Stanford

M. Witzel Stanford, July 11, 2007 The language or languages of the Indus civilization Summary Indus signs remain "unread" in part because the linguistic nature of the signs is in question and since little is currently known of the language or languages spoken in the Indus civilization. However, two contemporary sources can shed light on this: some loan words in Mesopotamian inscriptions from the Indus (or the Dilmun) areas, and some 300 words in early Vedic texts composed in the northern section of the Indus civilization. Both point to a language that was prefixing in nature but radically different from agglutinative, suffixing languages such as Dravidian. Even if Indus signs do not encode full phrases or sentences of a spoken language, as recent studies suggest, determining the languages spoken in the region may be useful in interpreting Indus symbols, which may (like heraldic signs, Mongolian tamghas, and similar nonlinguistic symbol systems) contain occasional puns even without systematically encoding language. * nature of Indus signs unknown * language(s) of the Indus area unknown 2 kinds of nearly contemporanous sources avalaibale for linguistic situation: - (Ṛg)Vedic texts, c. 1400-1000 BCE - Mesopotamian documents, around 2000 BCE * VEDIC SOURCES for local loan words - nature of 300+ loan words, form and structure - 3 levels of Ṛgveda loans - loans belong to prefixing language(s) - hardly any Dravidian in early RV loans * MESOPOTAMIAN SOURCES for local loan words from: - Dilmun (Bahrain) and Meluḫḫa (Indus) words of trade - Indian sources : Sindh materials in Indic texts/languages * Importance of linguistic materials for study of Indus signs - providing cultural background - providing materials for non-linguistic puns, etc. Some data * Word Structure 1. Indo-Eur. (Szemerényi) +/- prefixes {(s) (C) (R) (e) (R) (C/s)} +/- suffixes +/- endings) 2. Dravidian (ə = any vowel) (ə) (C) (ə) (C) +/Suffixes (: -C, -Cə, CCə, -CCCə) thus : ə, əC, Cə, CəC +/- C(C)(ə) 3. Munda (older structure. Pinnow) Cə'C +/-Prefixes Cə-Cə'C Cə'C-ə'C cf. English: old, now unproductive prefixes for(e)- or befor-get, fore-go, for-feit, fore-close, etc. or be-dazzle, be-friend, be-get, be-have, be-hold, be-lie, be-long, be-moan, be-seech, be-tray, be-ware, etc. wrong divisions: be-amy, be-anie, be-ad, be-auty, be-gum, be-gonia, be-luga, Benares, be-neficient, be-nign, be-ryl, be-vy. * Prefixing Indus language: 380+ words from Ṛgveda (Kuiper 1991 etc.): *til :: *jar-til :: i-til(?) til-a AV 'sesame' and taila 'sesame oil' AV, tilya overgrown with sesame jar-tila KS 'wild sesame' til-vila 'fertile' RV 10.62.7, til-piñja AV, til-piñjī AV 'infertile sesame', tila-piñjī ditto til-va-ka 'name of a tree, Symplocos racemosa', ŚB tailva-ka 'stemming from that tree', MS; and Munda: i-til 'grease, fat, rich' (Santali, Mundari, Ho) i-til hasa 'rich, fertile soil' (Saora) til-min 'oil seed' (Santali; Kuiper 1955: 157). *kun-ti(d) : śa-, tiKunti (tribal name), KS kaunta (a festival of the Kuru tribe) MS śa-kunti 'bird' RV śa-kuni 'bird' RV śa-kunta 'bird AV śa-kunti 'bird' RV śa-kunta-ka, śa-kuntika deminutives RVKh, RV śa-kuntalā (name) ŚB Kunta/i- ~ khon-thed 'bird' (Kharia) on-tid-en (Sora) Vedic tit-tira 'partrige' ti-tid (Korku) *bind : sṛ , ku-sṛ , visṛ -binda, (name: a demon) RV; cf. Sṛ ma 'a demon' MS ku-suru-binda, (name) JB ku-sur-binda, (name) TS bainda (tribal name) VS, mod. Bind vi-bhindu, (name RV :: "splitting' RV) vi-bhindu-ka (name) PB vi-bhindu-kī-ya 'name of a group of priests' JUB vindh-ya (Mtn.s) (vibhīdaka??) nuts of the V./Vibhītaka tree (RV) māṣ :: kal- (??) māṣ a 'bean' to be connected (?) with : kal-māṣ a 'speckled, spot' KS kal-maṣ a 'spot, dirt' MS kil-biṣ a 'offense, evil deed' (which sticks) *ḍumbar : ka-, uu-ḍumbara AV, fig tree u-dumbara MS 'fig tree, Ficus glomerata' :: ka-dumbarī Class. Skt. 'fig tree, Ficus oppositofolia.' (u-, ka-, ki- are common "articles" in Khasi; many RV words have these prefixes: living beings) ber : ku-, kāKu-bera Kā-bera-ka cf. śiṃ -śapā ba-ut. śām-śapa -n- Infix? sṛ jaya sṛ -ñ-jaya name of a god (AV) patronym (AV) a plant, Dalbergia sissoo derivative of śiṃ śapa ~ Elam. [šeššap] śe-iš-šá- KS 'a bird' RV 'name of a man, tribe' * Early Dravidian loans: From early Ṛgvedic: kulāya- 'nest' 6.15.16, phalgu/phalgva 'minute', 4.5.14, āṇi 'lynch pin' 5.43.8, ukha(-cchid) '(lame in the) hip' 4.19.9, bala 'force' 5.57.6, 5.30.9. These, however, no longer securely be explained as Dravidian. From the middle period (RV II: books 2,3, 7, 8) stem: kuṇāru 'lame in the arm?' or name of a person 3.30.8; mayūra(?) 3.45.1, phala(?) 'fruit' 3.45.4?; ukhā(?) 3.53 'pan, hip' (late); kāṇa(?) 'one-eyed' 7.50.1, kulāya- 'nest' 7.50.1, kulpha 'ankle' 7.50.2; kavaṣ a 'straddle legged' 7.18.12, daṇḍa 'stick', 7.33.6 (late); kuṇḍa-(?) 'vessel' 8.17.13, mayūra(?) 'peacock', 8.1.25, naḍa/naḷ a(??) 'reed' 8.1.33, kūla 'slope, bank' 8.47.11. From the later RV (RV III) come: ulūkhala? 'mortar' 1.1.28; bila 'hollow' 1.11.5, 1.32.11; khala 'treshing floor' 10.48.7; kaṭ u(ka) 'pungent' 10.85.34, a-phala(?) 'without fruit', 10.71.5, phalinī(?) 'having fruits', 10.97.15, phala(?) 'fruit' 10.146.5, kūṭ a(?) 'hammer' 10.102.4, kāṇa(?) 'one-eyed' 10.155.1, piṇḍa? 'ball, dumpling' 1.162.19, ukhā(?) 'pan, hip' 1.162.13,15; phāla? 'plough share' 10.117.07, piśāci- 'demon' RV 1.133.5, budbuda(?) 'bubbling' 10.155.4 vriś(??) 'finger' 1.144.5; bala(??) 'strength' 14,32,51,61,71,91,1010, garda-bha(??) 'donkey' RV 1.23.5, 3.53.23 (late, next to the artificial rāsa-bha 'donkey'!), RV Vālakhilya 8.56.3 (late) vāra(??) RV 1, 8, 10, etc.'tail, hair'. Results: in RV -- little Dravidian, but a prefixing language, Para-Munda (Kuiper called it Munda) -- some other remnants that indicate the multilingual nature of the Indus area -- clear differences between northern and southern language -- some African influence (millet) -- river names are largely superstrate ones of Indo-Aryan; in the Kabul River and ‘Sarasvatī’ area local words remain: -- Difference between N/S Indus area; we need a substrate study of Panjabi and Sindhi * Multi-lingual nature of the Indus area Situation in Sindh in Vedic times * RV 8 may point to Baluchistan/Sindh/E.Iran Bhalānas- in the Ten Kings' Battle (RV 7.18) ~ Bolān pass ; Kaśu ~ Avest. Kasu, Kaśu Caidya, Kanīta ~ Scythian Kanitēs, Tirindira ~ Tiridatēs ~ Avest. Tīrō.nakaϑβa, Kṛ śa 8.59.3 ~ Kərəsāspa, Parśu ~ Old Pers. Pārsa 'Persian', Paktha 8.22.10 ~ mod. Pashto, Paktho, Arśasāna, Anarśani ~ Iran. əršan; cf. unusual Varo Suṣ āman camels uṣ ṭ ra 8.4.21-24, 31, 46-48, O. Iran. uštra, as in Zaraϑ-uštra Kāṇva section, RV 8.1-48, 8.49-59, 60-66. Pra-skaṇ va, with the common Para-Munda prefix pra- *[pər-] * Dravidian: in mid-level RV, name: Kavaṣ a 'straddle legged' (K. Ailūṣ a RV), cf. Śailūṣ a ''dancer, singer initial c- is often dropped in South(!) Dravidian (further: Śirimbīṭ ha : Irimbiṭ hi, śiriṇā 'hiding place, night?' : irīṇa 'salt pan, hiding place (for gambling) Drav. place names (L.V. Ramaswamy Iyer 1929-30) *'Baluchi' RV 8 : earliest rice in S. Asian texts :: Pirak, odana 'rice gruel' (from Munda oḍ i(kā) 'wild rice' in Santali hoṛ o, huṛ u 'rice plant', in the myth of the boar Emuṣ a,whose suffix -uṣ a : RV 8.69.14, 8.77.6-11, 8.77.10, 8.96.2, 1.61.7, vy-odana 8.63.9: introduction of rice, its charter myth * guggulu / gulgulu 'bdellium' in AV (oceanic and other) * MESOPOTAMIAN SOURCES Most data on trade use Sumerian (and Akkadian) words, a few are of interest; notably the word for a certain tree products of Meluhha: giš-ab-ba-me-lu-ḥḥ a (abba wood, a thorn tree), plains'), etc. magilum boats of Meluḥḥan style (Possehl 1996). sinda (si-in-da-a, si-in-du) Sindh wood, date palm, the 'red dog of Meluḥḥa', zaza cattle (zebu?), elephants, etc. mêsu wood ('of the TREES: GIŠ šimmar ~ RV śalmali at 7.50.3, 10.85.20, and śimbala at 3.53.22. involving a prefix (s.below) GIŠmes-makan 'mêsu wood of Magan', GIŠab-ba-me-luḫ-ḫa 'abba wood of Meluhha' (a thorn tree), mêsu 'of the plains'. GIŠḫa-lu-ub 'ḫaluppu wood' from Dilmun. wood * gi-šimmar or giš-immar, or even *giš-šimmar? like GIŠab-ba-me-luḫ -ḫ a 'abba wood of Meluhha' gišimmar 'dates' (*šimmar) as well the wood GIŠšimmar 'wood of the date palm' gi(š)- a prefix? Words in ka-, ki, kī-, ku-, ke- etc. are frequent as designations of persons and animals, as well as of plants and plant products Para-Munda prefix gi- or g+vo: gu-ṣ -pita 'twisted mess', k- :: g Ved. śaṇa AV 2.4.5, PS 2.11.5 śaṇ a (with northwestern interchange of k/ś in) :: Khotanese Saka kaṃ ha, Greek kánnabis, Engl. hemp < k- (EWA II 605) :: Drav.: Tel. gōnu, gōṅ gu 'cannabis', Kan. gōgi, 'hibiscus cannabinus' (DEDR 2183). * cf. N/S differnce N. *laṅ gal, *vərijhi, *k'aṆa :: S. *naṅkal, *variñci/variki, *gōn(g)-. BUT: difference in meaning between Mesopotamian gišimmar 'palm tree' and RV śalmali 'cotton tree, Bombax malabaricum' and śimbala '(a small pod or flower of the) Śalmali tree' ;; NB: salma 'wild date palm' in Hindustani ~ RV śalmali -- distinction between śimbala 'cotton tree and its fruit' and śalmali '*date palm,' < *śimmal/śammal(Kuiper 1991) -- prefix *ki/gi distinguishes 'date palm' from 'cotton tree' : *śimb- 'pod': *śimmal 'cotton tree' (Hind. simal, śembal) and its fruit, and *ki-śimmal 'date palm (Hind. salma 'wild date palm').' Thus: Sumerian gišimmar < Meluhhan *gi-šimmar ~ Harappan *šimmal, *šammal > RV śimbala, śalmali. ˚ The two forms differ slightly: Meluhhan gi-šimmar : Harappan (0-)śimmal. Typical N/S feature ˚ (lack of) typical substrate prefix ki-, dialectal as Mel. gi- / Har. ki-, in gi-šimmar :: *śimmal > RV śimbala. The difference in meaning is mediated by *śimb- 'pod, podlike fruit', resulting in Meluhhan gi-šimmar 'date palm' and Harappan *śimmal 'seemul tree, Bombax malabaricum' * PUNS in non-ling. signs useful for understanding of signs as not representing actual phrases or sentences of a spoken language * FUTURE RESEARCH Further research in the emerging SARVA dictionary (F.Southworth, me; others to join soon: http://www.aa.tufs.ac.jp/sarva/entrance.html ** esp. Panjabi + Sindhi Pilot projects 39 akṣ avāṭ a—, —pāṭ a— m. ‘wrestling ground’ lex. P. akāṛ hā, °ṛ ā, kāṛ hā, °ṛ ā m.; S.kcch. ākhāṛ o m. ‘gymnasium’. 48 akṣ ōṭ a— m. ‘walnut (or pistacio nut ?)’ Kālid., ‘Aleurites triloba, Croton moluccanum’ Suśr., ‘a mountain—tree, lex.; akṣ ōḍa—,; L. awāṇ. akhoṛ m. ‘walnut’; WPah. bhad. ā ́khoṛ m. ‘wal- nut—tree’, n. ‘its nut’, etc, S. akhiroṭ u m., P. akhroṭ , kharoṭ m., B. āk(h)roṭ ; H. ak(h)roṭ , axroṭ m. ‘walnut, fruit of Aleurites triloba’; etc. 108 aṅkuṭ a— m. ‘instrument for moving the bolt or bar of a door’ lex. S. aṅ guṛ o ‘hooked pole for picking fruit’; Mth. ãkorā, õ;krā ‘iron poker’, akurī, ukrī ‘hook for taking glass out of crucible’. etc. AUSTRO-ASIATIC LANGUAGES TODAY http://www.ling.hawaii.edu/austroasiatic/AA/pinnow-map.jpg QuickTime™ an d a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are need ed to see this picture. Below: Witzel, Substrate languages, EJVS 5, 1999 http://ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0501/ejvs0501map.pdf