranean – Invaded by Alexander the Great of Persian Empire CLIMATE  Semitropical  Monsoons – Crucial for farming – Varies year to year – abundance one year, starvation the next – Too little rain or coming too late – famine – Catastrophic floods HINDU  Hindu – Gupta – Origin Vedic/Epic Ages (Brahmans)  Early Hinduism called Brahmanism  Hinduism become more elaborate under Brahman leadership After Epic Ages  Upanishads attack ritualism for good things in life or after death  Tension between ritual & seeking communion w/ divine soul Hinduism formalizes (1st Century CE)  Gurus (mystics) - Brahmans learn to agree on certain principles  Brahma – basic holy essence – –  Hindu Characteristics – Religion called Dharma by Indians  Moral law of Dharma – Moral consequences of action  Urged honorable / even pleasurable behavior  Final release from life cycle & union w/ divine essence  Ethical principles not detailed – Individuals meet obligations of life  Bhagavad Gita – classic hymn of warrior duty to kill  Legitimize / reinforce government & caste system – Unlike other religions, no single founder or holy figure – Divine aspects of brahma manifested in various gods – Vishnu (preserver) – Shive (destroyer) – Lesser gods in represented in spirits of nature 6 CLASSICAL PERIOD 1000 BCE ~ 500 CE INDIA – – – Local divinities Divine force informs the whole universe – mystical contact / union w/ divine essence Reincarnation  World of our senses unimportant than world of divine soul  Proper life devoted to seeking union with this soul  May take several lifetimes  Where you go depends on how good a life you lead (upper or lower caste/animals)  Once reaching soul of brahma, worldly suffering ceases  Personal prayer to divinities aid reincarnation process  Symbolic sacrifices/gifts also aid reincarnation  Hinduism Overall – Cultural cement (cut across politics, language, castes) – Major religion today – Developed gradually in reaction to competing religions – Tolerant of other religions – Approaches  Belief of many paths of worship  Strictly ritualistic & ceremony (Brahmans)  High-soaring mysticism to unite with all-embracing divine principle – Encourage political & economic goals (artha) & worldly pleasures (karma) – Success due to fluidity & ability to adapt – Promotes features of Indian culture  Children indulge in imagination longer – confront less of harsh reality – Channels for good life  Rituals & proper ceremonies – Cremation – Appropriate prayers – Obedience to injunction – Refraining from eating beef (cow holy)  Yoga – meditation and self-discipline for those who renounce this world for salvation – Allow mind to be freed to concentrate on divine spirit BUDDHISM  Buddhism – Right after Epic Age (563 BCE) – Closely related to Hinduism  Accepted spiritual truth of Hinduism  Reincarnation  Didn’t reject possibility of rewards after life  Dharma – Rose as rebellion against dominant religion (Hinduism) and ritualism 7 CLASSICAL PERIOD 1000 BCE ~ 500 CE INDIA – – – – – – Growth spurred by Ashoka’s (Mauryan Dynasty) conversion Kushan emperors continue Buddhism Spread to Sri Lanka, China, Korea, Japan No permanent following Strong brahman opposition – esp. after Gupta Hinduism adapt to Buddhism by accepting mystical side as reaction  Retained loyalty of dissenting Buddhists  Buddha (6th Century BCE) “the enlightened one” – Indian prince Siddhartha Gautama – Dissenting philosopher – Weary of power seeking & materialism of Brahmans – Teachings lead to India’s 1st genuine empire – Buddhism didn’t stress importance of politics – Buddhist leaders not greatly interested in politics  Tenets of Buddhism & Differences w/ Hinduism  Question fairness of earthly life, poverty, materialism & misery  Fasted and tortured his body  Gathered disciples to spread his ideas  Salvation through destruction of the self  Annihilation of self opens door to end of suffering (nirvana)  Individuals regulate lives & aspirations toward nirvana without elaborate ceremony  Great emphasis on self control  Holy life attainable by individual effort  Deny spiritual value of castes, ritual & priests  Buddhists vs. Brahmans – Rivalry shapes gender relationships and social hierarchy SCIENCE  Scientific Inquiry – Borrowed bit from Greeks & Alexander the Great – Innovation in medicine & astronomy only reach Europeans in modern times – Steel was best in the world – Ironmaking more advanced than Europe until few centuries ago – New uses for chemistry – Mathematics  Indian numbering system (Arabic) is the one we use today  Concept of zero & decimal system & negative numbers  Square roots & sines  Computation of pi more accurate than Greeks 8 CLASSICAL PERIOD 1000 BCE ~ 500 CE INDIA – – Medicine  Research hampered by religious prohibition of dissection  Advances in bone setting & cosmetic surgery  Inoculation of smallpox as immunity  Cleanliness & sterilization of wounds  Doctors promote high ethical standards Astronomy  Understand & calculate daily rotation of earth  Predict & explain eclipses  Develop theory of gravity  Telescopes – identify 7 planets  Aryabhatta (astronomer) – Calculated length of solar year – Improve mathematical measurements – Calculate circumference of the earth – believed earth to be round  Art – – – – Stupas – spherical shrines to Buddha Keen appreciation of nature Presented homage to religious values Sculpture & Painting  Not realistic but stylized portrayals of human form  Higher Education – Gupta supported vast university center – Nalanda – one of the world’s 1st universities  Over 100 lecture halls  3 large libraries  Astronomical observatory  Model dairy  Curriculum: religion, philosophy, medicine, architecture, agriculture  Literature – Classical stories secular – Some w/ gods & Hindu imagination/excitement themes – Indian drama of romantic adventure of reuniting after peril – Kamasutra (4th Century BCE) – manual of “laws of love” – Panchatantra (Gupta) – story collections  Sinbad the Sailor  Jack the Giant Killer  Seven League Boots ECONOMY 9 CLASSICAL PERIOD 1000 BCE ~ 500 CE INDIA  Women – Rights of women become increasingly limited  Agriculture & technology reduce women’s contribution – lower status  Debate of Hindu thinkers on women’s spiritual advancement  Arranged marriages diminish rights & freedoms  Women as possessions – Women’s contributions were recognized  Emphasis on loving relationships & sexual pleasure  Provide mutual emotional support (Mahabharata – epic evidence of woman as friend)  Women portrayed as clever & strong-willed  Female goddesses  Celebrated women’s emotions & beauty  Economic Roles – Patriarchal – Family has explicit function (early indulgence / later hard work)  Economy – Trade  Much more emphasis than China & greater than Mediterranean  Tamils (southern Indians) earned great fortunes in trading  Trade w/ Asia more active – Transport sophisticated manufactured goods – Caravan trade w/ China – Transport trade culture to Malaysia & Indonesia  From Middle East & Mediterranean brought back: – Pottery, wine, metals, some slaves – Textile industry  1st to manufacture cotton, calico & cashmere  Artisans form guilds and sell goods from shops LEGACY  Religion – Buddhism inform Greek and Roman groups (Stoics) – Affect China through Buddhism & art  Classical period start later but last longer than China & Rome  Indian Ocean – dominated by Indian trade & missionaries\ – Most active linkage point amongst cultures – Mediterranean (contact Middle East, N Africa, Europe ) close 2nd 10 CLASSICAL PERIOD 1000 BCE ~ 500 CE INDIA INDIA & CHINA  Classical India & China – Differences  Trade more emphasized in India  Restraint of Chinese art & poetry contrast w/ dynamic sensual styles of India  India adopts primary religion / China does not  Indian caste system / Chinese bureaucracy  Chinese purely practical science / India more abstract  China – poltics & social structure / India – religious & social structure through Hinduism  China – political culture cohesive / India – political culture varied  China – little village control / India – powerful village control  China – more land trade limited / India – more sea trade & commercial vitality  China – closed to outside influence / India – open to outside influence – Commonalities  Cities  Trade  Indian & Chinese Agriculture – Agriculture create similarities – Mostly peasant farmers – Peasant families cluster in villages for mutual aid & protection – Strong localist favor – Upper class control of wealth & land & taxes – Patriarchy  Women as possessions  Classical India & China – Differences  Trade more emphasized in India  Restraint of Chinese art & poetry contrast w/ dynamic sensual styles of India  India adopts primary religion / China does not  Indian caste system / Chinese bureaucracy  Chinese purely practical science / India more abstract  China – poltics & social structure / India – religious & social structure through Hinduism  China – political culture cohesive / India – political culture varied  China – little village control / India – powerful village control  China – more land trade limited / India – more sea trade & commercial vitality  China – closed to outside influence / India – open to outside influence 11 CLASSICAL PERIOD 1000 BCE ~ 500 CE INDIA 12