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International boycotts were used to pressure
South Africa to end apartheid—a complete
separation of the races. In 1976, the UN asked
its members to boycott trade with South Africa
and stop competing against South Africa’s
athletes.
I. The Transition to Independence (page 678)
A. During the 1950s and 1960s, most black
African nations gained their independence
from European colonial rule. The Gold Coast,
renamed Ghana and led by Kwame
Nkrumah, was the first former British colony
to gain independence in 1957.
B. In South Africa, where European settlers
dominated the political system, the process
of gaining independence was complicated.
In 1912, local blacks had organized the
African National Congress (ANC).
I. The Transition to Independence (page 678)
C. By the 1950s, South African whites, known as
Afrikaners, had strengthened the laws
separating whites and blacks. This system of
racial segregation was known as apartheid.
D. Blacks demonstrated against apartheid laws
in South Africa. In 1962, ANC leader
Nelson Mandela was arrested. Members of
the ANC called for armed resistance to the
white government.
II. The New Nations (pages 679–682)
A. Most leaders of the newly independent
African nations came from the urban middle
class, were educated in the United States or
Europe, and believed in using the Western
democratic model in Africa.
II. The New Nations (pages 679–682)
B. The economic ideas of the African leaders
was diverse. Some leaders, such as Jomo
Kenyatta of Kenya, believed in Western-style
capitalism. Other leaders, such as Julius
Nyerere of Tanzania, believed in an “African
form of socialism.” This was based on African
traditions of community in which ownership of
the country’s wealth would be put into the
hands of the people.
Jomo Kenyatta, third from left, meets
with African leaders in 1964 in Nairobi
II. The New Nations (pages 679–682)
C. Some African leaders believed in Pan-
Africanism—the unity of all black Africans,
regardless of national boundaries. The
Organization of African Unity (OAU) was a
result of Pan-Africanism. This organization
helped African unity by settling border
disputes.
D. After independence, most African nations still
relied on a single crop or natural resource for
export. Liberia depended on the export of
rubber, Nigeria on oil. When prices dropped,
their economies suffered. African states had
to import technology and manufactured goods
from the West.
II. The New Nations (pages 679–682)
E. Scarce resources were and are misspent, but
population growth was and is the main
crippler of African economies. Africa has the
highest rate of population growth—nearly 3
percent—among the continents.
F. Drought conditions in West and East Africa
have led to widespread hunger and
starvation. Additionally, most African nations
must import food but cannot afford to import
and distribute enough for everyone. Finally,
war and political instability have disrupted
farming and food distribution networks.
II. The New Nations (pages 679–682)
G. AIDS, caused by the HIV virus, is an epidemic
in Africa. Twenty-five million of the 38 million
people infected worldwide live in Africa south
of the Sahara, representing 8 percent of the
adult population of Africa.
H. The AIDS epidemic is creating millions of
orphans—at least 12 million—and the
traditional extended family support system
has been overwhelmed.
II. The New Nations (pages 679–682)
I. Since the boundaries of African nations had
generally been arbitrarily drawn by colonial
powers, many African nations had warring
ethnic groups. Most states included widely
different ethnic, linguistic, and territorial
groups.
J. In the late 1960s there was a civil war in
Nigeria between northerners and the Ibo
people they were killing. The Ibo fled to the
eastern part of Nigeria and declared an
independent state, Biafra. After two and a
half years of war, Biafra surrendered.
II. The New Nations (pages 679–682)
K. In central Africa, two new countries were
created in 1962: Rwanda and Burundi. The
Hutu people were dominant in Rwanda, and
the Tutsi people dominated in Burundi. When
Hutus in Rwanda began to kill thousands of
Tutsis there, the Tutsis fled.
L. In 1994 a violent civil war broke out in
Rwanda and about 500,000 people, mostly
Tutsis, were killed in a genocide campaign.
When the Tutsis gained control, hundreds of
thousands of Hutus fled, mostly to the
Democratic Republic of the Congo.
II. The New Nations (pages 679–682)
M. To put down Hutu militias, Tutsis invaded the
Democratic Republic of the Congo in 1998.
Up to 3.5 million people died of hunger and
disease created by the war.
N. In the Darfur region of western Sudan,
government-backed Arab militias stand
accused of ethnic cleansing and genocide
against African tribal groups. By 2004, tens
of thousands have been killed and several
million need acute assistance.
III. New Hopes (page 683)
A. In recent years, popular demonstrations have
led to the collapse of one-party regimes and
the emergence of democracies in several
African countries. In some cases, however,
the fall of the regime has been followed by
bloody civil war.
III. New Hopes (page 683)
B. Nelson Mandela had been sentenced to life
imprisonment in 1962 for his activities with the
ANC. In 1985 he was offered a conditional
freedom. Mandela refused. Nobel Peace prize
winner Bishop Desmond Tutu and others
worked to free Mandela and end apartheid. In
1990 Mandela was released from prison. In
1994 Mandela became South Africa’s first
black president.
IV. Society and Culture in Modern Africa
(pages 684–685)
A. Most African cities today,
influenced by earlier colonial rule, look like
cities elsewhere in the world.
B. Most Africans live in rural areas much as
their ancestors did, in thatched dwellings
without modern plumbing and electricity.
They farm or hunt by traditional methods,
wear traditional clothing, and practice
traditional beliefs.
IV. Society and Culture in Modern Africa
(pages 684–685)
C. Although most African women are
allowed to vote and run for political office, few
hold political offices. They have fewer career
opportunities than African men have.
D. Many contemporary African artists face the
dilemma of finding a balance between
Western techniques and training and the rich
heritage of traditional African art forms. Many
writers such as Chinua Achebe use this
dilemma as the theme of their works.
The intifada was a campaign of civil disobedience
by Palestinians living in Israel. This civil
disobedience caused world opinion to put
pressure on Israel to meet with Palestinians to try
to find a peaceful solution to the conflicts there.
I. The Middle East and Palestine (pages 689–691)
A. After World War II, new independent
states emerged in the Middle East. Most
were Muslim.
B. In 1948, the creation of Israel made Arab-
Israeli conflict a certainty, as both groups
claimed Palestine as their own. When part
of Palestine became Israel, many Arab
nations refused to recognize its right to
exist. The failure to establish a homeland
for the Palestinians has contributed to
terrorist attacks.
I. The Middle East and Palestine (pages 689–691)
C. In the early 1950s, Colonel Gamal Abdel
Nasser took control of Egypt’s government.
In 1956, Nasser seized the Suez Canal
Company, which had been under British and
French administration. Great Britain, France,
and Israel attacked Egypt, starting the Suez
War of 1956. The United States and the
Soviet Union supported Egypt and Britain,
France, and Israel were forced to withdraw.
I. The Middle East and Palestine (pages 689–691)
D. Nasser promoted Pan-Arabism, or Arab
unity. But many other leaders were suspicious
of Pan-Arabism. They did not want to share
oil revenues with poorer states in the
Middle East.
E. During the 1950s and 1960s, the disputes
between Israel and other states in the Middle
East became more heated. In 1967, Nasser
blockaded Israeli shipping through the Gulf of
Aqaba. This led to the Six-Day War, in which
Israel occupied the Sinai Peninsula and
tripled the size of its territory, controlling land
in the West Bank, Jerusalem, and the Golan
Heights. Arab states demanded that Israel
return the occupied territories.
I. The Middle East and Palestine (pages 689–691)
F. Anwar el-Sadat succeeded Nasser in 1970.
In 1973, Sadat led Arab forces against Israel.
A U.N. negotiated cease-fire agreement
ended the attack in 1974.
G. In 1960, many Arab oil-producing states
formed the Organization of Petroleum
Exporting Countries (OPEC) to gain control
over oil prices.
H. In 1973, oil price hikes led to oil shortages
and serious economic problems in the
United States and Europe.
I. The Middle East and Palestine (pages 689–691)
I. In 1979, Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister
Menachem Begin signed the Camp David
Accords—an agreement ending the state of
war between Egypt and Israel. Many Arab
countries continued to refuse to recognize
Israel, however.
J. In 1964, the Palestine Liberation Organization
(PLO) was formed to represent the interests of
the Palestinians. At the same time, al-Fatah,
headed by PLO leader Yasir Arafat, launched
terrorist attacks on Israeli territory.
I. The Middle East and Palestine (pages 689–691)
K. During the 1980s, Palestinian Arabs began a
movement called the intifada, or uprising.
L. In 1993, Israel and the PLO reached an
agreement calling for Palestinian autonomy
in certain areas of Israel. In return, the PLO
organized Israel.
II. Turmoil in Iran and Iraq (pages 691–692)
A. In the 1950s and 1960s, Iran was a chief ally
of the United States. Ruled by Shah
Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and blessed by
abundant oil, Iran was a wealthy nation.
B. Many devout Muslims Iranians did not
approve of the shah’s government,
associating it with American influence.
Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini led the
opposition to the shah, who fled the country
in 1979.
II. Turmoil in Iran and Iraq (pages 691–692)
C. An Islamic republic,
led by Khomeini, was
established. In
November 1979
militants seized 52
Americans in the
American embassy
in Tehran and held
them hostage for
over a year.
The 1979 hostage crisis symbolized the
aggressive attitude of the new Islamic
republic in Iran.
II. Turmoil in Iran and Iraq (pages 691–692)
D. Saddam Hussein had ruled Iraq since 1979.
Iran and Iraq have had disputes over religious
differences and territory.
E. In 1980, Saddam Hussein launched a brutal
war on Iran in which he used children to clear
minefields and poison gas on civilians. A
cease-fire was signed in 1988.
F. Khomeini died in 1989 and Iran’s government
loosened restrictions. In the mid-1990s,
however, a new wave of government
repression began.
Terrorist groups can be found worldwide and
have not limited their attacks to their own
countries. By May 2003 the U.S. State
Department had designated 36 Foreign
Terrorist Organizations.
I. Modern Terrorism (pages 694–697)
A. Terrorists do not believe that organizing and
negotiating will achieve their goals. Instead,
they bomb, hijack, and take hostages to
intimidate states and institutions.
B. The goals of terrorists vary. Some, like the
Irish Republican Army (IRA), want to
create their own state or expand national
territory. Others, called state-sponsored
terrorists, work for one nation to undermine
the government of another.
I. Modern Terrorism (pages 694–697)
C. One cause of modern terrorism is the clash of
modern and traditional Islamic cultures.
Another cause is the ease of which extremists
can stir up resentment against wealthy
societies among the poor.
D. Finally, some experts suggest that terrorism
would be rare if the Israeli-Palestinian conflict
could be solved. The leader of the PLO,
Yassir Arafat, died in 2004. There are hopes
that a new leader will be more successful in
negotiating with Israel.
I. Modern Terrorism (pages 694–697)
E. Since World War II most terrorist attacks have
been carried out by Middle Eastern groups
against Western countries.
F. Terrorists have targeted the United States
because of the role Americans have played in
enriching the ruling families through the
purchase of oil, while most ordinary people
remained poor. Additionally, as Western ideas
spread in the Middle East, fundamentalist
Muslims began to call for the overthrow of
pro-Western governments in an attempt to
preserve their idea of a pure Islamic society.
I. Modern Terrorism (pages 694–697)
G. The United States was also targeted due to
their political and financial support of Israel.
H. Beginning with Iran in 1979, the movement for
a conservative Islamic society spread to other
Muslim countries.
I. Women’s roles in the Muslim world, which
had been expanding in the 20th century, have
been severely limited since the onset of the
conservative movement.
I. Modern Terrorism (pages 694–697)
J. After World War II, the king of Afghanistan
sought assistance for his country from the
Soviet Union. By 1978, Soviet-friendly leaders
were in power who were opposed by Afghans
who wanted an Islamic state. In 1979 the
Soviets invaded and set up Babrak Karmal as
prime minister.
K. The Americans, fearful of Soviet expansion,
supported the Islamic Afghans. Osama bin
Laden, a wealthy Saudi Arabian, founded al-
Qaeda in 1988. Al-Qaeda recruited Muslims
and sent money and arms to Afghanistan.
I. Modern Terrorism (pages 694–697)
L. The Afghan fighters defeated the Soviet
Union. Bin Laden, who felt that Western
ideas had contaminated Muslim societies,
dedicated himself to driving Westerners out
of Muslim countries.
M. In 1996 the Muslim fundamentalist Taliban
took control of Afghanistan. Bin Laden began
using Afghanistan to build al-Qaeda. In 1998,
bin Laden called on Muslims to kill
Americans, and his followers killed 224
people at American embassies in Kenya
and Tanzania.
I. Modern Terrorism (pages 694–697)
N. President Clinton responded by launching
missile attacks against terrorist facilities in
Afghanistan and Sudan. In October 2000
al-Qaeda bombed the American warship USS
Cole. In 1999 and 2000, the U.N. Security
Council’s demands that the Taliban turn over
bin Laden were refused.
II. The Attack of 9/11 (pages 697–698)
A. On September 11, 2001, thousands of people
were killed in an attack on American targets
directed by Osama bin Laden and al-Qaeda.
B. In October 2001 President Bush launched an
attack on Afghanistan’s ruling Taliban regime,
focusing the strikes on al-Qaeda bases. By
December the Taliban
government, based in
the capital of Kabul,
had collapsed.
An afghan man rides through a ruined
Kabul in November 2001.
II. The Attack of 9/11 (pages 697–698)
C. The U.S. and its allies worked with Afghan
leader to create a new government. Hamid
Karzai was chosen as president but faces
great challenges, including poverty and
political instability and fighting.
D. In October 2001, the U.S. passed the Patriot
Act. This controversial antiterrorism bill led
some Americans to debate how much privacy
they were willing to sacrifice in exchange for
protection against attacks.
E. In November 2002 the Department of
Homeland Security was established to
coordinate antiterrorism efforts.
III. The Iraq Factor (pages 698–699)
A. In January 2002, President Bush warned
Americans of an “axis of evil” composed of
Iraq, Iran and North Korea. These countries,
according to Bush, sponsored terrorism and
were developing weapons of mass
destruction (WMDs).
III. The Iraq Factor (pages 698–699)
B. President Bush considered Iraq the most
immediate threat. Saddam Hussein had used
chemical weapons twice. He had also invaded
Kuwait in 1990, leading to the first Gulf War.
He was pushed out of Kuwait by U.S.-led
forces but remained in power. In 1991 U.N.
inspectors found evidence that Iraq was
developing biological and nuclear weapons.
The U.N. Security Council called for Iraq to
disarm—resolutions Iraq repeatedly violated.
III. The Iraq Factor (pages 698–699)
C. By the summer of 2002, President Bush was
trying to gain U.N. support for a war against
Iraq. He made it clear that if the U.N. did not
pass a resolution demanding that Iraq give up
its WMDs that the U.S. would act without U.N.
support. In October Congress gave President
Bush authorization to use force.
III. The Iraq Factor (pages 698–699)
D. In November the U.N. passed the resolution
and sent weapons inspectors into Iraq. Not
wanting to wait, Bush asked the U.N. for a
resolution of war. France and Russia refused.
The U.S., with the support of Great Britain
and others, prepared for war. Antiwar
protesters around the world said that war on
Iraq was not justified.
III. The Iraq Factor (pages 698–699)
E. On March 20, 2003, the U.S.-led coalition
attacked Iraq. On May 1, President Bush
declared victory. About 140 Americans
had died.
F. In January 2004 Bush’s top weapons
inspector said that the U.S. was operating with
flawed intelligence and doubted that large
stockpiles of weapons existed.
III. The Iraq Factor (pages 698–699)
G. Though many Iraqis were happy that Saddam
Hussein was no longer in power, they were
unhappy about the continued U.S. and British
presence. Even after Saddam’s capture in
December 2003, guerrillas continued
to attack.
H. Though officially over in May 2003, by
November 2004 approximately 1,251
American soldiers had died. Rebuilding Iraq is
very costly.
III. The Iraq Factor (pages 698–699)
I. On June 28, 2004, the U.S. had officially
transferred sovereignty to Iraq. Iyad Allawi
became Iraq’s interim prime minister.
Rebuilding Iraq’s infrastructure and achieving
a stable government present large challenges
for the Iraqi people.
Iyad Allawi (center), Iraq’s interim
prime minister, on a state visit to
Jordan in July 2004.
Chapter Summary
In the postwar period, Africa and the Middle East faced many challenges
that threatened their stability. Terrorism challenged the peace and security
of all nations in the modern world.
celebrating its newly
granted freedom
scornful
The former colonial powers are
quick to judge Africa without
considering the experiences and
point of view of Africans.
The United Nations
established it. Support for the Jewish Many became refugees.
cause grew when people
learned of the Holocaust.
the systematic use of
the 9/11 attacks violence by groups in order to
intimidate a population or
government into granting students may mention the war in
their demands Afghanistan, passage of the
Patriot Act, or other results
