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Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific Fertilizer Advisory, Development and Information Network for Asia and the Pacific (FADINAP) INTEGRATED PLANT NUTRITION SYSTEMS (IPNS) COMPENDIUM United Nations 2002 CONTENTS Page I. The FADINAP IPNS programme A. B. C. D. II. Background IPNS structure Implementation FADINAP comments Concept and objectives of IPNS A. B. C. D. E. F. G. Introduction Need for change Component and technology of IPNS Biofertilizers Socio-economic aspects of IPNS: scope and limitations Conclusions Recommendation III. IPNS Recommendations A. Nepal 1. Production of quality compost at farmer’s level B. 1. 2. 3. 4. Pakistan Rice-wheat (irrigated system) Wheat-legume (rainfed) Maize Cotton C. Sri Lanka 1. Rice 2. Vegetables 3. Chilli 4. Red onion 5. Maize 6. Banana 7. Papaya 8. Pineapple 9. Passion fruit 10. Citrus (lime and sweet orange) 11. Rambutan 12. Mango 13. Potato (Irish potato) 14. Sweet potato 15. Cassava 16. Diascorea yam 17. Ginger D. 1. 2. 3. Philippines Irrigated rice balanced fertilizer recommendations Rapid composting with Trichoderma Compost fungus activator production E Viet Nam 1. Spring rice, summer rice and winter soybean 2 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11 12 IV. V. Spring rice, summer soybean, late summer rice and winter potato Spring rice, summer rice and winter potato in alluvial soils Spring rice, summer rice and winter potato in acid sulphate soils Spring groundnut, summer rice and winter potato Spring rice, summer rice and winter potato in salty, alluvial soils Spring rice, summer rice and winter squash Spring rice, summer rice and winter maize Arabica coffee Tea Sugarcane Lichie Selected IPNS research results Basic data and tables A. B. C. D. Average nutrient composition of organic material Specifications of pure and fortified organic fertilizers Nutrient removed by vegetable total and edible portion at harvest Nitrogen content and C/N ratio of some compostable materials VI. Sources of IPNS information A. Documents in print or electronic format B. Internet sites 3 I. FADINAP IPNS PROGRAMME A. Background FADINAP, under its component “Development of Environmentally Sound Use of Fertilizers” has since 1997 on special request from member countries been supporting the development of country specific concepts on environmentally friendly fertilizer use and the promotion of these concepts countrywide with the assistance of national agricultural extension services. The concepts are based on the already established Integrated Plant Nutrition Systems (IPNS) formulated by Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), which promotes the integrated use of organic and inorganic fertilizers and the balanced supply of all nutrients (NPK and micronutrients) to crops. The principles of IPNS are the maintenance of soil fertility and sustainable agricultural productivity with the aim to improve farmers’ income through the judicious and efficient use of all possible sources, organic and inorganic, of plant nutrients required for healthy crop growth. Owing to budgetary constraints, FADINAP was able to invite just five of its 28 member countries to participate in the programme. The selected countries were Nepal, Sri Lanka, Viet Nam, Philippines, and at a later stage Pakistan (1999). B. IPNS structure FADINAP, after introducing a general framework of what IPNS should cover, left the more detailed instructions for implementing the programme to the participating countries as agricultural production systems differed widely. The general guidelines suggested a three phase procedure. Phase 1 would begin with a field survey of farmers’ present plant nutrition management practices to find out what farmers were actually doing, how far official fertilizer recommendations were followed, and if not, find out the reasons. A subsequent field survey would find out the current status of farmers’ plant nutrition management practices including use of locally available plant nutrient sources, soil fertility status (crop yield levels), fertilizer use (rate, type, application method, economics) for corresponding land use patterns and cropping systems and also point out possible environmental impacts of imbalanced fertilizer use. In particular the field surveys were to determine the extent of availability and use of farmyard manure (cattle, hog manure), poultry litter, rice straw recycling and use of green manure, and the inclusion of grain legumes in the cropping system. The field survey would be complemented and supported by a desk study outlining the state of soil fertility research and practical implementation of IPNS, if any. The first phase would be concluded by a national workshop attended by research institutions, agricultural universities, extension services as well as fertilizer producers (mineral/organic), fertilizer distributors (government and private) and concerned NGOs. Both, the study on soil fertility research and the findings of the field survey on plant nutrition practices were to be presented and discussed at the workshop. The outcome would be a national concept paper on IPNS, integrating plant nutrition practices, e.g., FYM, compost, mulch, biofertilizer, green manure etc., into a modern production system, which would be sustainable and, for the farmer financially rewarding/profitable. Another workshop output were detailed catalogues of tasks to be undertaken by specific agencies dealing with specific crops (crop research institutes and extension agencies), outlining further research and verification trials needed to cover all major agro-climatic areas of the country. Phase 2 would concentrate on the implementation of the concept using a number of experiments and field demonstrations, training of participating farmers, verification of correctness of choice of crops, location and plant nutrition treatment regarding actual yield increases and economics of adopted measures. Appropriate training material would have to be developed and made available for training of agricultural field extension officers as well as farmers. 4 Phase 3 would concentrate on implementing on a larger scale identified successful IPNS practices as established in phase 1 and confirmed through verification field trials in phase 2. These proven practices would be propagated to groups of farmers through demonstrations and training involving the training material prepared for phase 2 and refined according to field results in that phase. All field activities were preceded by a series of workshops at provincial level (3 per country) for the introduction of the IPNS concept in the selected agro-ecological areas, refining of the concept according to socio-economic conditions, and fine-tuning of the extension/promotion activities. Major emphasis in phase three was on the development of training manuals and the actual conduct of large scale on-farm demonstrations involving most appropriate IPNS practices agreed upon as an outcome of farmer-extension agent discussions and based on aspects of local availability of organic manures, crop residues or other organic material. C. Implementation The participating countries followed the general guidelines to varying degrees. IPNS is location and cropping system specific, thus recommended practices for IPNS implementation were specific to implementation areas. For instance, in Nepal the preparation and use of improved rural compost was considered the most important component of any IPNS field programme. Accordingly, phase 1 of the programme was devoted to trials comparing different methods of compost preparation. Field demonstrations for IPNS followed the well-proven practices of IPM Farmer Field Schools (FFS) where groups of about 20-25 farmers were trained through active participation (learning-by-doing). After concluding phase 1 of research review, field survey on farmers actual practices and organic resources available at farm level, followed by a national workshop to define national policies and strategies, the Philippines decided to follow a similar approach to Nepal, focusing on improved compost making and use. The project aimed at the production and use of quality compost using the Rapid Composting Technology (RCT) as an integral part of the implementation of the IPNS concept in the country. More specifically, the projects goals were to: a) Enhance the capability of farmers to be more productive, cost efficient and self-reliant; b) Motivate farmers to engage in low-input-cost yet profitable farming and soil fertility conservation techniques safeguarding the environment; c) Facilitate the transfer of basic and appropriate technology in crop production, particularly integrated plant nutrition management. The project consisted of two phases: Rapid Composting Technology Training and a Regional Workshop on IPNS. The Rapid Composting Training comprised two-day seminars teaching grassroot technicians and key farmers the principles of IPNS, balanced fertilization, use of soil test kits and the production of quality compost using a fungus compost activator (Trichoderma harzianum). The second part of the project comprised advocacy seminars/workshops organized in the regions to disseminate the principles of IPNS and to identify common technologies suited for specific areas or regions. Three workshops were conducted with a total of 108 participants from the Regional Field Units of the Department of Agriculture, and the local government agricultural offices. The advocacy campaign is continuing and the post training evaluation of participants of RCT and IPNS advocacy workshops are being conducted in other regions of the Philippines as a follow-up activity of the Fertilizer and Pesticide Authority (FPA) expanding FADINAP’s initial assistance with national resources. A total of 760 participants mostly farmers, farmer leaders, cooperatives and some agricultural technicians from local government agricultural units, attended 14 training sessions 5 in 14 provinces of 4 regions on Rapid Composting Technology between June and December 2001. In Viet Nam detailed review and analyses of IPNS research results and field survey of actual farmers’ practices during phase 1 and 2 were discussed in a national workshop which resulted in the adoption of a national concept on IPNS policy. The strategy chosen for phase 3 was a large scale on-farm demonstration programme to introduce most promising IPNS practices and balanced fertilization in three agricultural areas of northern Viet Nam. The number of participants approximated 50 to 70 farmers per site per crop ensuring active involvement of more than 600 farmers. Soybean results from demonstrations covering one hectare with 10 farmers implementing the demonstration and another 65 farmers receiving training during field days were very promising, (see Table 1). The combination of compost with the recommended rate of fertilizer provided the farmers with a net return of US$ 85 at a VCR of 3.5, or in other terms each US dollar invested in the improved IPNS practice gave a return of more than US$ 3.5 which was a very favourable return over investment. Table 1. Economic efficiency of balanced fertilization for winter soybean on alluvial soils of the Red River in Ha Tay province Treatment 1. Farmer’s practice (FP) 2. IPNS & BF IPNS & BF – FP Yield, kg/hectare 1 200 1 603 403 Yield Min. fert. cost, Net profit value,1000 1000VND/ 1000 VND/hectare hectare VND/hectare 5 400.00 590.0 7 213.5 1 813.5 1 100.8 510.8 1 302.7 VCR 3.55 Beneficial side effects of the recommended IPNS practice was a 10 per cent higher protein content of the soybean seeds (higher nutritional value) compared with farmers’ practice, as well as increased N, P and K content in the byproducts (leaves, stems) which recycled and returned to the soil were a valuable extra organic input for maintaining/improving soil fertility. Farmer participation The winter potato on-farm demonstration programme in northern Viet Nam was carried out by 74 farmers. Another 225 farmers participated in the FFS training activities and farmers field days and were educated on improved IPNS practices based on local agro-ecological conditions and local availability of organic matter inputs. Experience: The application of IPNS combined with balanced fertilization (higher rates of FYM (12 tons/hectare compared with only 7 tons/hectare) as farmers practice) and especially much higher potassium rates (120 kg/hectare K2O compared with only 30 kg/hectare K2O as practiced by farmers) resulted in a high increase in marketable potato yield giving more than one third higher income, encouraged farmers to adopt the introduction of winter potato in the cropping system following improved IPNS practices. It was also found that following selected IPNS practices the number and size of tubers increased, compared with farmers’ practice which made the potato harvest more marketable. Sri Lanka completed phase 1 and 2 and is currently implementing the large scale demonstrations planned for phase 3 of the FADINAP supported programme for the development of environmentally friendly plant nutrition practices and balanced fertilization in. Highlights of research review 6 a) Research review demonstrated that combining balanced NPK fertilizer with organic sources such as crop residues (rice straw), farmyard manure gave higher yields and economic returns to the farmers. Growing of green manures in situ in between rice crops and plowed under at the time of land preparation, followed with NPK fertilizer applications at transplanting (basal), tillering and grain formation (2 top dressings) was found to substitute for up to half of the mineral fertilizer nitrogen and resulted in sustained higher yields and savings to the farmer in cost of fertilizers. Recycling of rice straw was found to add to the N supply of the soil and in particular could almost entirely substitute for the total recommended K fertilizer dose, provided the rice straw totalled 3-5 tons per hectare. b) Subsidiary food crops and vegetables Combined use of organic (FYM/compost) and mineral fertilizer had given higher yields. Mulching with rice straw or corn stovers had proved to increase fertilizer use efficiency and given higher crop yields and farm profits. Vegetables responded particularly well with combined application of cattle manure/poultry litter with balanced NPK fertilizer at recommended rates. Field survey on plant nutrition practices by farmers Survey results revealed the diverse nature of fertilizer use by farmers in the production of food crops. Low-income crops such as rice, maize and grain legumes were fertilized below recommended rates by the majority of subsistence farmers. Only farmers who produced crops on a commercial scale applied higher rates of fertilizer, sometimes combined with organic manures, whereas growing of a green manure crop in situ was still in its infancy. However, all vegetables were heavily fertilized, irrespective of the crops involved. Vegetables and spices grown under coconut palms were heavily fertilized also benefiting the main crop (coconut). Farmers who already practised any form of IPNS received higher returns than those applying only mineral fertilizer. IPNS concepts developed and adopted at the national workshop following the review of IPNS research and field surveys on farmers’ practices concluded, that:      The overall IPNS strategy for crop production in Sri Lanka should involve the integrated use of mineral fertilizer and whatever available organic sources of nutrients (animal manure, green manure, crop residue etc.) Emphasis should also be placed on balanced use of chemical fertilizers (NPK) which needs adjusting according to nutrients supplied from organic manures The Department of Agriculture as the national agency responsible for agricultural policies, adopted IPNS in 2000 and recommended appropriate IPNS practices for all crops and cropping systems A national level IPNS promotion campaign was launched in 2001/2002, initially for rice crops. The programme would gradually be extended to all other crops Training material was developed with the assistance of specialist scientists in the field of IPNS for rice, subsidiary food crops, chilli, onion, and fruits such as pineapple and bananas. A training manual on IPNS for extension officers and farmer education was prepared and printed (English, Sinhala, Tamil). Moreover, IPNS posters (Sinhala, Tamil) and an IPNS brochure (Sinhala, Tamil) were produced and distributed In November 2001 a senior- and district-agricultural staff training on IPNS methods and practices and the conduct of on-farm demonstrations was held prior to laying out IPNS demonstrations for the 2001/2002 rainy season. Field demonstrations covered rice, vegetables and onion. All demonstration sites were used for farmer training and monitored by researchers. Demonstrations continued over four seasons covering different cropping systems.  7 The IPNS demonstration programme would be a joint effort involving research and extension to study the economics of crop removal of nutrients, nutrient balances (inputsoutputs), income generation and also to promote the principles and practices of IPNS among farmers. Pakistan joined FADINAP’s IPNS programme only in 1999. The country successfully concluded phase 1 covering the review of IPNS research and a field survey (rapid appraisal) on the status of IPNS in three villages representative of the three major cropping systems: (i) ricewheat, (ii) maize-wheat and (iii) legume-wheat (rainfed). Presenting and discussing results of both the research and field survey at a national seminar, the future important role of IPNS in sustainable crop production was recognized and following recommendations adopted: 1) Use of mineral fertilizer in Pakistan is well below the recommended dosage. Farmyard manure is used in limited quantities, as much of it is used as fuel. Majority of farmers were unaware of the use of improved compost, green manure, crop residues and biofertilizer. Therefore, there was a need to: a) Educate farmers regarding use and benefits of organic sources to supplement mineral fertilizers b) Educate farmers about the benefits of utilizing crop residues as organic nutrient sources to maintain soil fertility c) Train farmers in proper preparation and storage of FYM to reduce nutrient losses and demonstrate effective methods of improved compost making (use of rapid composting technology) d) Teach farmers practical aspects of biofertilizer use, their economics, methods of use and crop specific availability e) Demonstrate the economic viability of introducing green manure crops as a inbetween/sandwich crop in cropping systems. 2) A draft training material was developed and a training course on IPNS conducted for extension personnel and key farmers. Unfortunately donor constraints did not allow conduct of field demonstrations at farmers’ field level in the three villages in phase 2. These demonstrations would have played a major role for adoption by other farmers as well as by other villages in the country. D. FADINAP’s comments The integrated plant nutrition system (IPNS) was begun in the region at the right time. Being a new concept, IPNS needs further research and extension efforts to fully integrate it into the national extension systems. The process should be gradual and lessons learned to date, should be incorporated in future programmes. IPNS implies that it be applied for more than one crop or season. Its effectiveness would show only after a period of 4-6 cropping seasons and within a cropping system involving several different crops. It would be problematic to demonstrate advantages of IPNS practices involving mostly organic fertilizers for one crop or season only. Regrettably, the FADINAP programme has been terminated after demonstration results for just one season had become available. However, from an analysis of the various verification trials and demonstration results it became evident that most practical aspects of local IPNS methods not only showed an increase in crop yields, but even more importantly, were financially rewarding, in raising the extra income for the farmer. 8 Using the example of Nepal where improved methods of rural compost making and its proper use significantly increased the yields of vegetables, and almost doubled the income of the mostly women vegetable farmers, one can safely conclude that the recommended and adopted IPNS practices were a practical tool for rural income generation. From communications and commitments received by FADINAP all 5 participating countries expressed their intentions to continue the phase 3 on-farm demonstration programme as planned, using their own resources. Most countries would remodel existing demonstration programmes and superimpose or combine them with IPNS, e.g., block demonstration programme in Sri Lanka, balanced fertilization programme in the Philippines and Viet Nam, or the well-established IPM/FFS programme in Nepal and Pakistan. A lot of effort and money has been spent on research on various aspects of IPNS and useful data has been generated in many countries of the region. It is high time that farmers involving advocacy campaigns and extension messages package the available information for practical application. It is imperative to disseminate this new technology to ensure its widespread adoption among farmers to improve soil health and productivity of the cropping systems, and to generate higher income. There is a need to review, consolidate all the different research data and information available and formulate or propose a workable strategy for a future plan of action. Following validation through verification trials and extensive training of extension officers and key farmers, the most promising approach would be a mass demonstration programme involving government institutions; NGO’s and key farmers to quickly spread these techniques/ideas as widely as possible. The field demonstration programme should be accompanied by preparation and distribution of leaflets and pamphlets among farmers. Any effective advocacy campaign on IPNS should involve wide use of the media, radio talks, TV shows, preferably on local radio/TV stations, also featuring farmer/demonstrator interviews, wherever necessary in local languages. Effective research – extension – farmer interaction is considered crucial for any successful introduction or implementation of IPNS approach. Promotion of IPNS must be bottom-up rather than top-down in orientation, planning and implementation, with the full involvement and participation of farmers and local rural communities. Although, FADINAP’s programme has been small and limited to only a few areas and crops in five countries, it certainly contributed to the promotion of plant nutrition and rural income generation. FADINAP’s resources to support the programme ended in 2002, but we hope that the principles of IPNS will be taken up by other agencies, both national and international, as well as farmers’ groups, and that these principles would be put into practice at an increasing rate. Keeping this in mind, FADINAP is convinced that the knowledge imparted to farmers on how to make their production more sustainable through incorporating “organic” elements into an otherwise fertilizer based agriculture (chemical-input-based agriculture) would reduce rural poverty, and, should therefore be increasingly adopted as a tool in rural poverty alleviation strategies. 9 II. CONCEPT AND OBJECTIVES OF IPNS A. Introduction In the mid-1960s, when projections of global starvation were common, no one questioned the role of mineral fertilizer in increasing food production, particularly in the fooddeficit countries. On the contrary, fertilizer use was an integral part of the “Green Revolution” technological package of improved varieties of rice and wheat, irrigation, and fertilizer that helped many densely populated countries to achieve food self-sufficiency in the short span of 20 to 25 years. In the early 1990s, however, fertilizer became the target of criticism, mainly because of heavy use in the developed countries, where it was suspected of having an adverse impact on the environment through nitrate leaching, eutrophication, greenhouse gas emissions and heavy metal uptakes by plants. Consequently, fertilizer use per se was mistakenly identified as harmful to the environment. But, if for any reason fertilizer use were discontinued today, world food output would drop by an estimated 40 per cent with all its disastrous consequences. While fertilizer misuse can contribute to environmental contamination, it is often an indispensable source of the nutrients required for plant growth and food production. Unless all the soil nutrients removed with the harvested crops are replaced in proper amounts from both organic and inorganic sources, crop production cannot be sustained: soil fertility will decline. If in the past, the emphasis was on increased use of fertilizer; the current approach should focus on educating farmers to optimize use of organic, inorganic, and biological fertilizer in an integrated way. Plant nutrition in future will require the judicious and integrated management of all sources of nutrients for sustainable agriculture. B. Need for change To promote this integrated approach in a more systematic and scientific manner, FAO pioneered the development of new technologies such as Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and IPNS. The basic concept underlying IPNS is the maintenance and possible increase of soil fertility for sustaining increased crop productivity through the optimization of all possible sources, organic and inorganic, of plant nutrients required for crop growth and quality in an integrated manner appropriate to each cropping system and farming situation within the given ecological, social and economic boundaries. Integrated nutrient management differs from conventional nutrient management in that it more explicitly considers nutrients from different sources, notably organic materials, nutrients carried over from previous cropping seasons, the dynamics and transformation of nutrients in soil, interaction between nutrients, and the availability of nutrients in space (the rooting zone) and time (the growing season), in relation to the nutrient demand by the crop. In addition, it integrates the objectives of production with ecology and environment, that is, optimum crop nutrition, optimum functioning of the biosphere (soil health), and minimum nutrient losses or other adverse effects on the environment. Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) has to be considered an integral part of any sustainable agricultural system. Attempts made in several countries of South and South-East Asia to complement the use of mineral with organic sources of plant nutrients have generated useful, though limited, information on the complementary and synergistic effects of these materials on the yield of crops. Because organic sources of nitrogen are also improving soil structure and soil bioactivity which are not directly improved by mineral sources of N, the productivity of the crop for each kg of N may be better with organic sources of N than with only mineral sources of N. 10 If the objective of IPNS is the balanced and effective use of various sources of plant nutrients than the strategy should be the mobilization of all available, accessible and affordable plant nutrient sources in order to optimize the environmentally benign productivity of the whole cropping system and to increase the monetary return to the farmer. Thus, there is need for more information on (i) integrated nutrient recommendations for cropping systems as a whole taking into account the complementary and the synergistic effects of combined use of both mineral and organic/biological sources for sustained crop production, (ii) recommendations for different agro-ecological situations taking into account available organic/biological resources, (iii) and finally, transfer of this technology for the benefit of small farmers through the national agricultural extension services. C. Components and technology of IPNS Soil sources Soils supply all the 16 essential plant nutrients. Nutrients are mostly found in organic and/or fixed mineral form. Plants can meet much of their nutritional requirement from this source, if managed properly, mainly through mineralization of soil organic matter. But due to continuous and intensive cultivation, the nutrient supplying capacity of soils has decreased considerably. Therefore, under any intensive agriculture system, special emphasis should be given to raising Soil Organic Matter (SOM) to maintain soil nutrient and to reduce soil degradation. To enhance soil nutrient supply it is necessary to adopt appropriate soil management practices, such as improvement of soil physical conditions and addition of appropriate quantities of nutrients including micronutrients through mineral fertilizer, organic and biological sources. Mineral fertilizers Various types and grades of fertilizer are available throughout Asia supplying major nutrients such as N, P and K. The fertilizer use levels differ widely between various countries and nutrient use is mostly imbalanced, favouring lopsided use of nitrogen. Balanced fertilization is known to improve fertilizer use efficiency (FUE) and at the same time profitability for the farmer. Using ever higher rates of nitrogen (urea mostly) alone with improved better varieties, the resulting higher yields also remove ever larger amounts of soil nutrients if not replenished and the FUE declines further resulting in stagnating and even declining yields. This leads to the paradox situation where statistics report the continuing increase in fertilizer use but the expected crop production increases are not taking place. Apart from N, P and K, sulphur (S) and micronutrients such as zinc (Zn), iron (Fe) manganese (Mn) and boron (B) have also gained in importance in recent years. The secondary nutrient sulphur (S) has become deficient over wide areas especially since the intensive use of high analysis fertilizer, urea, instead of sulphate of ammonia and TSP or DAP instead of single superphosphate or NPK compounds. The major effect of these and several other factors is the gradual decline in crop yields and fertilizer use efficiency. Organic fertilizer sources The sustainability of highly intensive cropping systems and the associated heavy mineral fertilizer use without organic manures is widely questioned. This has brought the almost forgotten farmyard manures (FYM) and composts back to the forefront. Regular applications of such organic manures not only supply all the various secondary and micronutrients, though in small quantities, but also improve the physical and biological properties of the soil. Furthermore, return to the farm is the best way to take care of the large amounts of animal waste produced in the commercial dairy, pig and poultry farms, instead of dumping and degrading the environment. Farmyard manure 11 Farmyard manure (FYM) traditionally does not receive the attention it deserves, as most farmers store their most valuable asset, their cattle/buffalo manure not in a systematic, but in a rather haphazard way. Storage of FYM in rural households in the region is in heaps exposed to sun, wind and rain, which accounts for substantial nutrient losses. FYM preparation needs improvement, adhering to strict and prompt coverage for shading and prevention of drying out by hot wind or washing out of nutrients with heavy rains (pollution hazard). In the Indian subcontinent the widespread practice of using dried cattle and buffalo dung for burning (cooking) as firewood substitute should be discouraged and for the farmer affordable alternatives provided to the farmers e.g. use of biogas. Compost Unlike FYM, compost is not a by-product of common farm activities, but has to be specially prepared for its own sake. The quality of the ripe compost after undergoing a heating o process reaching at least 60 C to destroy harmful pathogens and weed seeds will depend on the raw material used and the attention given to proper composting by the farmer. The C:N ratio needs to be lowered to 20-15 and good quality compost should have no more than 30 per cent moisture, as no farmer wants to carry excess water to the field. Practically all 16 known plant nutrients are contained in compost, but unfortunately, only in very small quantities. Composting is a labour and time-consuming process, which takes 3-6 months. To speed up the process in several countries, rapid composting technologies have been developed. With the use of Trichoderma harzianium (Philippines), a fungal activator, decomposition of rice straw and other organic material with high C:N ratio, combined with animal manure is enhanced to 25 days. (Refer to Chapter 3 of this publication for more information about this technology.) In Thailand, the Department of Land Development of the Ministry of Agriculture uses a mixture of bacterial and fungal microorganisms to inoculate raw rice straw compost for rapid decomposition. More than 100,000 packages of compost activator or inoculants are prepared per year for free distribution to farmers. Each package of 150 g is sufficient for rapid composting of one ton straw or other organic material together with 200 kg of animal manure plus 2 kg of urea. Commercially prepared composts marketed as organic fertilizer are available in most countries in the region and used mainly for high quality vegetable production and horticultural use. Crop residues Other freely available sources of organic matter that are available on-farm in large quantities are wheat and rice straws, maize stalks, and stovers of legumes and various pulses. Most of the crop residues are not collected for composting and nutrient recycling, but are used as animal feed (straws/stovers), burnt or left in the field for natural decomposition (fallen leaves and stubble). Crop residues in the long run also increase the OM content in the soil. Mulching with fresh straw or leaves is another good agronomic practice for conserving moisture, reducing soil erosion and for recycling of nutrients, if the partly decomposed mulching material is ploughed under for the following crop. Direct seeding of maize or soybean into mulch cover would be another good agronomic practice. Burning of straw which is still widely practised by farmers as the fastest and least labour requiring method of disposal should be discouraged or, if possible, banned as in most developed countries, mainly because of its air polluting effect. Green manure 12 Green manure crops such as Sesbania aculeata ploughed into the soil after 45-60 days, as practiced by Indian, Nepali and Pakistani farmers may contribute about 30-40 kg per hectare nitrogen for the following crop. However, it seems to be increasingly difficult to find a niche in the traditional farming calendar and cropping system to successfully grow a green manure crop, which occupies the land for several months and needs water and fertilizer, except N- just to plough it back into the soil. Wherever possible and feasible the growing of grain legumes such as groundnuts, soybeans, chickpeas, cowpeas or mungbean as cash crops, which maintain soil fertility and provide farmers with extra income and fodder from crop residues should be encouraged. Leguminous green manures, when incorporated, certainly add the nutrients present in their biomass including the bulk of nitrogen they have captured (fixed) from the air, but other nutrients have to be absorbed from the soil. Green manuring apart from making net nitrogen addition, basically recycles other nutrients back in the soil. Furthermore, effective nitrogen fixation requires an adequate phosphorus status in soils which is usually lacking. It is a common misconception that using green manures to provide nitrogen would be less damaging to the environment than using mineral fertilizer, but far from it, the opposite is often the case. When the legume plants die at the end of the growing season or after harvest and there is no crop growth in the field to take up all the nitrate which is released from the rapidly decaying rhizobium nodules and plant residue, there is a great danger of nitrate leaching, especially under hot, humid and high rainfall climatic condition in the tropics. Biogas slurries Biogas plants in rural areas produce digested slurry as an end product, which could be applied directly in cultivated fields. Such slurry contains about 1.5-2.0 per cent nitrogen, 1.0 per cent phosphorus and a little over 1 per cent potassium. It is also a valuable source of micronutrients. Moreover, due to the heated digestion processes, biogas slurry is virtually free from weed seeds and pathogens. Industrial waste materials Most industrial waste materials as are valuable resources and should be properly managed and utilized. The large number of sugar cane processing factories in the region produce substantial quantities of organic by-products such as bagasse, pith and press-mud. Even though some of the bagasse and cane residues are used for cardboard production, most of them are burnt as fuel in the sugar industry. So far only a small portion is mixed with pressmud, composted and recycled as organic fertilizer. Agro-industries, such as fruit and vegetable processing, cotton ginneries, oil mills, breweries and distilleries, also produce large quantities of organic waste materials which need to be properly managed and utilized for nutrient recycling instead of dumping and polluting the environment. An excellent example for organic waste recycling is the practice of Malaysia’s oil palm industry to effectively utilize the vast quantities of palm oil milling effluent City refuse (garbage, sewage sludge) Increasing population and even faster growth of urban population will consequently lead to increasing amounts of urban waste, which would create enormous disposal problems if not properly recycled as a source of crop nutrients. Processed, composted solid organic wastes and sewage sludge provide both organic matter and valuable plant nutrients to crops. The transport from urban composting plants to the farming areas constitutes a major part of the cost of processed organic wastes for farmers. Marketing studies and advertising campaigns, attractive comparative prices together with a subsidy scheme to encourage the large-scale acceptance by farmers of urban compost should be considered. Subsidies, grants and credit should concentrate on transport and handling cost of such bulky products, which could nevertheless result in considerable savings in mineral fertilizer, for the farmers. 13 As a rule of thumb the price per kg of nutrient in composted city refuse for the farmer should be at par or not considerably higher than the cost per kg nutrient in commonly used mineral fertilizer. The other not so easily quantifiable benefits of using organic fertilizer materials, such as increasing SOM, better water holding capacity, and better soil health, are to be accounted for by the cost of extra labour for spreading and incorporation in the field. Enriched city compost City compost produced at mechanical composting plants throughout the Asia and the Pacific region (India, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Indonesia, and Thailand) is generally low in plant nutrients and therefore its acceptability by farmers has been limited. To improve the quality and nutrient content of city compost, low-grade rock phosphate and phosphate solubilising azotobacter spp. and the nitrogen fixing bacteria, such as azotobactor spp. or pseudomonas spp., are being used as inoculants. Microbial inoculation and application of 1 to 5 per cent rock phosphate increased the nitrogen content of city compost by 24 to 30 per cent and more favourable C:N ratios have been obtained. Available P2O5 content of compost was increased by 60 to 114 per cent where rock phosphate was applied and inoculated with aspergillus awamori. Preparation of compost from enriched city garbage or otherwise is promising, provided that financial support from government is available. However, heavy metals in sewage sludge when continuously applied in excessive quantities to farmland as organic manure could lead to problems. Monitoring for Cd, Zn, Pb, As, and Cu contents in compost is recommended. Biofertilizers Biofertilizers have an important role to play in rainfed areas in improving the nutrient content of crops. Although rhizobium is the most researched and well known among the biofertilizers, there are a number of microbial inoculants with potential practical application in IPNS. Such inoculates could contribute to increasing crop productivity through increased biological nitrogen fixation (BNF), increased availability or uptake of nutrients through phosphate solubilization, or increased absorption, stimulation of plant growth (hormones), or by rapid decomposition of organic residues (rapid composting technology). Rhizobium inoculants The nitrogen fixed by rhizobia benefits legume crop production in two ways: (i) by meeting most of the legume crops nitrogen needs and (ii) by enriching the soil for the benefit of subsequent crops. Rhizobium inoculation should be considered in all legume green manure crops to gain maximum benefit from nitrogen fixation in the shortest possible time. Azospirillum, azotobacter and pseudomonas inoculations on upland grain crops are still in their infancy and field trial results are inconclusive, although good responses to azospirillum and azotobacter inoculation of wheat, rice and sugar cane have been recorded. Further research is needed to find agronomic practices that may help the inoculated bacteria to multiply profusely in the rhizosphere. Biofertilizers for flooded rice: Azolla and BGA Most important biofertilizers for wetland rice are the water fern azolla and the blue green algae (BGA), also known as floating nitrogen fertilizer factories. Both can grow alongside paddy. Azolla can also be used for green manuring which could contribute from 20 to 60 kg per hectare N. Phosphorus is a key element and its deficiency results in poor growth and reduced N fixation (addition of 1 kg P results in fixation of 5 to 10 kg N). Azolla is considered an efficient scavenger for potassium and serves as a source of K for rice crops. Azolla biofertilizer technology is labour intensive. Irrigation water, phosphate fertilizer and pest control measures are necessary inputs. Nitrogen fixed by azolla or BGA becomes 14 available to the rice crop only after its decomposition. Numerous field experiments indicated that only up to one third of the fixed N is absorbed by the following rice crop, while two-thirds remained in the soil as residual N or is lost to the atmosphere. Phosphate solubilizing microorganisms A number of microorganisms known to have the ability to solubilize and transform inorganic P from normally insoluble sources through excretion of various organic acids have been isolated. These are bacteria of the bacillus and pseudomonas spp and fungi, such as aspergillus, penicillium and trichoderma spp. In addition to P-solubilization these microorganisms can also mineralize locked up organic P into soluble, plant available forms. As these reactions take place in the rhizosphere and the microorganisms bring more P into solution than they can absorb for their own growth, the surplus is available for plants to absorb. The effectiveness of these microorganisms depends on the availability of sufficient energy source, carbon in the soil, P concentration, particle size of rock phosphate as well as temperature and moisture. Constraints to biofertilizer use It is difficult to predict the performance biofertilizers, which is influenced by many factors, only some of which could be attributed to farm management. Essentially, the survival/multiplication rate of the introduced strains needs to be improved. There are several constraints to the use of biofertilizer. For example, inoculum transportation and storage should be ideal. There would be a rapid decline in number of o cultured bacteria if transported and stored at 45 C and above. Poor survival is also related to high temperature in the soil during summer months. Growth and survival of rhizobium and other free-living N2-fixing bacteria is also influenced by competition and antagonism from other organisms, soil salinity, water logging and pesticides application. So far biofertilizer use is below potential, but could increase if GMO technologies presently being explored become successful. Intensive extension activities through widespread field demonstration programmes and wide publicity through mass media could help in creating awareness among farmers on the benefits of biofertilizer use. C. Socio-economic aspects of IPNS and limitations Farmers acceptance of IPNS are influenced by socio-economic factors, such as:      Availability of farmyard manure is limited. Increasing mechanization (tractors) is replacing draught animals. Off-farm transported organic manure is often too expensive and its application is labour consuming. Burning of crop residues (straw), instead of recycling or composting. Labour shortage or short period between two crops could further limit IPNS application. Facilities to collect, store and market huge amounts of animal wastes (dung, slurry, droppings) from livestock farms are limited or non-existent. Disposal can be harmful to the environment. Mineral fertilizers are easily available and literature (pamphlets) on their proper use is more comprehensive. Organic manures, crop residues and biofertilizers have so far not been given the same importance. Rapid Composting Technology is still unknown to most farmers. Crop residues, such as straw and other plant materials, have high C:N ratio taking a larger time to decompose and mineralize. Direct application will cause temporary immobilization of soil N. Composted organic material is well suited for direct application. But exposure of compost or FYM to the elements (sun, wind and rain) results in nutrient losses through leaching and volatilization.  15          Animal wastes have more N than plant parts. They decompose faster than plant material. Application of large quantities of slaughterhouse waste e.g. blood meal will result in losses of N through volatilization. Care needs to be taken in using urban waste compost made of city garbage, sewage and particular industrial wastes. Such materials could contain both pathogenic microbes and heavy metals. Heavy metals such as cadmium, arsenic, lead, copper and mercury are toxic to the human environment, and need monitoring. Use of FYM, poultry litter and other animal wastes may be quite acceptable to farmers but urban compost, sewage and sludges and nightsoil are not popular. Financial commercial credit is available mostly for mineral fertilizer; however, there is no organized credit system to help farmers to use organic manures. Quality standards and regulations for marketing of mineral fertilizers are well established contrary to organic fertilizer manures and commercial composts. Best prospects for adoption of IPNS practices are farmers cultivating small areas of high value crops, such as fruit and vegetables. Quality control of commercially produced organic fertilizer, standard definition for a product produced on basis of raw materials from various origins is difficult (city garbage, solid waste, sewage sludge, chicken droppings, etc.). Lack of government support for promotion, pricing and quality control of commercial organic fertilizer. D. Conclusion Owing to the growing demand for more agricultural yields/products and the scarcity of land resources, focus will be placed more on intensification of farming systems in the region. Intensification implies a more knowledgeable group of farmers trained in good agricultural practices including appropriate IPNS techniques. The national research institutes, including universities, in close cooperation with the Department of Agricultural Extension, private enterprise and NGOs have to play a vital role in the promotion of IPNS practices to farmers. The farmers need to be educated to practically realize the nutrient potential of organic manures, crop residues, composts and biofertilizers. The major extension effort has to be towards teaching the farmers efficient use of locally available organic manures and biofertilizers most suitable to the needs of the area, and of the cropping systems as a whole. In the past, the emphasis has been on increased use of fertilizer; the approach now must shift to educating farmers to make the optimum use of organic, inorganic, and biological fertilizers. Plant nutrition in future will require the judicious and integrated management of all sources of nutrients. It is, therefore, necessary to address the problems of plant nutrition in an integrated way and to maintain the overall balance and flow of soil nutrients, seeking maximum efficiency and reducing waste and losses; with minimal detrimental effects on the human environment. There is an urgent need to adopt an integrated nutrient supply and management system for promoting efficient and balanced use of plant nutrients. While the main emphasis should be on increasing the proper and balanced use of mineral fertilizers, the role of organic manure, biofertilizers, green manuring and recycling of organic wastes should be considered supplementary and not substitutable. On the one hand, there is a vast scope for increasing plant nutrient supply through the use of organic fertilizers, but there is, on the other hand, no scope for reducing the consumption of mineral fertilizers since the present level of crop productivity has not only to be maintained but has to be increased in the coming years. This will not be possible without the continuous use of mineral fertilizer, as long as no other practical low input technology has become available for higher productivity. 16 Effective implementation of such improved agricultural practices, using a holistic approach requires skilled management and innovativeness by researchers and adaptiveness by farmers who need to be educated and trained, assisted by national research and extension services. The time has come to effectively coordinate the efforts of all agencies/institutions to benefit agriculture. There is an urgent need to develop closer linkages and coordination between scientific institutions and organizations involved in extension and farmer education including NGOs. To this end, more focus should be given to the promotion and practical application of IPNS by research, education and training institutes. E. Recommendation Each country should devise practical policies on IPNS development, including training of extension workers and farmers, and develop feasible strategies for achieving the IPNS objectives of sustainable agricultural production, environmental protection and reduced poverty. A training manual – Extension Guide on IPNS should be prepared to assist extension workers in the introduction of IPNS practices to farmers. With the help of this guide and using the farming community as a field laboratory, the extension officers, NGO’s and motivated farmers can experiment with the principles and practices of IPNS, adapted to the different agroclimatic conditions and cropping systems of a country. Official soil test calibrated balanced fertilizer recommendations should form the basis, and should be adjusted according to availability and use of alternative organic manures, composts or biofertilizers. Extension workers need to understand what the farmer is doing and how to integrate the latest research results into a valid package of cropping systems and area specific recommendations. Large-scale education and field demonstration programmes such as the well established Farmers Field Schools (FFS) used for teaching integrated pest management (IPM) are proposed. IPNS in each agro-ecological region of the country needs to be testing and validated for its compatibility with the prevailing farming system, its practicability, technical soundness and financial profitability. Ultimately, only more money in the pocket is going to persuade a poor farmer to adopt a new concept, such as IPNS. 17 III. IPNS RECOMMENDATIONS A. Nepal Production of quality compost at farmers level   This section describes practical and simple methods of producing quality compost using locally available raw materials in Nepal. Compost may be prepared in heaps above ground or in a pit. The pit method is preferred during the dry season and in generally dry areas. The site for composting should be near the source of compost materials (e.g. near cattle shed), generally dry, without waterlogged or water sources nearby, not on sandy soil where leaching is high, and accessible to the farmer for regular monitoring. Selection of compost materials should take into consideration the C/N ratio. Compost materials with low C/N ratio, like green leguminous leaves, break down quickly, generate much heat and reach high temperature over a short period of time. Those with high C/N ratio like rice straw and maize stalk release heat more slowly. To facilitate decomposition, high C/N ratio materials should be mixed with low C/N ratio materials.  Good quality compost is obtained from mixing rice/wheat straw and hull, cowdung and green leguminous leaves  A compost structure holds the compost, protects seepage, allows aeration, and covers the compost against rain. The structure can be above (heap) or below (pit) ground. In case of heap preparation, an outer wall may be constructed using any available material, such as wooden planks, bamboo sticks, asbestos sheet, wire mesh, or a plastic sheet. In pit preparation, the structure can be constructed by digging a pit of 1 metre deep and 1.5 to 2.0 metres wide. The length can vary depending on the quantity of compost materials. The outer wall can be constructed with bricks or thick plastic sheet to protect from seepage. A shed may also be constructed to protect the compost from rain and sun. Waterlogged compost results in leaching of nutrients and causes heat loss, while dryness slows down the decomposition process. 18 Compost bin made of bamboo Filling the bamboo bin with compost materials Digging a compost pit 19 Construction of brick wall Compost pit with shed  When the compost structure is ready, filling of compost materials should follow these steps: 1. Add a 6 to 10 inch-layer of high C/N ratio materials, such as straw, chopped corn stalk, dry leaves, hay, or rice/wheat husk. 2. Sprinkle the layer with water until it becomes moist, but not too wet. 3. Add a layer of manure, biogas slurry or litter. The quantity of animal waste should be at least 40 per cent of the total compost mass. 4. Add a 4 to 6 inch-layer of nitrogenous material, such as green grass, garden plant residues and tree leaves. Green materials should be allowed to wilt for one or two days before incorporating into the compost. 5. Add a mixture of carbonaceous materials, animal residues and green materials until the heap reach about 1 metre high. 6. Starters, such as lime, ash, nitrogen fertilizer, Tricoderma, etc., should be added between layers. 7. Place an insulating blanket and an overhead protection (or shed). 8. Water should be sprinkled every 2 to 4 days depending on moisture condition of the compost. Recommended moisture level ranges from 50 to 60 per cent.  The compost should be turned three times during the whole composting period: (i) one month after filling; (ii) 15 days after the first turning, and (iii) 15 days after the second turning. At each turning, the materials should be thoroughly mixed. 20  Aeration is necessary to enhance decomposition. Air should be able to circulate freely underneath the compost by inserting a number of hollow bamboo poles, PVC pipes or bundles of maize stalks. In a bamboo or wooden compost structure, good aeration is ensured through the narrow gaps between the bamboos or wooden poles underneath the compost. Maintaining an appropriate level of heat and moisture is essential in producing quality compost. Blanket insulation is highly recommended especially in the tropics. Insulation can be mud plaster prepared with soil and dung, plastic sheet with holes to allow aeration, banana leaves, old sacks, carpets, or mats. Another way is to place a layer of soil (one to two inches thick) on top of the compost. The following tests determine the progress of the composting process: 1. Temperature: During the first 3 to 7 days, there would be a rapid rise in o o temperature reaching around 55 C to 65 C. If the compost contains a large proportion of green plant materials, the peak temperature could be obtained in about three days. If it contains much carbonaceous materials like straw and manures, it may take about seven days to reach the peak temperature. High temperature is sustained for several days during the period of decomposition provided proper aeration and moisture levels are maintained. A metal or wooden rod could become hot and moist if inserted into the center of the heap and withdrawn after 10 minutes. 2. Volume: The compost mass is expected to settle in quite noticeably. 3. Insects: Manure worms and mites start appearing in the compost about one to one and a half month after filling. These insects enhance the decomposition process. 4. Odor: After reaching peak temperature, compost should give no bad odours. 5. Moisture: If a sample taken from the interior of the compost mass is too dry, the heap must be sprinkled with water. A good test to measure adequate moisture, is to squeeze a handful of compost gently until water comes out. If no water comes out, the compost is too dry.    The compost is ready to use 15 days after the third turning, or about two and a half months after filling. At this time, the compost appears dry and of a dark brown to black colour. The compost temperature would be that of ambient air, and the volume would drop to nearly half to third of its original mass. The odour would be like that of the soil. Any foul smell indicates incomplete decomposition. B. Pakistan Rice-wheat (irrigated system) Inorganic fertilizers for rice  Ammonium sulphate is the best source of nitrogen. Next is urea. Calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN) should not be used. Nitrogen fertilizer is applied in three splits, i.e. first at 14-20 days after transplanting (DAT), second at 35 DAT and third at 55 DAT. Top dressing should be done after draining water. Broadcast fertilizers in muddy soil. Apply irrigation 12 hours after broadcasting. If urea is used at transplanting, its efficiency could be improved by applying 300 to 500 kg gypsum per hectare. DAP and TSP are best sources of phosphate. SSP is recommended for sodic soils. Broadcast 14 to 21 DAT. For potash, K2SO4/KCl is recommended. Apply in three splits, i.e. 14, 30 and 50 DAT. For zinc, Zn SO4, ZnO is recommended. Follow any of the following: apply 5 to 10 kg Zn per hectare on nursery bed; dip separated rice seed in ZnO suspension (1 per cent) before seeding; nursery root dipping in 0.5 to 1.0 per cent ZnSO4 or 1 per cent Zn) suspension; and broadcast ZnSO4 at 2 to 5 kg Zn per hectare from 7 to 10 DAT.    21  For boron, boric acid and borax at 1 kg B per hectare are recommended. At transplanting, broadcast fertilizer after mixing with sand. Spray 0.1 per cent B solution thrice during vegetative growth period until 60 DAT. Inorganic fertilizers for wheat       CAN is the best source for nitrogen while ammonium sulphate can also be used. Apply fertilizers by broadcast in three splits, i.e. one-third during the first irrigation, onethird during the second irrigation and one-third during the third irrigation. Using 300 to 500 kg gypsum per hectare could enhance fertilizer efficiency. Nitrophos is a better source of phosphate than DAP and TSP. Apply phosphate fertilizer during seeding by either broadcast or banding with seed drill st nd For potash, K2SO4/KCl is recommended. Apply in two splits, i.e. 1 and 2 irrigation, by broadcast. For boron, boric acid and borax at 1 kg B per hectare are recommended. At seeding, broadcast fertilizer after mixing with sand. Spray 0.1 per cent B solution thrice during vegetative growth period. Organic fertilizers for rice-wheat cropping system Green manuring  Dhaencha (Sesbania aculeate) and Sesbania rostrate are good sources of green manures that can be grown in a rice-wheat system. GM crops are planted during the lag period of 60 to 75 days between harvest of wheat crop and transplanting of rice after 10 July. Seeding of GM crops is done immediately after harvesting wheat. GM crops can also be established as relay crops with wheat in March. GM crops need 60 kg P2O5 per hectare for health growth. Incorporate GM crops with rotavator, 45 to 60 days after seeding. Crops of 50 to 55 days old decompose rapidly. Benefits of green manuring are: (1) nitrogen fixation could range from 50 to 150 kg per hectare depending on type of GM crop and management conditions, and (2) yield increases from 10 to 70 per cent depending on the stage of incorporation, crop species and management.     Farmyard manure (FYM)    FYM should be well decomposed. It should not contain undecomposed raw materials. In a rice-wheat system, FYM should be applied to rice in the summer. The best crop yield and fertilizer use efficiency could be obtained when 75 per cent N is taken from chemical fertilizer and 25 per cent from FYM. Compost  Materials for composting include crop wastes (rice and wheat straw), livestock wastes (manure, dung, urine and dropping from all types of animal and poultry), home wastes (materials from food preparation such as vegetables, peelings and unwanted leaves, egg shells, etc.). Methods of composting: 1. Pit method  The site selected for the compost pit should be at high level near a cattle shed and protected from rain.  The pit should be about 1 metre deep, 1.5 to 2.0 metres wide and of any suitable length.  The material should be spread in layers which are often moistened.  The process is repeated until layers of residue reach 30 cm above ground.  22  2. 3. 4. 5. Contents of the pit are turned every fortnight and the compost in about four months time. Heap method  During the rainy season or in region with heavy rainfall the compost is prepared in heaps above ground.  The heap is usually structured with a 20 cm layer of carbonaceous material such as leaves, hay and chopped straw.  It is then covered with 10 cm of nitrogenous materials such as fresh grass, weeds, garbage, fresh or dry manure or digested sewage sludge  The pattern of 20 cm carbonaceous material and 10 cm nitrogen material is followed until the pile is 1.5 metre high. It is normally sprayed with water so that it feels damp. Use of compost starters and accelerators  These are used to hasten the process of composting. With starters, composts can be ready within 8 to 10 weeks. Starters also reduce the bulk by 5 to 10 per cent.  Inoculation with mesophyllic cellulytic fungi or azotobactor and addition of gypsum and rock phosphate enhances the composting process. Enriched composting  Enrichment of compost by fixing bacteria and P solubilizing fungi is one of the ways of improving nutrient content of the final product.  Inoculation with Azotobactor and phosphorus solubilizing culture in the presence of 1 per cent rock phosphate could enhance quality and nutrient content, particularly N and available P2O5.  Enrichment of compost with 1 per cent rock phosphate and inoculation with Aspergillus and Azotobactor increased N content of compost from 0.59 to 0.73 per cent and increased available P from 87.3 to 139.7 ppm.  With further enrichment of 5 per cent rock phosphate and inoculation, N content of compost increased by 30.5 per cent, available P by 125 per cent and C/N ratio dropped by 30 per cent. Precautions in using composts  Partially decomposed compost should not be used as it will reduce the yield.  Amount of compost being used should not be too large and should not exceed 5 tons per hectare. Otherwise, yield of crop will be reduced due to immobilization of available N.  Only disease free enriched composts should be used. Crop residues       Harvesting of rice and wheat with combine harvester leaves large quantities of crop residues in the form of stubble in the field. Decomposition of organic residues (stubble) turns unavailable nutrient into available form. Wheat stubble decay in the field due to puddling operation done for rice. Rice stubbles before seeding of wheat should be incorporated into field by rotavator. Wheat crop can be directly planted with zero tillage machine in field with standing st stubbles and stubbles will decay by putting additional N (50 kg per hectare) with 1 and nd 2 irrigation. Crop residue incorporation on long term basis will build up organic matter, K and Si in the field but will have little effect on N and P. Wheat - legume (rainfed) Inorganic fertilizers for wheat  CAN is the best source of N, while ammonium sulphate and urea can also be used. Drilled with seed or broadcast. 23   Nitrophos is a preferred source of phosphate over DAP, TSP and SSP. Phosphate is applied during seeding of the crop by either band placement with drill or broadcast. For potash, both KCl and K2SO4 can be used but KCl is a cheaper source. Broadcast potash fertilizer at the time of seeding. Inorganic fertilizers for legumes    CAN or urea are best source of N. Drilled with seed or broadcast. TSP or SSP should be preferred although DAP can also be used. Broadcast at seeding. For potash, both KCl and K2SO4 can be used but KCl is a cheaper source. Broadcast potash fertilizer at the time of seeding. Organic fertilizers  Green manure crops include mungbean, dhaincha (Sesbania aculeate), green gram and cowpea. Seeding is done sometime in September. Land is prepared by 2 to 3 ploughing operations and planking. Apply 40 kg P2O5 per hectare to the green manure crops for health growth and incorporate them in the soil by rotavotor about 6 to 8 weeks after sowing. Biofertilizers are generally not recommended due to lack of moisture and risk of crop failure.  Maize Inorganic fertilizers     CAN is the best source of N, while ammonium sulphate and urea can also be used. Apply in three splits, i.e. first as basal during seeding, second at 0.5 metre plant height and third during pre-tasseling stage. Band placement with drill is recommended. If not, broadcast would also be fine. Use gypsum at 300 to 500 kg per hectare to improve urea N efficiency. Nitrophos is a preferred source of phosphate over DAP, TSP and SSP. SSP is recommended in saline alkali soils. Phosphate is applied during seeding of the crop by either band placement with drill or broadcast. To further improve P efficiency, fertilizers should be well mixed with double the quantity of composted FYM before application. For potash, both KCl and K2SO4 can be used but KCl is a cheaper source. Apply potash fertilizer at the time of seeding but its efficiency is improved if applied in three splits as in nitrogenous fertilizers. For zinc, zinc sulphate is recommended. Apply in the soil at 5 kg Zn per hectare. Foliar sprays of 0.1 per cent Zn solution thrice during vegetative growth period. For boron, boric acid and borax are recommended at 1.5 kg B per hectare by soil application. Foliar spray of 0.1 per cent B solution thrice during vegetative growth period.    Organic fertilizers  In addition to the recommendations given for wheat-rice cropping system, for maize, Guar (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba) as green manure and chopped corn sticks as compost material should be used. Cotton Inorganic fertilizers 24       CAN is the best source of N, while ammonium sulphate and urea can also be used. Apply in three splits, i.e. one-third by band placement at seeding, one-third at first irrigation and one-third at pre-flowering stage. Use gypsum at 300 to 500 kg per hectare to improve urea N efficiency. Nitrophos is the best source of phosphate in cotton. However, DAP, TSP and SSP can also be used. Apply fertilizer during seeding of the crop by band placement with drill. To further improve P efficiency, fertilizers should be well mixed with double the quantity of well-decayed FYM before application. For potash, both KCl and K2SO4 can be used, but KCl is a cheaper source. Apply potash fertilizer at the time of seeding. However, its efficiency is improved if applied in three splits as in nitrogenous fertilizers. For zinc, zinc sulphate is recommended. Apply in the soil at 5 kg Zn per hectare. Foliar spray 0.1 per cent Zn solution thrice during vegetative growth period. For boron, boric acid and borax are recommended at 1.5 kg B per hectare by soil application. Foliar spray 0.1 per cent B solution thrice during vegetative growth period. Organic fertilizers   No green manure crops are suitable for cotton If rotation is broken once in three years and cotton follows cotton, then the benefits of green manuring can be achieved by: 1. Seeding Berseem in standing cotton in the beginning of October for fodder purposes. Its last cutting should be incorporated into the field in early April. Then cotton should be grown as usual. After cotton, wheat can be grown in system as usual. 2. Sow Senji in standing cotton like Berseem and incorporate it into the field at flowering. These practices will add a lot of organic matter to the soil and will enrich the field with N. Cotton sticks after proper chopping can be used as compost material. Azolla cannot be used in cotton-wheat system Cotton sticks should be incorporated in the field with rotavator. To hasten decomposition, add 50 to 75 kg N per hectare.    C. Sri Lanka Rice IPNS practices for the low country dry and intermediate zones     Declining soil fertility of rice growing soils for a number of reasons necessitates the use of IPNS to increase production. Application of chemical fertilizers alone cannot increase yields beyond the 6 tons per hectare limit. Addition of rice straw has improved the situation. Yields of 6 - 7 tons per hectare are possible with combined rice straw applications and recommended NPK applications. Addition of organic materials per acre. 1. Two tons of dried cow dung. 2. Total weight of rice straw of the previous crop. 3. Two hundred and fifty kg of charred rice husk. 4. One ton of green manure (Glyricidia, Ipil-Ipil, Tithonia etc.) had been recommended per acre to supplement the chemical fertilizers added.(N composition in leaves on dry basis in such materials should be greater than 3%). Basal application of 50 kg TSP and 50 kg MOP along with 20 kg of urea per acre. Supplementing the NPK with ZnSo4 one kg per acre to meet the requirement of zinc. Rate of urea increased to total of 130-140 kg/acre. to meet the N demand. The utilization of this package with the following ensures a yield of 180-200 bu/acre.     25      1. Quality seed paddy of proven cultivars of; (a) BG 357, BG 358, BG 360, BG 379/2, BG 352; (b) AT 354 2. Closer spacing at 10 cm x 10 cm planting or 3 bu/acre for seed sowing. 3. Proper irrigation, weed control etc. Direct application of rice straw without any addition of nitrogenous materials to narrow the C:N is possible. Rice straw in small heaps should be evenly placed on levies, before land preparation. Impounding of water results in imbibing and loss of tensile strength. After land preparation the heaps are distributed evenly on the levies and incorporated into the soil with the second ploughing. Other organic materials should be added after the second ploughing. IPNS package for low country dry and intermediate zones Fertilizer inputs to be used per acre (4,000 square metres)  Organic manure 1. Rice straw - Entire quantity of the previous season rice crop but not less than three tons. 2. Cow dung - Two tons of dried cow dung. Alternatively, one ton of well rotted poultry manure. 3. Green manure – Tender loppings with leaves of Gliricidia, Ipil-ipil, Karanda, Wal Sooriya, Sooriya, etc. for about one ton. 4. Rice husk charcoal – 250 kg  Chemical fertilizers 1. 2. 3. 4.  Urea, 120 to 140 kg TSP, 45 to 50 kg MOP, 45 to 50 kg Zinc sulphate, 1 to 2 kg Time of application 1. Organic manure Rice straw – after first ploughing Green manure Cow dung – after second plouging Rice husk charcoal 2. Chemical fertilizers Basal application – 20 kg urea, 45-50 kg TSP, 30 kg MOP, 1-2 kg zinc sulphate are recommended for application before levelling and must be incorporated into the soil. Top dressing – apply urea based recommended by the Department of Agriculture. Apply 20 kg of MOP one before the last top dressing along with urea. Apply only urea at the last top dressing. IPNS practices for mid country and intermediate zones  Cropping Systems : 1. Rice /Rice, Major crop is rice and short aged rice cultivars are cultivated during yala season due to water scarcity. 2. Rice / Vegetable. Major crops are rice and vegetables. Yala rains are not sufficient for a rice crop. Well drained soils are used for vegetable cultivation. 26    Organic manure sources: Available organic materials are rice straw, rice husk and green manure (Gliricidia, Wild sunflower, Ipil Ipil, ‘Kekuna’), and animal waste. Farmer practices of IPNS. Farmers use rice straw as the main source of organic manure, and rarely use cow dung or poultry manure for their rice crops. These materials are however often used for vegetable cultivation. Farmers also use green manure crops as organic manure, in small quantities. Suggestions to improve present system of IPNS and FUE. 1. Use of both rice straw and chemical fertilizer. 2. Use of available green manure plants. 3. Use of cow dung and poultry manure to supplement chemical fertilizer. 4. Cultivation of legumes and incorporation of crop residues. 5. Use of charred rice husk. IPNS practices for the mid country wet zones    Cropping Systems: Rice /Rice, Major crops is rice which is grown in both yala and maha seasons. Organic manure sources. Available organic materials are rice straw, green manure (Gliricidia; Wild sunflower, Ipil Ipil, Kekukna, Kaduru) and animal wastes such as poultry manure. Farmer practices of IPNS. Farmers use rice straw as the main source of organic manure and rarely use cow dung or poultry manure for their rice crops. They use these materials in large amounts for vegetable cultivation. Some farmers use green manure crops as organic manure sources but not in large quantities. Suggestions to improve present system of IPNS and FUE 1. Use of rice straw along with recommended levels of chemical fertilizer. 2. Use of green manure available in the surroundings. 3. Use of cow dung, poultry manure to supplement chemical fertilizer. 4. Use of rice husk charcoal.  IPNS practices for the up country intermediate zone    Cropping systems: Rice/potato/vegetable, Rice /vegetable /vegetable, Rice /vegetable, Rice /rice Available organic manure sources. Available organic materials are rice straw, paddy husks and green manure (Gliricidia; Wild sunflower, Ipil Ipil) and animal waste such as poultry manure. Farmer practices of IPNS. Farmers add high amounts of poultry manure and cattle manure for vegetable and potato crops. But they rarely use organic or green manure for their rice crop. Since they use high amounts of TSP and MOP for vegetables or potato, such soils are rich in available P and exchangeable K. Suggestions to improve IPNS practices 1. Use of decomposed rice straw as a supplement to chemical fertilizer for potato and vegetables. 2. Use of organic manure as poultry manure and cow dung for potato and vegetables.  IPNS practices for the low country wet zone  Cropping systems. There are several cropping systems 1. Mawee lands - Rice / fallow 2. Devaraddri - Rice / fallow 3. Rice / Rice Available organic manure sources. Available organic materials are rice straw, green manure (Gliricidia; Kekuna, Kaduru), rice husk, rice husk charcoal and animal waste such as poultry manure, Farmer practices of IPNS. Use of NPK fertilizer and rice straw.   27  Suggestions to improve the present system of IPNS and Fertilizer Use Efficiency (FUE) Straw recycling in addition to recommended levels of NPK. Poultry manure 3 tons per hectare with recommended levels of NPK. Additional levels of K to overcome Fe toxicity Cultivation of reduced iron tolerant varieties such as BW 267-3 and LD-356 to escape Fe toxicity. 5. Application of about 625 kg per hectare of charred rice husk. 6. More balanced nutrient management. 1. 2. 3. 4. Vegetables General IPNS recommendations       Addition of organic manure as well as decomposed cow dung, poultry litter and chemical fertilizers are recommended. Liming at 2 tons per hectare every 1 to 2 years is recommended. Lime should be added 2 to 3 weeks before the addition of chemical fertilizers. All N fertilizers should be covered with a layer of soil to prevent volatilization losses. Recycle crop residues, if free from diseases. Erosion control of soils to retain topsoil and mulching of soils to prevent salt movement upward. Crop rotation should be practised. IPNS practices for up country wet zone Recommended practices         Vegetables are cultivated throughout the year either in rotation with potato or otherwise. Addition of organic manure as well decomposed cow dung, poultry litter and chemical fertilizers are recommended. Liming at 2 tons per hectare every 1-2 years is recommended. Lime should be added 2-3 weeks before the addition of chemical fertilizers. Nutrients from organic manures used should be accounted for; this requires the adjustment of PK in the chemical fertilizers used. Soil testing every two years will enable the evaluation of the nutrient status of the soils. A starter dose of P and K fertilizers is necessary in spite of a heavy build up of these nutrients in the soils. No P fertilizers should be added as top dressings. All N fertilizers should be covered with a layer of soil to prevent volatilization losses. Use only straight fertilizers. General farmer practices     Farmers do not allow the soil to rest, and only a short period is allowed from one crop to another. A few farmers transport soil from elsewhere to be applied as topsoil. The reason for this is not well known, but nematode builds up, nutrient build up and acidification of soils, may be some of the reasons. Farmers add large quantities of organic manure to soil after liming. The rates vary from 20-60 tons per hectare, which is too high. Liming is done with quick lime and dolomite. The former is used in smaller quantities but the latter sometimes exceeds recommended practices. Fields are not allowed more than a few days (3-4 day) after liming which is not desirable 28      Ammonia based fertilizer mixtures when added to limed soils liberate ammonia gas, polluting the atmosphere. Many farmers continue to use fertilizer mixtures. This results in the use of phosphorus containing mixtures as top dressings. Most farmers apply liquid fertilizers 2-5 times, depending on the types of crops. Farmers seldom recycle crop residue, due to the fear of proliferation of disease organisms. Cropping systems follow a set pattern, which includes a crop of potato in the annual cycle. Radish is grown during the wet windy season with minimum addition of plant nutrients. IPNS practices for up country intermediate zone Recommended practices      Vegetable growing areas are of two types: (1) Vegetable-potato growing uplands, and (2) Rice-potato-vegetable growing rice lands. Practices listed for the WU are applicable. Poultry manure is recommended. Liming should be done according to the type of crop grown. Potato scab is controlled at low pH, while clubroot of cabbage is controlled at high pH. Poultry litter has the capacity to correct acidity. Combined use of chemical fertilizers with poultry manure gives promising results (see Table 4) Table 4: Effect of organic manure and chemical fertilizers on cabbage yield. Treatment Yield (tons/hectare) Control 10.4 Chemical fertilizer 55.0 Cattle manure 32.4 Compost 33.8 Poultry manure 58.0 Cattle manure+chemical fertilizer 55.3 Compost+chemical fertilizer 57.9 Poultry manure+chemical fertilizer 88.1 Manure application rate was 10 tons per hectare. Chemical application rate based on DOA recommended level. General farmer practices     Farmers pay attention to the vegetable / potato crop in rice based cropping systems than the rice crop. Organic manures are not used at the same rate as the WU farmers. Tomato growers often use poultry manure. Other practices are similar to that of the WU, except in crops like brinjal. Brinjal farmers seldom apply organic manure, but farmers who have applied organic manure obtained higher yields. IPNS practices for up country intermediate zone 29 Recommended practices     Use organic manure as cow dung, poultry litter and other available sources. Lime the soil, if pH is low. Apply straight fertilizers based on soil test recommendations. Recycle crop residues, if free from diseases. General farmer practices     Farmers who grow quality vegetables apply organic manures as cow dung, poultry litter or green manure. Some farmers mulch their crops with straw of the previous rice crop. Mixed cropping is practised in both twining and erect types of crops. These types of crops are fertilized at different times. As a result heavy application per unit area takes place. Most farmers rely only on chemical fertilizers, some have got used to foliar applications. Recycling of vegetable crop residues is seldom carried out. IPNS practices for low country, dry and intermediate zone Recommended practices         Use of organic manure as cow dung, goat dung, poultry litter, crop residues and green manure. Soil and water testing for quality of irrigation water of dug wells. Soil test based fertilizer recommendations using straight fertilizers will keep balance of plant nutrients. Erosion control of soils to retain top soil and mulching of soils to prevent salt movement upward. Recycling of crop residues and crop rotation should be practised. Farmers practise monocrop often followed by another crop of the same species. Organic manure is not added as a general practice but a handful of farmers obtain higher yields, using organic manure. Farmers attempt to rely on chemical fertilizers and foliar applications. IPNS practices for low country wet zone Recommended practices     Draining of vegetable beds, erosion and flood control. Application of organic manure and chemical fertilizers after obtaining soil test values. Use of green manure and crop residues as mulches and a source of organic manure. Liming of soils to adjust pH when necessary. Farmer practices    Farmers have specialized in the production of certain species in identified locations. Brinjal and 'beeralu' radish is grown in the Matara district. Here heavy application of organic manure is done; sometimes as basal and top dressings. The leafy vegetables are heavily fertilized both with organic manure and chemical fertilizers. Chilli 30 IPNS recommendations Inorganic fertilizers (Table 5) Table 5. Inorganic fertilizer recommendations for Chilli Time of application Irrigated Fertilizer (kg/hectare) Urea TSP MOP 1. Basal dressing at planting 100 50 2. Two weeks after transplanting* 65 50 3. Four weeks after transplanting* 85 4. Eight weeks after transplanting* 85 5. 12 weeks after transplanting* 85 TOTAL 320 100 100 * top dressing Rainfed Fertilizer (kg/hectare) Urea TSP MOP 100 50 65 50 65 65 65 260 100 100 Organic matters   Depending on the availability of different organic materials, farmers can choose different forms for chilli cultivation. Organic matter application is beneficial both under irrigated and rainfed conditions. Animal manure should be used 2 to 3 weeks before planting by incorporating into the soil. Materials to be used are cow dung (10 to 15 tons per hectare), poultry manure (3 to 4 tons per hectare) or goat dung (5 to 6 tons per hectare). Depending on the conditions and availability, application either individually or in combination can be done. Mulching: Depending on the availability of materials, such as rice straw, Gliricidia leaves, crop residues or other suitable material mulches can be placed in between rows in standing crops. Rate: generally from 5 to 8 tons per hectare on dry matter basis up to a thickness of 2 to 4 cm above ground. Crop residues: These could be ploughed into the soil. Even weeds can be incorporated. Ploughing is done immediately after harvest of the crop. Recycling the residue gives better results. Avoid planting the same crop after incorporating crop residues from identical crops. Do not apply crop residues infected with pests and diseases. Green manure: Green manure crops can be grown during the fallow season if enough soil moisture is available. It can also be used as a rotational crop. This can be ploughed in when 50 per cent flowering has taken place, e.g. sun hemp. About 30 to 40 kg per hectare of seeds of a green manure is required for establishment. Green manure crops should be incorporated into the soil at least 3-4 weeks before the establishment of the chilli crop. Green manure crops grown outside such as Gliricidia can be brought in and ploughed in at least 3 to 4 weeks before establishment of the chilli crop. Compost: Compost can be prepared in the field and applied before planting of the chilli crop. Application is similar to that of cattle manure. Compost at the rate of 5 to 10 tons per ha is sufficient. Crop residues can be composted and used subsequently.     Red onion Proven IPNS practices used by farmers    Soils are prepared to seed the bulbs by keeping cattle on the land or applying large quantities of organic manures like cow dung/poultry manure, especially by the Nilavelly farmers. Few farmers apply green manure. Seed bulbs are planted at a close spacing on the sand. Often two irrigations are given daily. Six to eight applications of chemical fertilizer mixtures are carried out. 31   Cultivation of onions on raised beds is carried out in most of the other growing areas. Irrigation is done : 1. By filling the furrow 2. Sprinkling water 3. Use of sprinklers 4. Drip irrigation systems Two to three fertilizer applications are carried out. Few farmers practise the use of adding organic manure before planting seed bulbs. Farmers who do it get better yields. Farmers seldom mix applied fertilizers with the soil. They presume that fertilizers will dissolve in the irrigated water and will be used by the crop. Farmers cultivate hilly slopes even up to 45 per cent in the Sooriyakanda area resulting in severe soil erosion.     Recommended practices  Application of organic manures into the holes before planting. 1. Animal wastes – Farmyard manure, dried cow dung, poultry manure, goat dung etc. 2. Green manure of sunhemp, gliricidia, thespesia etc. 3. Crop residues of green gram, black gram, cowpea. Mulching of beds with rice straw, rice husk and other crop residues after planting. Application of chemical fertilizers and incorporation into the soil. Application of ammonium sulphate as basal fertilizer for sandy coastal soils. Top dressing with NK fertilizers. Limit over irrigation.     Maize IPNS recommended practices          Maize is a heavy remover of plant nutrients and the roots go deep up to 2 metres in loose soils. Thus adequate plant nutrients are necessary to obtain a crop yield of 6-8 tons per hectare. Basal application of fertilizers and mixing them with the soil are necessary. Application of organic manure, is beneficial. Crop residues such as stover and cob stalks can be composted and applied to the next crop. Over use of N should be avoided. N deficiency results in a loosely filled cob, while potassium deficiency results in empty cob ends. Phosphorus deficiency results in shrunken grains. (See appendix 1a) A balanced fertilizer management should be followed. Adding more plant nutrients should compensate high yielding varieties. Maize could be grown mixed with legumes such as groundnut, green gram or cowpea. This increases the land utility index. Farmers cultivating maize under rainfed cultivation must plant seeds along with the first rains. This will benefit the roots to capture the nitrates formed with bacterial action. Delay in planting results in the loss of these nitrates through leaching and denitrification. Maize roots are susceptible to poor drainage, which results in stunted and yellowing of leaves. Also water stagnation results in loss of N through denitrification of the soil N and any added N fertilizers. Adequate drainage should be provided. Top dressing of fertilizer should be attempted after the soils have been drained.  32 Banana IPNS Recommendations Basal application  Any kind of green manure, animal waste (solid/liquid), kitchen waste, crop residues or even high C/N ratio materials such as coir dust/saw dust / rice husks can be used as a basal organic material/ amendment for banana. If materials used have a high C/N ratio, it is advisable to mix them with low C/N ratio materials such as poultry manure, cattle manure, etc. to achieve quick decomposition in situ. Banana trunks after harvesting should be composted before applying as an organic amendment. If poultry manure is used, mix with soil in the planting hole and allow remaining for a week to moisten before planting is done.  Top dressing   Banana is a shallow rooted crop (45-60 cm). Therefore, application of any kind of easily decomposable organic manure as a top dressing at 3 months interval is highly beneficial. For this purpose, cattle manure, FYM (solid/liquid), compost, green manure, poultry manure, goat manure and other animal waste could be used. Amount of manure (dry basis) kg/clump   Poultry manure, 3-5 Cattle and other animal manure, 5-10 Green manure, 7-10  Method and time of application    Spread the organic material about 30cm away from the clump base but within one metre around the clump and mix lightly with the soil. Application at 4-month intervals along with recommended chemical fertilizer dosage is suitable and economical. If the plantation is free of pests and diseases, chopped trunks/leaves of harvested banana plants can be used as a basal organic material for new planting holes. The material should be treated with a suitable pesticide, and allowed to decompose in-situ. This will help to recycle the nutrients. The crop residue could easily decomposed when mixed with cattle or poultry manure. If banana pests and diseases are not present, chopped banana crop residues could also be used as mulching materials around and between clumps. This practice should conserve moisture. Since animal manure promotes banana pests especially banana weevils, it is important to take the necessary precautions. Application of 10 grams of carbofuran into each planting hole before planting is a good precaution.   Papaya Basal    Follow fertilizer programme recommended by the DOA (Table 6) Add 5-10 kg of cattle manure or 4 -5 kg of poultry manure/planting hole as a basal dressing two weeks prior to planting. Add chemical fertilizers as a basal dressing one week before planting as recommended by DOA. 33      Dolomite application before planting at the rate of 5 kg per plant leads to change of soil pH which enhances availability of plant nutrients. Add compost (5-10 kg) / cattle manure (5-10kg)/ poultry manure (4-5 kg) every 3-4 months as top dressing around the plant, and incorporate into the soil. This should be done along with chemical fertilizers and irrigation should follow. Spray a 2 per cent foliar nutrient solution, which contains boron, at least once a month when the crop is four months old. Mulching the plants with straw, crop residues, any type of animal manure or even live mulch of short age crops like bush bean provides benefits to growing papaya trees. In general, application of ample amounts of compost and cattle manure or poultry manure to the soil as basal dressing and as top dressings would be highly beneficial. Table 6: Recommended inorganic fertilizer application for Papaya (DOA) Agroclimate Time of application Urea TSP Rock Zone phosphate Wet Zone At planting 55 80 2 months after planting 55 80 after every 3 months 55 80 Dry and Intermediate Zone At planting 2 months after planting 6 months after planting after every 3 months 60 60 60 60 40 40 40 40 - Muriate of Potash 95 95 95 130 130 130 130 Pineapple IPNS recommendations (for wet zone only) Inorganic fertilizers   Basal. No basal application is recommended. Top dressing. 1 month after planting (g/plant): urea, 10; rock phosphate, 10; muriate of potash, 15. At 3-4 monthly intervals repeat application of this mixture. Organic fertilizers   A suitable and freely available organic amendment must be applied as a basal dressing into the planting furrows: e.g. Plant residues or animal waste. If coir dust is not available, use an alternative material for mulching to reduce evaporation especially, during flowering stage. Decomposed saw dust, rice husk, cadjan leaves, banana trunk chops straw or any other composted material can be used. Mealy bug control should be effectively carried out before applying any mulch. Crop residues from the previous pineapple crop could be composted and utilized for the next crop. Heap soil at the plant base after every application of fertilizer so that it behaves as soil mulch. Apply about 2-5 tons per hectare dolomite lime as it provides Ca and Mg, as a basal dressing to avoid browning and internal breakdown of the fruit flesh. Foliar application of liquid fertilizer during dry periods is more beneficial, as soil application of nutrients is inefficient. Foliar application is also easier than soil application especially during latter part of the growing season when ground cover is high.      34 Pasion fruit Inorganic fertilizer (Table 7) Table 7: Inorganic fertilizer recommendation for passion fruit (g/plant) Agric. zone Time Urea Rock TSP Phosphate Wet zone Basal 60 115 2 WAP 60 115 6 WAP 60 115 Thereafter at 5 monthly interval (second year) 115 230 rd 3 year 180 340 th 4 year 235 455 Dry & Intermediate Zone Basal 2 MAP 6 MAP Thereafter at 6 monthly interval (second year) rd 3 year th 4 year 70 70 70 140 205 275 105 105 105 205 310 415 MOP 55 55 55 105 160 210 50 50 50 105 160 210 Kieserite 60 - WAP – weeks after planting. MAP – months after planting Organic fertilizer     Application of cattle (5-10 kg/pit) or poultry manure (3-4 kg/pit) as basal, together with recommended chemical fertilizers. Top dressing with cattle or poultry manure (same rates as basal) together with recommended chemical fertilizers and incorporation with soil. Mulching with coir dust, straw or suitable composted material. Foliar feeding of suitable micronutrient solutions with high percentage of potassium at flowering stage has a major advantage on the final fruit yield. Citrus (lime and sweet orange) Organic fertilizer          Apply compost (10-15 kg) or cattle manure (5-6 kg) or poultry manure (3-4 kg)/ planting hole as a basal dressing. Any other organic amendment like animal waste can also be used. Follow the basal chemical fertilizer recommended by DOA one week prior to planting. Locally available organic manure can also be used as top dressing once in 6 months which should be incorporated into the soil. Follow the chemical fertilizer recommendation for top dressing when there is sufficient moisture in the soil. Maintain mulch around the base of the plant, with materials such as rice straw, crop residues or any other suitable material. Spray foliar fertilizer especially during drought periods and also when nutrient deficiency symptoms appear. Apply dolomite or kieserite as recommended by DOA. Practice irrigation whenever possible. 35 Rambutan Inorganic fertilizer (Table 8) Table 8. Inorganic fertilizer recommendation (g per plant) Time of application Urea Rock Phosphate 1. Basal 120 115 2. 6 months after planting 60 115 3. 1 year 60 115 4. 2 years 180 345 5. 3 years 300 575 6. Every 6 months thereafter 360 690 Organic fertilizer      Add 10-15 kg of cattle manure or 4 to 5 kg of poultry manure into planting pit at least two weeks before planting. Dolomite (5 kg per pit) as basal dressing. Basal fertilizer plus top dressing. Add compost 10 to 20 kg, or cattle manure 15 to 20 kg or poultry manure 5 to 10 kg per tree every 3 to 4 months as top dressing around the trees, and incorporating into the soil. Manuring could be done along with inorganic fertilizers. Irrigation should be done when possible. MOP 110 55 55 165 275 330 Total 345 220 225 690 1150 1380 Seedling/root stock plant production  Temporary iron deficiency is a general problem in young Rambutan seedlings. Yellowing of interveinal area of leaves that leads to chlorosis of entire leaf is suspected to be due to iron deficiency or unavailability of iron in the rooting medium or inability of the seedling to absorb the nutrient. In this regard, spraying of Ferrous sulphate (2 per cent) will ease the problem. Usual potting mixture is cattle manure, top soil and sand mixed in equal amounts (well rotted cattle manure is very suitable). Potting mixture may be enriched with Keiserite or dolomite powder. Application rates should be decided accordingly. However, suggested rate is 3 to 4 kg of dolomite or 2 to 3 kg Keiserite per 100 cubic feet of potting mixture. 8 to 10 kg of dolomite or 6 to 7 kg of Keiserite per pot may be added. Potting medium should be kept under field capacity always.  Mango    Add 10 to 15 kg of cattle manure or compost in every season at the onset of seasonal rains or two weeks before application of chemical fertilizers. Follow the fertilizer programme recommended by DOA. Mulching is a must to maintain soil moisture during fruit set and fruit growth. Mango flowers in dry spells. Fruit grows properly under good levels of soil moisture. Otherwise fruit abscission can occur. Therefore, mulching after flowering is more important. Apply mulch during the dry period. Potato (Irish potato)    Follow inorganic fertilizer recommendations. Use straight fertilizers to avoid build up of nutrients. Overuse of chemical and foliar nutrient applications results in the pollution of soil and the waterways. 36    Control of erosion of soils is important to retain soil fertility as well as to prevent sedimentation of waterways and possible eutrophication of water reservoirs. Crop rotation to prevent cyst nematode build up should be practised. Use cattle manure or poultry manure as organic sources. Sweet potato     Addition of adequate amounts of organic manure and compost. Balanced NPK fertilizers application. Soil test based fertilizer usage. Crop rotation to avoid pest and diseases and excessive build up of nutrients. Cassava      Use of organic manure such as cow dung, poultry litter or green manure before planting. Addition of crop residues and rice straw as mulch. Application of recommended rates of NPK fertilizers. Soil conservation after uprooting to prevent erosion and loss of top soil. Crop rotation to replenish soils. Diascorea yam     Ginger    Application of organic manures including carbonized rice husk. Mulching of the crop with suitable mulching materials, such as: rice straw, rice husk green leaves coconut fronds Composting of crop residues. Conservation of moisture by using coconut husk, rice straw, green leaves or leaf litter. Application of organic manures of 10-15 kg/hole. Application of recommended rate of NPK fertilizer as the basal and addition of NK fertilizer as top dressing. Avoid over use of chemical fertilizers. C. Philippines Irrigated rice balanced fertilization recommendations For group 1 areas Provinces Recommendations Wet Season Heavy/ Light Medium (bags per hectare) Dry Season Heavy/ Light Medium Region 1 Ilocos Sur Ilocos Norte La Union Pangasinan Region 2 Isabela Region 3 Tarlac* Option 1 Basal Application 1. Commercial organic 2. 14-14-14 3. 16-20-0 (or 20-20-20) 4. Urea or Ammosol Topdress Urea or Ammosol Total Fertilizer Mix Organic Fertilizers Inorganic Fertilizers 5 3 0 1 (or 2) 2 or 4 5 3 0 1 (or 2) 3 (or 6) 6 2 1 1 or (2) 7 (or 11) 6 2 1 1.5 (or 3) 2.5 (or 5) 5 6 (or 9) 5 7 (or 11) 6 7 (or 11) 6 7 (or 9) 37 Pampanga Region 5 Albay Option 2 Basal Application 1. Compost/Manure 2. 14-14-14 3. 16-20-0 (or 20-20-20) 4. Urea or Ammosol Topdress Urea or Ammosol Total Fertilizer Mix Organic Fertilizers Inorganic Fertilizers 20 3 1 or 2 0 2 or 4 20 3 0 1 (or 2) 2 (or 4) 30 2 1 1 (or 2) 3 (or 6) 30 2 1 1.5 (or 3) 2.5 (or 5) 20 6 (or 9) 20 7 (or 11) 30 7 (or 11) 30 7 (or 9) For group 2 areas (bags per hectare) Dry Season Heavy/ Light Medium Provinces Recommendations Wet Season Heavy/ Light Medium Region 2 Cagayan Nueva Vizcaya Quirino Region 3 Bulacan Bataan Zambales Region 4 Aurora Laguna Mindoro Or. Mindoro Occ Quezon Region 5 Catanduanes Camarines Norte Masbate Sorsogon Region 6 Aklan Antique Capiz Iloilo CAR Abra Region 7 Bohol Option 1 Basal Application 1. Commercial organic 2. 14-14-14 3. 16-20-0 (or 20-20-20) 4. Urea or Ammosol Topdress Urea or Ammosol Total Fertilizer Mix Organic Fertilizers Inorganic Fertilizers 5 2 1 (or 1) 1 (or 2) 2 (or 4) 5 2 1 (or 1) 1 (or 2) 2 (or 4) 6 0 3 (or 3) 1 or (2) 3 (or 6) 6 1 4 (or 4) 0.5 (or 1) 2.5 (or 5) 5 6 (or 9) 5 6 (or 9) 6 7 (or 11) 6 8 (or 11) Option 2 Basal Application 1. Compost/Manure 2. 14-14-14 3. 16-20-0 (or 20-20-20) 4. Urea or Ammosol Topdress Urea or Ammosol Total Fertilizer Mix Organic Fertilizers Inorganic Fertilizers 20 2 1 (or 1) 1 (or 2) 2 (or 4) 20 2 1 (or 1) 1 (or 2) 2 (or 4) 30 0 3 (or 3) 1 (or 2) 3 (or 6) 30 1 4 (or 4) 0.5 (or 1) 2.5 (or 5) 20 6 (or 9) 20 6 (or 9) 30 7 (or 11) 30 8 (or 11) E. Samar W. Samar Norte Region 11 Davao Or. Davao del Norte Region 12 Lanao del Cotabato 38 Negros Or. Region 8 Leyte N. Leyte Region 10 Kudarat Misamis Occ. Bukidnon Misamis Or. Davao del Sur South Cotabato Sultan FOR GROUP 3 AREAS Provinces Recommendations Wet Season Heavy/ Light Medium (bags per hectare) Dry Season Heavy/ Light Medium Region 3 Nueva Ecija* Option 1 Basal Application 1. Commercial organic 2. 14-14-14 3. 16-20-0 (or 20-20-20) 4. Urea or Ammosol Topdress Urea or Ammosol Total Fertilizer Mix Organic Fertilizers Inorganic Fertilizers Option 2 Basal Application 1. Compost/Manure 2. 14-14-14 3. 16-20-0 (or 20-20-20) 4. Urea or Ammosol Topdress Urea or Ammosol Total Fertilizer Mix Organic Fertilizers Inorganic Fertilizers 5 2 1 (or 1) 1 (or 2) 2 or 4 5 6 (or 9) 5 3 0 1 (or 2) 3 (or 6) 5 7 (or 11) 6 2 1 (or 1) 1 or (2) 7 (or 11) 6 7 (or 11) 6 2 1 (or 1) 1.5 (or 3) 2.5 (or 5) 6 7 (or 9) 20 2 1 (or 1) 1 (or 2) 2 (or 4) 20 3 0 1 (or 2) 2 (or 4) 30 2 1 (or 1) 1 (or 2) 3 (or 6) 30 2 1 (or 1) 1.5 (or 3) 2.5 (or 5) 20 6 (or 9) 20 6.5 (or 10) 30 6.5 (or 10) 30 7 (or 11) 39 FOR GROUP 4 AREAS Provinces Recommendations Wet Season Heavy/ Light Medium (bags per hectare) Dry Season Heavy/Me Light dium ARMM Lanao del Sur Maguindanao Region 4 Marinduque Region 9 Zamboanga del Norte CARAGA Surigao del Norte Option 1 Basal Application 1. Commercial organic 2. 14-14-14 3. 16-20-0 (or 20-20-20) 4. Urea or Ammosol Topdress Urea or Ammosol Total Fertilizer Mix Organic Fertilizers Inorganic Fertilizers 5 2 1 (or 1) 1 (or 2) 1.5 (or 3) 5 3 0 (or 1) 1 (or 2) 1.5 (or 3) 6 0 2 (or 2) 1.5 or (3) 1.5 (or 3) 6 1 2 (or 2) 1.5 (or 3) 1.5 (or 3) 5 5.5 (or 8) 5 5.5 (or 8) 6 5 (or 8) 6 6 (or 9) Option 2 Basal Application 1. Compost/Manure 2. 14-14-14 3. 16-20-0 (or 20-20-20) 4. Urea or Ammosol Topdress Urea or Ammosol Total Fertilizer Mix Organic Fertilizers Inorganic Fertilizers 20 2 1 (or 1) 1 (or 2) 1.5 (or 3) 20 2 1 (or 1) 1 (or 2) 1.5 (or 3) 30 0 2 (or 2) 1.5 (or 3) 1.5 (or 3) 30 1 1 (or 1) 2 1.5 (or 3) 20 5.5 (or 8) 20 5.5 (or 8) 30 5 (or 8) 30 6 (or 9) 40 FOR GROUP 5 AREAS Provinces Recommendations (bags/ha) Wet Season Heavy/ Medium CARAGA Agusan del Sur Agusan del Norte Surigao del Sur Region 4 Cavite Palawan Romblon CAR Ifugao Klinga Apayao Region 9 Zamboanga del Sur Option 1 Basal Application 1. Com'l organic 2. 14-14-14 3. 16-20-0 or (20-20-0) 4. Urea or (Ammosul) Topdress Urea or (Ammosul) Total Fertilizer Mix Organic Inorganic Option 2 Basal application 1. Compost/ Manure 2. 14-14-14 3. 16-20-0 or (20-20-0) 4. Urea or Ammosul Topdress Urea or Ammosul Total Fertilizer Mix Organic Inorganic Light (bags per hectare) Dry Season Heavy/ Medium Light 5 2 1 or 1 1 or 2 2 or 4 5 3 1 or 1 1 or 2 2 or 4 6 0 3 or 3 1 or 2 2 or 4 6 0 3 or 3 1.5 or 3 2.5 or 5 5 6 (9) 5 6 (9) 6 6 (9) 6 7(11) 20 2 1 or 1 1 or 2 2 or 4 20 3 1 or 1 1 or 2 2 or 4 30 0 3 or 3 1 or 2 2 or 4 30 0 3 or 3 1.5 or 3 2.5 or 5 20 6 (9) 20 7 (10) 30 6 (9) 30 7(110 41 FLOODED SPECIAL MICRONUTRIENT ZONE FOR RICE IN GROUP 6 AREAS Region Municipalities Recommendation (bags/ha) Basal Application Commercial organic 16-20-0 Ammosul or Urea Zn SO4 Topdress Ammosul or Urea Total Fertilizer Mix Organic Inorganic Wet Season (bags per hectare) Dry Season 1 San Manuel , Pangasinan Urdaneta, Pangasinan 2 Villaverde, N. Vizcaya Solana, N. Vizcaya Bagabag, N. Vizcaya 3 Camiling Tarlac Arayat, Pampanga Magalang, Pampanga San Ildefonso, Bulacan Hermosa, Bataan Gapan, N. Ecija Zaragosa, Nueva, Ecija 4 StaCruz, Laguna Pila, Laguna 5 Magarao, Camarines Sur 6 Banga, Aklan Sibalom Antique Oton, Iloilo Barotac Nueva, Iloilo Cabatuan, Iloilo Pototan, Iloilo 8 Palo, Leyte Basey, Samar 9 Polanco, Z. del Norte Tukuran, Z. del Ssur 10 Gingoog, Mis. Orr. 13 Surigao City Butuan City, A. del Norte Prosperidad, A. del Sur ARMM Sinsuat, Maguindanao CAR Tabuk, K. Apayao 4 1.5 5 or 2.5 20 kg 6 2 6 or 3 20 kg 5 or 2.5 6 or 3 4 11.5 (6.5) plus 20 kg Zn SO4 6 14 (8) plus 20 kg Zn SO4 42 FOR SALINE-INTRUDED, FLOOD-PRONE AREAS, GROUP 7. (>7 PH 7.5; EC>2 BUT <8). Region Municipality Recommendation (bags/ha) Wet Season Heavy/ Medium 1 Curimao, Ilocos Norte Sta. Catalina, Iloc. Sur Binmaley, Pangasinan Lingayen, Pangasinan Sual, Pangasinan Sexmoan, Pampanga Macabebe, Pampanga Masantol, Pampanga 2 Aparri, Cagayan Bugney, Cagayan Abulog, Cagayan 3 Paombong, Bulacan Hagonoy, Bulacan Obando, Bulacan Malolos, Blacan 5 Calabanga, Cam. Sur Bonbon, Cam. Sur Cabusao, Cam. Sur Libmanan, Cam. Sur Canaman,, Cam. Sur Minalabac, Cam. Sur Milaor, Cam. Sur 6 Oton, Iloilo Tigbauan, Iloilo 8 Borongan, East. Sam. 11 Mati, Davo Or. CARAGA Butuan,, Agus Norte Nasipit, Agus Norte Buenavista,Agus Norte Basal Application Commercial Organic 14-14-14 16-20-0 or 20-20-0 Urea MgSO4 ZnSO4 Topdress Urea Total Fertilizer Mix Organic Inorganic 5 3 0 0.5 1 10 kg 1.5 5 6 Light Dry Season Heavy/ Medium 6 2 1 (1) 1.5 2 10 kg 1.5 6 8 (8) Light 5 3 0 0.5 1 10 kg 2.5 5 7 6 2 1(1) 1.5 2 10 kg 2.5 6 9 (9) Basal Application Commercial Organic 14-14-14 16-20-0 or 20-20-0 Urea MgSO4 ZnSO4 Topdress Urea Total Fertilizer Mix Organic Inorganic 5 2 1(1) 1 1 5 kg 2 5 7 5 2 1(1) 1 1 5 kg 2 5 7 (7) 6 0 3 (3) 1 2 5 kg 2 6 8 (8) 6 1 4 (4) 1 2 5 kg 2 6 10 (10) Rapid composting with Trichoderma What is composting?  Composting is one way of utilizing plant wastes, which can be done right in the field. It involves a biological process of rotting organic waste materials such as rice straws, cogon, grasses, weeds, rice hulls, corn stalks, vines, bagasse and animal manures to become part of the soils and used as soil amendments or bio-fertilizer. Advantages of composting    Composts contain active microorganisms, which help in the decomposition of undecomposed materials in the soil thereby converting nutrients into readily available forms for plant use. Composting improves the physical condition of soils by promoting soil aggregation and preventing surface crusting, thus improving water infiltration, plant root penetration and soil aeration. It conserves the nutrients contained in animal manure, sewage sludge and similar materials. This also supplies the plant growth hormones not found in inorganic fertilizers. 43       It increases the buffering capacity of soils and minimizes the adverse effects of soil acidity and alkalinity. Composts are easy to produce. Continuously promotes sustained productivity. Farmers may find it more economical to supply organic matter to the soil in the form of compost. Farmers are less burdened with soil tillage, for compost improves the physical condition of the soils and increases its porosity and water holding capacity. Farmers may not need any expensive growth promoting enzymes and hormones because these can be derived from composts. What is trichoderma?  Trichoderma harzianum is a fungus activator that hastens the decomposition of organic waste materials. The species is antagonistic to a number of plant pathogens both in the laboratory and field conditions and plays a role in the decomposition of lignocelluloses. Advantages of using trichoderma   Decreases the time required for decomposition of different cellulosic waste materials like rice straw, corn stalks, sugarcane bagasse, sweet potato and other crops. Trichoderma has no pathogenic effect on different crops like mungbean, sweet potato, peanut and other crops. Steps in composting using trichoderma 1. Construct a platform or compost pen using branches of madre de cacao, ipil-ipil or bamboo, or any tree species in the vicinity. For rice paddies, the pens must be constructed in paddy field corners, their size depending on the amount of straw to be decomposed. However, construction of the platform maybe optional. 2. Gather grass, weeds, rice straw, coconut, coir dust or water lilies. Moistening the compost materials is important to encourage the growth of microorganisms, which hasten decomposition. 44 3. Pile crop residues in layers in the compost pen. Addition of manures speeds up decomposition and increases the nitrogen content of the compost. 4. Broadcast or mix thoroughly the trichoderma fungus on each layer of the composting materials at the rate of five to ten kg per ton of composting materials. 5. After filling up the pen/platform, cover the pile with banana leaves, sacks or plastic sheets, to minimize heat loss and evaporation of water 6. Apply water at least once a week if drying occurs. 7. If composting is done without a platform, the volume of the pile must be turned up side down two weeks after, with the top layers placed at the bottom of the pile and viceversa. This promotes aeration and evens up the decomposition of the composting 45 materials. If a platform is constructed to hold the composting materials, turning over the materials is not necessary. 8. After four weeks, the temperature of the pile will cool down. At this time, the compost is ready for use. 9. If the compost will not be used immediately, it may be air dried and stored for six months in a shady dry place without significant change in its quality as fertilizer. Important tips in making compost pile    Compost pile must have both air and moisture to hasten decomposition. Moisten the pile as you build it, but do not get it too wet. Do not pack the pile. Keep it loose so air can enter. Making vertical holes with a sharpened pole 5 cm in diameter can make air vents. In dry weather, add water to the pile occasionally to keep it moist. In rainy season, you may need to put a banana or grass cover over the pile to protect it from too much water. Note: If the compost pile is prepared with a raised platform as shown in the illustration, there is no need to turn over the compost materials as aeration will be provided through the bottom. Source: TRICHO: For Faster Composting. Development Communication Division, Training and Information Dissemination Services in cooperation with Laboratory Services Division, Bureau of Soils and Water Management. SOILSEACH Center, Elliptical Road, Corner Visayas Avenue, Diliman Quezon City   Compost fungus activator production Preparation of Agar-Oatmeal medium for Trichoderma inoculant          Weigh 100 gm oatmeal. Shred 2 bars agar-agar (gulaman). Mix agar and oatmeal in one liter beaker and add approximately 800 ml of water. Using a blender, blend until very fine. Cook under low fire, stirring continuously to prevent scorching. Add water to make up 1 litre. Add approximately 3 ml of 5 drops 1.0 NHCl or 1 mil of concentrated H2SO4 to adjust to pH 3.8 to 4.5. Dispense in flat bottles and seal with cotton plugs. Sterilize at 120 lbs pressure for 30 minutes Cool in slanting position 46  When hardened, the medium is ready for inoculation Preparation of inoculant      Under aseptic condition, transfer a loopful of Trichoderma harzianum to the surface of the sterile agar-oatmeal. Incubate under room temperature. When the fungus starts to produce spores (green color), the inoculant is ready to use in compost making. Add tap water to the bottle of inoculant. Shake the agar-oatmeal with the fungus mycelia and spores. Add 1 bottle of the inoculant to a drum of water, which is to be used for soaking the straw, or watering the compost pile. D. Viet Nam IPNS and balanced fertilization demonstrations - spring rice, summer rice and winter soybean Demonstration profile:    Location: Thuong Mo commune, Dan Phuong district, Ha Tay province. Soil type: Alluvial soils of the Red river. Soil properties: pH(KCl) = 5.6, OM = 2.66 per cent, total N = 0.14 per cent, total P 2O5 = 0.083 per cent, total K2O = 1.94 per cent, available P2O5 = 10.8 mg/100 g soil, available K2O = 14.5 mg/100 g soil, CEC = 26.0 me/100 g soil, clay fraction = 24.4 per cent. Area: 0.75 hectare with 10 farmer households participated in demonstration. Spring rice Q5, Khang Dan 7 Feb. 2001 4 June 2001 Summer rice Khang Dan 5 July 2001 5 Oct. 2001 Winter soybean DT 93 10 Oct. 2000 15 Dec. 2000  Variety Sowing/transplanting date Harvesting date Fertilizer rates - Farmers’ practice: FYM (tons/ha) N (kg/ha) P2O5 (kg/ha) K2O (kg/ha) - IPNS and balanced fertilization: FYM (tons/ha) N (kg/ha) P2O5 (kg/ha) K2O (kg/ha) * ha = hectare Main results:  10 122 56 57 10 126 89 84 10 90 77 70 10 88 89 84 5 39 30 49 5 50 90 60 Crop yield (kg per hectare) Farmers’ practice Spring rice Summer rice Winter soybean 5 360 5 270 1 200 IPNS & balanced fertilization 5 980 5 630 1 600 Yield Increase 620 360 400 47  Income benefits Crop Yield increase kq/ha Yield increase value, 1000 VND/ha 930 576 1 800 3 306 Spring rice Summer rice Winter soybean Total 620 360 400 Fertilizer cost increase, 1000 VND/ha 347 125 507 979 Profit (BF vs FP), 1000 VND/ha 583 451 1 293 2 327 Profit share % 25 19 56 FP = farmers’ practice; BF=balanced fertilization IPNS and balanced fertilization demonstrations - spring rice, summer soybean, late summer rice and winter potato Demonstration profile    Location: Van An cooperative, Luong Phong commune, Hiep Hoa district, Bac Giang province Soil type: degraded soils Soil properties: pH (KCl) = 4.3, OM = 1 per cent, total N = 0.05 per cent, total P 2O5 = 0.077 per cent, total K2O = 0.03 per cent, available P2O5 = 18.9 mg/100 g soil, available K2O = 2.5 mg/100 g soil, exchangeable Ca = 2.3 me/100 g soil, exchangeable Mg = 0.4 me/100 g soil, clay fraction = 8.5 per cent Area = 0.75 hectare with 14 farmer households participating in the demonstration.  Variety Sowing/transplanting date Harvesting date Fertilizer rates: - Farmers’ practice: FYM (tons/ha) N (kg/ha) P2O5 (kg/ha) K2O (kg/ha) CaO (kg/ha) - IPNS and balanced fertilization: FYM (tons/ha) N (kg/ha) P2O5 (kg/ha) K2O (kg/ha) CaO (kg/ha) Spring rice DV108 30 Jan 2001 22 May 2001 Summer soybean DT 99 1 July 2001 14 Aug 2001 Late summer rice Japonica 25 Aug 2000 14 Nov 2001 Winter potato Chinese 4 Nov 2000 18 Jan 2001 10 100 70 80 0 8 60 60 80 0 10 60 40 60 0 15 90 60 100 0 10 100 70 100 0 8 45 60 90 0 10 60 40 80 0 15 120 70 120 550 Main results  Crop yield (kg per ha) Farmers’ practice IPNS & balanced fertilization Yield increase 48 Spring rice Summer soybean Late summer rice Winter potato  Income benefits Crop 4 800 1 540 3 800 11 600 5 180 1 700 4 120 13 900 380 160 320 2 300 Yield increase kq/ha (BF-FP) 380 160 320 2 300 Yield increase value, 1000 VND/ha 684 720 864 2 300 4 568 Spring rice Summer soybean Late summer rice Winter potato Total Fertilizer cost increase, 1000 VND/ha 75 36 75 393 579 Profit (BF vs FP) 1000 VND/ha 609 756 789 1 907 4 061 Profit share, % 15 19 19 47 FP = farmers’ practice; BF=balanced fertilization IPNS and balanced fertilization demonstrations - spring rice, summer rice and winter potato in alluvial soils Demonstration profile    Location: Tan Truong commune, Cam Giang district, Hai Dzuong province. Soil type: alluvial soils of the Thai Binh river Soil properties: pH (KCl) = 4.5, OM = 3.1 per cent, total N = 0.117 per cent, total P 2O5 = 0.072 per cent, total K2O = 1.10 per cent, available P2O5 = 9.4 mg/100g soil, available K2O = 5.2 mg/100g soil, CEC = 14.3 me/100 g soil, exchangeable Ca = 4.7 me/100 g soil, exchangeable Mg = 3.5 me/100 g soil, clay fraction = 76.3 per cent Area = 0.75 hectare with 11 farmer households participating in the demonstration. Spring rice Variety Sowing/transplanting date Harvesting date Fertilizer rates - Farmers’ practice: FYM (tons/ha) N (kg/ha) P2O5 (kg/ha) K2O (kg/ha) - IPNS and balanced fertilization: FYM (tons/ha) N (kg/ha) P2O5 (kg/ha) K2O (kg/ha) Main results  Crop yield (kg per ha) Farmers’ practice IPNS and balanced fertilization Yield increase Q5 10 Feb 2001 3 June 2001 Summer rice Q5 28 June 2001 30 Sep 2001 Winter soybean Chinese 20 Oct 2000 20 Jan 2001  8 127 44 50 8 102 36 50 14 127 46 66 8 127 89 83 8 102 67 83 14 150 90 120 49 Spring rice Summer rice Winter potato  Income benefits Crop 5 370 5 030 17 250 6 050 5 640 21 380 680 610 4 130 Yield increase kq/ha Yield increase value, 1000 VND/ha 1088 1220 8260 10 568 Spring rice Summer rice Winter potato Total 680 610 4 130 Fertilizer cost increase 1000 VND/ha 433 337 616 1386 Profit (BF vs FP), 1000 VND/ha Profit share % 655 883 7644 9182 7 10 83 FP = farmers’ practice; BF=balanced fertilization IPNS and balanced fertilization demonstrations - spring rice, summer rice and winter potato in acid sulphate soils Demonstration profile     Location: Ha Cau village, Quoc Tuan commune, An Lao district, Hai Phong city Soil type: Acid sulphate soils Soil properties: pH (KCl) = 5.0, OM = 1.45 per cent, total N = 0.084 per cent, total P 2O5 = 0.12 per cent, total K2O = 1.27 per cent, available P2O5 = 7.5 mg/100 g soil, available K2O = 3.6 mg/100 g soil, CEC = 11.6 me/100 g soil, clay fraction = 24.2 per cent Area = 0.75 hectare with 14 farmer households participating in the demonstration. Spring rice Khang dan 10 Feb 2001 2 Jun 2001 Summer rice Khang dan 20 Jul 2001 21 Oct 2001 Winter potato Chinese 5 Oct 2000 14 Jan 2002 Variety Sowing/transplanting date Harvesting date Fertilization rates - Farmers’ practice: FYM (tons/ha) N (kg/ha) P2O5 (kg/ha) K2O (kg/ha) - IPNM and balanced fertilization: FYM (tons/ha) N (kg/ha) P2O5 (kg/ha) K2O (kg/ha) Main results  0-9 100-130 0-75 0 1.2 110 15 0 7.5 100-180 30-60 0-30 8 120 90 60 5 90 60 90 12.5 150 90 120 Crop yield (kg per hectare) Farmers’ practice Spring rice Summer rice Winter potato 4 140 4 440 14 590 IPNS and balanced fertilization 5 540 5 860 20 230 Yield increase 1 400 1 420 5 640  Income benefits 50 Crop Yield increase kq/ha Yield increase value, 1000 VND/ha 2 100 2 556 11 280 15 936 Spring rice Summer rice Winter potato Total 1400 1420 5 640 Fertilizer cost increase 1000 VND/ha 1 400 1 038 1 411 3849 Profit (BF vs FP), 1000 VND/ha 700 1 518 9 869 12 087 Profit share % 6 12 82 FP = farmers’ practice; BF=balanced fertilization IPNS and balanced fertilization demonstrations - spring groundnut, summer rice and winter potato Demonstration profile      Location: Le Loi cooperative, Vu Ban district, Nam Dinh province Soil type: alluvial soils of the Red river Soil properties pH (KCl) = 5.0, OM = 1.70 per cent, total N = 0.08 per cent, total P2O5 = 0.08 per cent, available P2O5 = 2.5 mg/100 g soil, Soil: sandy loam with more than 50 per cent sand Area = 0.8 hectare with 31 farmer households participating in the demonstration. Spring groundnut San Dau 30 04 Feb 2001 10 Jun 2001 Summer rice Sticky rice 20 July 2001 21 Oct 2001 Winter potato Diamont 25 Oct 2000 22 Jan 2001 Variety Sowing/transplanting date Harvesting date Fertilizer rates - Farmers’ practice FYM (tons/ha) N (kg/ha) P2O5 (kg/ha) K2O (kg/ha) - IPNM and balanced fertilization FYM (tons/ha) N (kg/ha) P2O5 (kg/ha) K2O (kg/ha) Main results  0 38 93 25 8 107 44 57 17 129 83 131 8 64 93 82 8 76 88 59 20 150 90 100 Crop yield (kg per hectare) Farmers’ practice Spring groundnut Summer rice Winter potato 2 580 3 580 11 190 IPNS and balanced fertilization 3 630 4 350 15 490 Yield increase 1 050 770 4 300 51  Income benefits Crop Yield increase kq/ha Yield increase value, 1000 VND/ha 4 200 2 310 8 600 15 110 Spring groundnut Summer rice Winter potato Total 1 050 770 4 300 Fertilizer cost increase, 1000 VND/ha 647 174 24 845 Profit (BF vs FP), 1000 VND/ha 3 553 2 136 8 576 14 265 Profit share % 25 15 60 FP = farmers’ practice; BF=balanced fertilization IPNS and balanced fertilization demonstrations - spring rice, summer rice and winter potato in salt affected alluvial soils Demonstration profile     Location: Hai Loc cooperative, Hai Hau district, Nam Dinh province Soil type: salt-affected alluvial soils of the Red river Soil properties: pH(KCl) = 5.4, OM = 1.85 per cent, total N = 0.10 per cent, total P2O5 = 0.11 per cent, available P2O5 = 3 mg/100 g soil Area = 0.72 hectare with 17 farmer households participating in the demonstration. Spring rice Bac thom 7 23 Feb 2001 10 Jun 2001 Summer rice Bac thom 7 17 Jul 2001 26 Oct 2001 Winter potato Sip 28 Oct 2001 15 Feb 2002 Variety Sowing/transplanting date Harvesting date Fertilizer rates - Farmers’ practice: FYM (tons/ha) N (kg/ha) P2O5 (kg/ha) K2O (kg/ha) - IPNS and balanced fertilization FYM (tons/ha) N (kg/ha) P2O5 (kg/ha) K2O (kg/ha) Main results  10 128 53 13 8 114 67 33 11 152 67 49 11 128 93 65 8 114 89 66 17 152 89 98 Crop yield (kg per hectare) Farmers’ practice Spring rice Summer rice Winter potato 5 140 3 470 12 020 IPNS and balanced fertilization 6 390 4 290 16 800 Yield increase 1 250 820 4 780  Income benefits Crop Yield increase kq/ha Yield increase value, 1000 VND/ha Fertilizer cost increase, 1000 VND/ha Profit (BF vs FP), 1000 VND/ha Profit share % 52 Spring rice Summer rice Winter potato Total 1 250 820 4 780 1 625 2 296 8 604 12 525 527 286 591 1404 1 098 2 010 8 013 11 121 10 18 72 FP = farmers’ practice; BF=balanced fertilization IPNS and balanced fertilization demonstrations - spring rice, summer rice and winter squash Demonstration profile     Location: Ky Vy cooperative, Hoa Lu district, Ninh Binh province Soil type: Alluvial soils Soil properties: pH(KCl) = 6.8, OM = 1.56 per cent, total N = 0.08 per cent, total P 2O5 = 0.08 per cent, available P2O5 = 2 mg/100 g soil Area = 0.75 hectare with 10 farmer households participating in the demonstration. Spring rice Hoa Nam 20 Feb 2001 15 Jun 2001 Summer rice Khang Dan 28 Jun 2001 5 Oct 2001 Winter squash Bi da 30 Sep 2001 20 Jan 2002 Variety Sowing/transplanting date Harvesting date Fertilizer rates - Farmers’ practice: FYM (tons/ha) N (kg/ha) P2O5 (kg/ha) K2O (kg/ha) - IPNS and balanced fertilization: FYM (tons/ha) N (kg/ha) P2O5 (kg/ha) K2O (kg/ha) Main results  Crop yield (kg per hectare) 8 96 93 57 8 101 49 57 10 88 67 57 8 128 93 82 8 88 89 82 10 101 89 98 Spring rice Summer rice Winter squash  Income benefits Crop Farmers’ practice 5 560 3 740 23 690 IPNS balanced fertilization 6 160 4 210 28 350 Yield increase 600 470 4 660 Yield increase kq/ha Yield increase value, 1000 VND/ha 900 940 5 592 7432 Spring rice Summer rice Winter squash Total 600 470 4 660 Fertilizer cost increase, 1000 VND/ha 253 285 361 899 Profit (BF vs FP) 1000 VND/ha 647 655 5 231 6 533 Profit share % 10 10 80 FP = farmers’ practice; BF=balanced fertilization IPNS and balanced fertilization demonstrations - spring rice, summer rice and winter maize 53 Demonstration profile     Location: Dien Hong cooperative, Dien Chau district, Nghe An province Soil type: marine sandy soils Soil properties: pH (KCl) = 5.2, OM = 1.31 per cent, total N = 0.129 per cent, total P 2O5 = 0.195 per cent, available P2O5 = 7.9 mg/100 g soil, available K2O = 5.2 mg/100 g soil, CEC = 11.1 me/100 g soil, clay = 11.7 per cent Area = 0.75 hectare with 22 farmer households participating in the demonstration. Spring rice Hybrid TG1 28 Jan 2001 24 May 2001 Summer rice Hybrid TG1 07 Jun 2001 10 Sep 2001 Winter maize LVN 4 16 Sep 2001 10 Jan 2002 Variety Sowing/transplanting date Harvesting date - Farmers’ practice FYM (tons/ha) N (kg/ha) P2O5 (kg/ha) K2O (kg/ha) - IPNS and balanced fertilization FYM (tons/ha) N (kg/ha) P2O5 (kg/ha) K2O (kg/ha) Main results  8 131 45 55 7 136 42 61 7 160 51 93 10 120 90 90 10 90 60 90 8 210 105 147 Crop yield (kg per hectare) Farmers’ practice Spring rice Summer rice Winter maize 5 680 4 310 2 050 IPNS & balanced fertilization 6 720 5 220 3 370 Yield increase 1 040 910 1 320  Income benefits Crop Yield increase kg/ha Yield increase value, 1000 VND/ha 1560 1365 2640 5565 Spring rice Summer rice Winter maize Total 1 040 910 1 320 Fertilizer cost increase, 1000 VND/ha 487 129 921 1537 Profit (BF vs FP) 1000 VND/ha Profit share % 1073 1236 1719 4028 26 31 43 FP = farmers’ practice; BF=balanced fertilization IPNS and balanced fertilization demonstrations - arabica coffee Demonstration profile    Location: Yen Kien commune, Doan Hung district, Phu Tho province Soil type: Ferralitic soils (Acrisol) Soil properties: pH(KCl) = 3.5, OM = 1.38 per cent, total N = 0.11 per cent, total P2O5 = 0.063 per cent, total K2O = 0.04 per cent, available P2O5 = 0.5 mg/100 g soil, available K2O = 6 mg/100 g soil, CEC = 7.2 me/100 g soil, clay fraction = 44.6 per cent 54    Treatments: (1) Farmers’ practice: 150 N + 75 P2O5 + 150 K2O; (2) IPNM and balanced fertilization: 300 N + 150 P2O5 + 300 K2O Area = 0.75 hectare Duration of demonstration: January to December 2001. Main results  Crop yield and income benefits Treatment Yield Yield kg / ha increase, kg / ha FP 348 BF 1131 783 Yield increase value, 1000 VND/ha 4698 Fertilizer cost increase, 1000 VND/ha 2025 Profit, 1000VND /ha 2673 FP = farmers’ practice; BF=balanced fertilization IPNS and balanced fertilization demonstrations - tea Demonstration profile       Location: Dai An commune, Thanh Ba district, Phu Tho province Soil type: Ferralitic soils on clay shale Soil properties: pH(KCl) = 3.7, OM = 3.02 per cent, total N = 0.17 per cent, total P 2O5 = 0.096 per cent, total K2O = 0.06 per cent, available P2O5 = 5.4 mg/100 g soil, available K2O = 6 mg/100 g soil, CEC = 10.4 me/100 g soil, clay fraction = 58.2 per cent Treatments: (1) Farmers’ practice: 150 N + 75 P2O5 + 150 K2O, (2) IPNM and balanced fertilization: 300 N + 150 P2O5 + 300 K2O Area = 0.75 hectare Duration of demonstration: January to December 2001. Main results  Crop yield and income benefits Treatment Yield, Yield kg/ha increase, kg/ha FP BF 7967 9561 1594 Yield increase value, 1000 VND/ha 2790 Fertilizer cost increase, 1000 VND/ha 385 Profit, 1000VND /ha 2405 FP = farmers’ practice; BF=balanced fertilization IPNS and balanced fertilization demonstrations - sugarcane Demonstration profile        Location: Tho Lam commune, Tho Xuan district, Thanh Hoa province Soil type: Ferralitic soils Soil properties: pH(KCl) = 4.9, OM = 1.05 per cent, total N = 0.064 per cent, total P 2O5 = 0.23 per cent, total K2O = 0.07 per cent, available P2O5 = 5.1 mg/100 g soil, available K2O = 5.4 mg/100 g soil, CEC = 9.36 me/100 g soil, clay = 19.4 per cent Treatments: (1) Farmers’ practice: 10 tons organic fertilizers + 165 N + 52 P2O5 + 172 K2O + 0.5 t CaO; (2) IPNS and BF: 30 tons organic fertilizers + 245 N + 30 P 2O5 + 265 K2O + 2 t CaO Total nutrients: (1) Farmers’ practice: 200 N + 100 P2O5 + 200 K2O + 0.5 t CaO; (2) IPNS & BF: 375 N + 175 P2O5 + 375 K2O + 2 t CaO Area = 0.84 hectare Variety: Que Duong 55   Planting date: 2 February 2001 Harvesting date: 29 November 2001 Main results  Crop yield and income benefits Treatment Yield Yield tons/ha increase, tons/ha Yield value, 1000 VND/ha 3570 Fertilizer cost, 1000 VND/ha 2410 3986 FP BF 86.9 103.9 17.0 Fertilizer cost increase, 1000 VND/ha 1576 Profit, 1000 VNDong /ha 1994 FP = farmers’ practice; BF=balanced fertilization IPNS and balanced fertilization demonstrations - lichie Demonstration profile       Location: Luc Ngan district, Bac Giang province Soil type: Ferralitic soils Soil properties: pH(KCl) = 3.9, OM = 1.36 per cent, total N = 0.17 per cent, total P 2O5 = 0.04 per cent, available P2O5 = 3.4 mg/100 g soil, available K2O = 8.4 mg/100 g soil, CEC = 13.8 me/100 g soil, clay fraction = 39 per cent Treatments: (1) Farmers’ practice: 7-9 t FYM + 350 N + 70 P2O5; (2) IPNM and BF: 9 t FYM + 180 N + 150 P2O5 + 270 K2O Area = 1 hectare Duration of demonstration: January to December 2001. Main results  Crop yield and income benefits Treatment Yield Yield tons/ha increase, tons/ha YI value, 1000 VND/ha Fertilizer cost, 1000 VND/ha FP BF 41.5 57.2 15.7 8635 Fertilizer cost increase, 1000 VND/ha 933 Profit, 1000 VNDong /ha 7702 FP = farmers’ practice; BF=balanced fertilization 56 CHAPTER 4 SELECTED IPNS RESEARCH RESULTS Pakistan. use of Sesbania  A study had shown that nitrogen applied as 50 per cent from sesbania and 50 per cent from prilled urea produced higher green and straw yield in rice compared with other green manures and nitrogen combinations. Different combinations of nitrogen and FYM showed significant effect on grain yield per hectare and their interaction was significant. The application of 10 tons of FYM with 60 kg nitrogen per hectare produced 29 per cent higher yield over N alone Source: Integrated Plant Nutrition Management in Pakistan: Status and Opportunities. Proceedings of symposium on Integrated Plant Nutrition Management, NFDC, 2000. p.31 Pakistan, use of Sesbania  Field experiments were carried out on upland rice at several levels of fertilizer N application with either FYM, or early or late incorporation of sesbania green manure; the rice was either after fallow or after wheat. Rice after fallow always gave better results than after wheat, especially with green manure (except at the highest N level), while FYM showed no benefit. Early green manure incorporation gave better yields than late incorporation. Response to fertilizer N was very strong but at the highest N levels, green manure tended to depress rice yield when grown after wheat but rice yields were elevated after fallow. Source: Integrated Plant Nutrition Management in Pakistan: Status and Opportunities. Proceedings of symposium on Integrated Plant Nutrition Management, NFDC, 2000. p.33 Pakistan, use of organic fertilizers on wheat crop  A long-term trial conducted at Barani Agriculture Research Institute, Chakwal examined the effect of organic fertilization on wheat crop. The organic treatments were: none (control), FYM at 20 ton per hectare, crop residues from wheat straw rotavated into soil, and mung as green manure. The fertilizer treatments applied before sowing were: no fertilizer, 30-20, 60-40 and 90-60 kg per hectare. There were two additional treatments, i.e., NPK 90-60-30 and 90-0-0 kg per hectare. Both FYM and crop residues achieved higher average yields than the control with no addition of organic fertilizers. FYM gave an average of 20 per cent yield improvement and crop residues 11 per cent enhancement. Mung, on the other hand, depressed yields due to utilization of soil moisture by mung crop. Source: Integrated Plant Nutrition Management in Pakistan: Status and Opportunities. Proceedings of symposium on Integrated Plant Nutrition Management, NFDC, 2000. p.30 Pakistan, use of organic fertilizers on wheat and cotton crops  A long-term experiment conducted at the Agronomic Research Farm, Khanewal assessed the contribution of organic sources combined with chemical fertilizers to crop yield. The organic sources were: nil, FYM at 10 tons per hectare and rotavation of cotton sticks in the field. The fertilizer levels were: control, half of recommended NPK, two-third of recommended NPK and full recommended NPK. The results showed that on the average there was an increase in wheat yield by about 200 kg per hectare where FYM was used. The FYM did not show any yield increase in case of cotton. The rotation of cotton sticks contributed about 400 kg increase in wheat production and about 200 kg in cotton. In fact two-thirds of NP recommended dose with rotavation of sticks was comparable with full-recommended NPK where no organic source was used. Source: Integrated Plant Nutrition Management in Pakistan: Status and 57 Opportunities. Proceedings of Symposium on Integrated Plant Nutrition Management, NFDC, 2000. p.29-30 Pakistan, use of organic fertilizers in rice-wheat cropping system.  A long-term experiment conducted at Ayub Agricultural Research Institute, Faisalabad studied the use of organic fertilizers in rice-wheat cropping system. The organic treatments were: FYM annually, guar, sesbania aculeate and wheat crop residues. NP treatments were 0, 40-30, 80-60 and 120-90 kg per ha of N and P2O4 respectively. The soil was non-saline with pH 7.6 and extremely low organic matter. The rotation followed was rice and wheat (green manure before rice) and the whole area was irrigated. Results showed that at zero and low level of fertilizer, that is 40-30, FYM gave about 200 kg per hectare additional yield. But guar did better, giving an average 400 kg per hectare increment at low fertilizer level. At the highest fertilizer level, FYM performed as in the other treatments but the effect of guar was variable from one crop to another, with no, or negative overall benefit. Sesbania showed increase in yield in first rice crop, but leveled of later on. The experiment concluded that addition of FYM gave a small but consistent yield benefits. Guar was found most effective at low NP levels. Source: Integrated Plant Nutrition Management in Pakistan: Status and Opportunities. Proceedings of Symposium on Integrated Plant Nutrition Management, NFDC, 2000. p.28 Pakistan, filter press mud from sugar cane  Chemical analysis showed that on the average filter cake contained 1.55 per cent N, 1.21 per cent P. Bio-compost prepared from filter cake and stillage was found very effective to reduce need of mineral fertilizers for sugarcane. Source: Integrated Plant Nutrition Management in Pakistan: Status and Opportunities. Proceedings of Symposium on Integrated Plant Nutrition Management, NFDC, 2000. p.31 Pakistan, composting  From 1983 to 1989, the Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC) carried out a collaborative project entitled "Improvement of soil productivity through biological means”. The project studied various methods of composting, i.e., aerobic and anaerobic, in heaps or pits, alone, or with added bagasse, or with urea (0.5%), SSP (0.5%) or both. The study found that the addition of urea and SSP gave the most rapid composting. Source: Integrated Plant Nutrition Management in Pakistan: Status and Opportunities. Proceedings of Symposium on Integrated Plant Nutrition Management, NFDC, 2000. p.33 Pakistan, sesbania aculeate  Sesbania aculeate was used as a green manure in a series of experiments. On wheat, sesbania on the average increased yields by 5.1 per cent. Yield benefits were pronounced where no compost or fresh dung was added. Source: Integrated Plant Nutrition Management in Pakistan: Status and Opportunities. Proceedings of Symposium on Integrated Plant Nutrition Management, NFDC, 2000. p.33 Pakistan, rhizospheric bacteria  The PARC, National Institute of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering (NIBGE) and Provincial Agricultural Research Institutes carried out work on biological fertilization. All institutions isolated strains of rhizospheric bacteria, which could mobilize atmospheric N on both legumes and non-legumes. In greenhouse, field and laboratory trials, effective microorganisms in combination with NPK, green manure and FYM had shown to give yield responses of 18.3 per cent in rice and 39 per cent in wheat. Significant responses were also reported in maize, peas and potatoes. NARC, in collaboration 58 with Engro Chemical Pakistan Limited (ECPL), commercialized rhizobium species for chickpea under the name of Biozot. One packet of 500 kg was sold at Rs. 50 to farmers. The project continued for three years (1996 to 1998) covering an area of one thousand acre each year. On the average, yield improvement from 25 to 40 per cent was reported. Source: Integrated Plant Nutrition Management in Pakistan: Status and Opportunities. Proceedings of symposium on Integrated Plant Nutrition Management, NFDC, 2000. p.33 Pakistan, Blue-green algae  Among the photo-autotropic microorganisms, only blue-green algae had the capability of nitrogen fixation. Proceedings of symposium on Integrated Plant Nutrition Management, NFDC, 2000. p.108 Pakistan, Azolla  Azolla is a free-floating water fern harbouring a nitrogen fixing blue-green algae in its leaves and is considered the most suitable green manure for flooded rice fields. Azolla produces dry biomass at 420 to 700 kg per hectare in two weeks, equivalent to 8 to 14 tons per hectare. It contains 15 to 28 kg N per hectare, out of which more than 70 per cent N is derived from air. Incorporation of Azolla at 30 kg per hectare, 40 days after transplanting of rice, showed that 18 per cent of its N was taken up by rice. Proceedings of Symposium on Integrated Plant Nutrition Management, NFDC, 2000. p.108 Philippines, Summary of research results on IPNS in rice production    Residues of leguminous plants could significantly increase rice yield even without application of inorganic fertilizers. However, to obtain relatively high yields, application of inorganic fertilizers together with crop residues is required. Rice straw compost applied with compost fungus activator did not significantly increase rice yield. When combined with inorganic fertilizers, marked increase in yield was obtained. Organic materials could substitute inorganic fertilizers by 50 per cent organic without affecting yield. Effects of the combination of organic and inorganic fertilizers were more pronounced during the dry season than wet season. Organic N and total N were higher in soils applied with chicken manure than soils applied with rice straw compost and green manure. Sesbania was more effective if used as pre-rice green manure crop. Sesbania could also be intercropped with rice to accumulate adequate N, increase rice yield, reduce weeds and minimize labour costs. Green manure crops could provide the N required by rice crops to yield from 4 to 5 tons per hectare. They accumulate N at the rate of 75 to 190 kg per hectare. These crops include Sesbania rostrata, Aeschynomene afraspera, Vigna radiata (mungbean), Crotolaria juncea, Glycine max (soybean), Dolichos lablab (lablab), Vigna unguiculata (cowpea) and Cajanus cajan (pigeon pea). Indigo tinctoria and azolla are also effective in enhancing rice yield if combined with inorganic fertilizers. Chicken manure increases rice yield but further increase could be obtained if combined with inorganic fertilizers. The use of organic materials as fertilizers by farmers depends on their costs in terms of price per unit nutrient content. Combine application of inorganic and organic fertilizers at an appropriate ratio, 50:50 or higher in favor of organic fertilizers, is needed to attain high yields on a sustained basis. Source: Mamaril, et al. 2000. Integrated plant nutrition management system in the Philippines: review and analysis.       59 Philippines, Summary of research results on IPNS in corn production  IPNS studies in corn in the Philippines is relatively limited despite the fact that corn is an important crop and is grown in harsher environment especially in terms of soil conditions. Upload corn areas are generally deficient in nutrients, like N, P, K, Ca and Mg. IPNS is most relevant in such poor soil conditions. Lime, P, and chicken manure application was found to improve grain quality. While application of chicken manure, lime and P together produced the highest yield; the net return was lowest due to the relatively high price of chicken manure. Application of organic fertilizers over a longer period could improve soil physical properties. However, short-term experiments found no improvement in soil water holding capacity and organic matter content. Source: Mamaril, et al. 2000. Integrated plant nutrition management system in the Philippines: review and analysis.    Philippines, summary of research results on IPNS in coconut production    Organic fertilizers alone could not supply the nutrient needed by coconut trees to significant increase yield. Combining chloride with organic fertilizers appeared to be the most practical way of increasing yield of coconut. Inorganic fertilizers containing chloride, such as such as KCl, NaCl and NH 4Cl are very effective in increasing yield since most of the coconut areas are chloride deficient. Source: Mamaril, et al. 2000. Integrated plant nutrition management system in the Philippines: review and analysis. Philippines, summary of research results on IPNS in vegetable production   Combination of inorganic and organic fertilizers produced yields comparable with inorganic fertilizers alone. Inorganic fertilizers alone consistently produced higher yields than organic fertilizers alone. An exception was found when chicken manure alone produced comparable yields as inorganic fertilizers alone. This was attributed to the relatively higher nutrient contents of chicken manure than other organic materials. Leafy vegetables need higher rates of inorganic N fertilizers due to their high N requirement. Source: Mamaril, et al. 2000. Integrated plant nutrition management system in the Philippines: review and analysis.   60 CHAPTER 5 BASIC DATA AND TABLES 5.1 Average nutrient composition of organic material (oven-dry basis). KIND OF MATERIAL Chicken manure Swine manure Carabao manure Cow manure Bat manure (guano) Goat manure Horse manure Compost Sludge Vermi-cast Azolla TOTAL N 3.23 0.81 0.60 1.87 1.14 2.81 3.13 1.34 1.87 1.86 2.76 TOTAL P2O5 4.27 3.00 2.05 2.47 16.30 2.66 2.80 3.30 3.11 3.61 0.97 TOTAL K20 2.54 0.61 0.50 2.11 0.94 1.20 1.88 1.04 0.54 1.60 2.38 TOTAL CaO 4.75 0.89 4.30 2.21 1.09 Rice straw 0.48 0.34 1.58 Ipil-ipil 2.75 0.54 2.01 1.87 Coconut coir dust 0.50 0.82 1.26 Mud press 2.72 6.20 0.79 Distillery slops 0.12 0.25 0.62 Garbage ash 0.68 T 1.40 3.45 Water hyacinth ash 0.50 8.06 19.08 Factory ash 0.22 2.76 0.94 0.75 Bagasse ash 0.28 0.84 2.00 Source: Integrated Plant Nutrition System in the Philippines: Review and Analysis (Mamaril, 2000) 5.2 Specifications of pure and fortified organic fertilizers. Pure Fortified Total NPK 7% max. 7% min. C:N 12:1 12:1 Moisture Content < 35% < 35% Organic Matter > 20% > 20% PATHOGENS 3 Fecal streptococci < 5 x 10 /g compost 2 Total coliforms < 5 x 10 /g compost Salmonella 0 Infective parasitic 0 HEAVY METALS Maximum allowable level in compost (mg/kg dry weight) Zn 1000 Pb 750 Cu 300 Cr 150 Ni 50 Hg 5 Cd 5 Source: Fertilizer and Pesticides Authority of the Philippines (1999) 61 5.3 Nutrient removed by vegetables total and edible portion at harvest Crop Yield (t/ha) Primary nutrients (kg/ha) N Beet Leek Spinach Lettuce Sweet Potato (T) Sweet Potato (Total) Radish Cabbage Bittergourd (P) Bittergourd (Total) Luffa (P) Luffa (Total) Snakegourd (P) Snakegourd (Total) Bean (P) Bean (Total) Okra (P) Okra (Total) Capsicum (P) Capsicum (Total) Brinjal (P) Brinjal (Total) Potato (T) Potato (Total) Tomato (F) Tomato (Total) Carrot (T) Carrot (Total) F = fruits; P = pods; T = tuber 31 25 20 25 10 18 12 30 30 35 60 30 52 44 16 10 23 139 132 58 16 48 108 73 128 80 130 41 151 40 73 39 166 59 95 25 67 57 130 38 222 127 163 70 159 P 20 18 9 2 13 20 11 18 12 19 9 24 6 10 6 19 9 14 2 5 9 18 7 27 14 18 14 24 K 171 242 88 23 83 207 118 175 88 148 54 169 52 89 39 143 76 131 14 63 74 241 81 479 165 206 104 237 Secondary nutrients (kg/ha) Ca Mg 29 31 41 5 10 23 42 60 6 30 5 97 17 38 5 86 15 62 9 23 1 58 3 71 10 42 23 52 9 24 17 2 5 15 11 14 10 21 5 33 7 14 4 19 10 24 5 9 6 21 4 24 9 20 10 20 Micro Nutrients (g/ha) Cu 90 71 89 9 26 58 25 44 83 127 32 118 55 93 23 106 50 86 18 56 47 141 32 105 176 346 53 114 Zn 172 511 62 35 14 38 112 188 13 150 53 218 55 96 60 388 87 172 20 70 162 251 153 541 129 222 158 430 Fe 2397 2614 3371 430 416 2147 1295 1365 447 1563 626 3198 492 1256 544 3831 455 1357 147 1074 153 571 652 10546 4103 7709 1491 3693 Mn 442 906 371 46 70 255 241 382 113 281 58 342 103 285 131 1606 158 553 44 208 37 210 89 2506 126 344 267 699 Source: Ariyaratne, 2000. Integrated Plant Nutrition System (IPNS) Training Manual (Sri Lanka) 62 5.4 Nitrogen content and C/N ratio of some compostable materials. Materials Farm residue Rice straw Wheat straw Barley straw Maize stalks and leaves Cotton stalks Sugarcane trash Lucern residue Green weeds Water hyacinth Seaweeds Azolla Red clover Ferns Flax Fallen leaves Grass clippines Sesbania sp. Neem cake Animal shed waste Cow dung Buffalo dung Horse dung Poultry Sheep Pig Human habitation waste Night soil Urine Digested sludge Biogas (ex-cattle) slurry Vegetable residue Potato tops Amaranthus Cabbage Lettuce Onion Pepper Tomato Carrot (whole) Turnip top Fruit waste Tobacco Forest Leaves Raw sawdust Rotted sawdust Mango sawdust Nitrogen content (%) 0.3-0.5 0.3-0.5 0.3-0.4 0.8 0.6 0.3-0.4 2.55 2.45 2.38 2.10 2-5 1.9 1.5 1.1 0.5-1.0 2.15 2.83 6.05 2.0 2.4 5.0 3.75 3.75 4.0-6.0 15-18 5.0-6.0 2.0 1.6 3.6 3.6 3.7 2.6 2.6 3.3 1.6 2.3 1.5 3.0 0.5-1.0 0.25 0.3 0.3 6-10 0.8 6 20.4 27 11 12 15 15 12 27 C:N ratio 80-130 80-130 100-120 50-60 70 110-120 19 13 17.6 19 25 44 40-80 20 17.9 4.5 40-80 208 128 132 Source: NARC, 1998. Training Manual for Quality Improvement of Farm Yard Manure and Compost 63 CHAPTER 6 SOURCES OF IPNS INFORMATION 6.1 Documents in prints or electronic format 1. Integrated Plant Nutrition Management (IPNM): Practical Testing of Technologies with Farmers Groups. Report No. 14. May 2001. http://ww.drylands-group.org/repo14_2001.pdf Precision Soil and Plant Nutrition Management (R. Concepcion, 2000). A paper presented at the International Seminar on Issues in the Management of Agricultural Resources, National Taiwan University, 4 to 9 September 2000. http://www.bsmw.gov.ph/specialreports/fertility/preciseag.pdf Guide to efficient plant nutrition management. FAO, 1998. This FAO publication addresses some major issues related to the agronomic management of plant nutrients in an attempt to ensure both enhanced and sustainable agricultural production and to safeguard the environment. Download from: ftp://ftp.fao.org/agl/adll/docs/gepnm.pdf Guidelines for on-farm plant nutrition and soil management trials and demonstrations. This FAO publication presents some aspects of effective planning for improved plant nutrition, soil fertility and soil management. It provides researchers with options for selection of sites, treatments, layout, experimental designs and methods of analysis. Download from: ftp://ftp.fao.org/agl/agll/docs/misc26.pdf Fertilizer strategies. This FAO document presents guidelines for governments on the development of fertilizer strategies. It illustrates the differences before and after the involvement of the private sector and offers solutions for improvements. It discusses the role of fertilizers in the development of agriculture along with the factors that have impact on their use by farmers. Download from: ftp://ftp.fao.org/agl/agll/docs/fertstr.pdf Fertilizer use by crop. This FAO document presents data for 92 countries on fertilizer use by crop expressed in plant nutrients for nitrogen, phosphate and potash. Download MS-Excel file from: ftp://ftp.fao.org/agl/agll/docs/fubc99.xls Fertilizers and their use. This FAO document presents guidelines for extension staff on the use of fertilizers. It explains the need for mineral fertilizers for agricultural development in support of food security and the maintenance of soil productivity. Download from ftp://ftp.fao.org/agl/agll/docs/fertuse.pdf Guidelines and reference material on integrated soil and nutrient management and conservation for farmer fields schools. This FAO document provides a basic conceptual framework and supporting reference material which would assist in the development and implementation of an effective farmer field schools focussed on integrated soil and nutrient management and conservation. Download from ftp://ftp.fao.org/agl/agll/docs/misc27.pdf Guideline for participatory diagnosis of constraints and opportunities for soil and plant nutrient management. This FAO publication covers the use of selected methods and tools of participatory diagnosis of constraints and opportunities at farm household and community levels. Download from ftp://ftp.fao.org/agl/agll/docs/misc30.pdf 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Manual on integrated soil management and conservation practices. This FAO document proposes options for soil management to counterpart soil resources 64 depletion. Topics included chemical and physical attributes of soil, soil management concepts, mechanization and tillage, mulching and green manure, erosion control and water resources management, etc. Download from ftp://ftp.fao.org/agl/agll/docs/lw8e.pdf 11. Plant nutrient management, food security and sustainable agriculture: the future through 2020. This publication contains the proceedings of the workshop organized by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and FAO in Italy in May 1995 Download from ftp://ftp.fao.org/agl/agll/docs/proifpri.pdf 12. Soil physical constraints to plant growth and crop production. Download from ftp://ftp.fao.org/agl/agll/docs/misc24.pdf 13. Soil management and conservation for small farms - strategies and methods of introduction, technologies and equipment. This FAO publication is intended for development practitioners, extensionists and leaders or pioneers in farming communities, to inform them about the experiences and initiatives of farming communities in conservation agriculture in Santa Catarina State, Brazil. Download from ftp://ftp.fao.org/agl/agll/docs/sb77e.pdf 14. Training of teacher farmers in plant nutrition management - economic analysis report 1998/99 cropping season Zimbabwe. Download from ftp://ftp.fao.org/agl/agll/docs/econzim.pdf 6.2 Internet sites 1. Food & Fertilizer Technology Center (FFTC) at http://www.agnet.org. FFTC aims to promote the exchange and dissemination of technical information and experience on agricultural food production and, in particular, on the use of chemical fertilizer and the adoption of related farming methods. Organic Agriculture at FAO at http://www.fao.org/organicag. It offers information on organic agriculture available at FAO and functions as a “road map” whereby users are directly to other relevant web sites. Land and Plant Nutrition Management Service at FAO at http://www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/agricult/agl/agll/prtplnu.htm. WWW Virtual Library on Soils and Substrates at http://www.metla.fi/info/vlib/soils/old.htm. Established by the Finnish Forest Research Institute (METLA), the site offers information and links related to soil management. A Common Codex for Integrated Farming at http://www.farre.org/versionanglaise/commoncodex.htm. An EU initiative for sustainable development in agriculture. Integrated Farming Information Network at http://eea.eionet.eu.int:8980/public/irc/environwindows/infin.home. An interest group to provide key European plays in Integrated Farming with a forum for information exchange and dialogue. Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific (RAP) of FAO at http://www.fao.or.th/default.htm American Society of Agronomy at http://www.agronomy.org. Bureau of Soils and Water Management of the Philippines at http://www.bswm.gov.ph 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Soil and Fertilizer Society of Thailand at http://www.sfst.org 11. Agriculture Network Information Center at http://www.agnic.org. AgNIC focuses on providing agricultural information in electronic format over the World Wide Web. 65 12. Alternative Farming Systems Information Center – Sustainable Agricultural Resources at http://www.nal.usda.gov/afsic/agnic/agnic.htm 13. Land, Soil and Water Database of AGRALIN, Wageningen at http://www.agralin.nl/lsw. The site offers searchable bibliographic database on land, soil and water. 66