Some Thoughts to Consider 1

							    Some Thoughts to Consider 7



•    What is the difference between
     Knowledge Engineering and
     Programming?



•    What is the difference between
     Knowledge Engineering and
     Ontological Engineering?



•    Is there a difference between what a
     software system should do and how a
     software system should do it?
            English to FOL Examples

•   Every skier likes the snow.
    (x) skier(x)  likes(x, snow)

•   You can fool some of the people all of the time.
    (x) (person(x)  (t) (time(t)  canFool(x, t)))

•   You can fool all of the people some of the time.
    (x) ((person(x)  (t) (time(t)  canFool(x, t)))

•   All purple plants are poisonous.
    (x) (plant(x)  purple(x))  poisonous(x)

•   No purple plant is poisonous.
    ¬ (x) purple(x)  plant(x)  poisonous(x)
                      or
    (x) (plant(x)  purple(x))  ¬ poisonous(x)

•   There are exactly two purple plants.
    (x)(y) plant(x)  purple(x)  plant(y)  purple(y)  ¬ (x = y)
     (z) (plant(z)  purple(z))  ((x = z)  (y = z))

•   Mortimer is not tall.
    ¬ tall(Mortimer)

•   X is above Y if X is directly on top of Y or else there is a pile
    of one or more other objects directly on top of one another
    starting with X and ending with Y.
    (x)(y) above(x,y)  (on(x,y)  (z) (on(x,z)  above(z,y)))
        FOL Example: Nono (RN p.280)

Statement of Problem:

The law says that it is a crime for an American to sell weapons to
  hostile nations. The country, Nono, an enemy of America, has
  some missiles, and all of its missiles were sold to it by Colonel
  West, who is American.

Pseudo First Order Logic:

American(West)
Enemy(Nono, America)
Owns(Nono, M1)
Missile(M1)
Missile(x)  Weapon(x)
Enemy(x, America)  Hostile(x)
Missile(x)  Owns(Nono, x)  Sells(West, x, Nono)
American(x)  Weapon(y)  Sells(x, y, z)  Hostile(z)  Criminal(x)

Prolog Statements:

american(west).
enemy(nono, america).
owns(nono, m1).
missile(m1).
weapon(X) :- missile(X).
hostile(X) :- enemy(X, america).
sells(west, X, nono) :- missile(X), owns(nono, X).
criminal(X) :- american(X), weapon(Y), sells(X, Y, Z), hostile(Z).
       FOL Example: Hoofers Club

Statement of Problem:
Tony, Shi-Kuo, and Ellen belong to the Hoofers Club. Every
  member of the Hoofers Club is either a skier or a mountain
  climber or both. No mountain climber likes rain, and all
  skiers like snow. Ellen dislikes whatever Tony likes and
  likes whatever Tony dislikes. Tony likes rain and snow.

Query:
Is there a member of the Hoofers Club who is a mountain
    climber but not a skier?

Semantics:
Let S(x) mean x is a skier, M(x) mean x is a mountain climber,
   and L(x,y) mean x likes y, where the domain of the first
   variable is Hoofers Club members, and the domain of the
   second variable is snow and rain.

FOL Statements:
(x) S(x)  M(x)
¬ (x) M(x)  L(x, Rain)
(x) S(x)  L(x, Snow)
(y) L(Ellen, y)  ¬ L(Tony, y)
L(Tony, Rain)
L(Tony, Snow)


Query and Negation of Query:
(x) M(x)  ¬ S(x)
¬ (x) M(x)  ¬ S(x)
        Knowledge Principles



•   A good knowledge representation
    language is:

    •    expressive
    •    concise
    •    unambiguous
    •    context insensitive
    •    effective



•   A knowledge base should be:

    •    clear
    •    correct
A Recipe for Knowledge Engineering



  •   Identify the task.

  •   Assemble the relevant knowledge.

  •   Decide on a vocabulary of predicates,
      functions, and constants.

  •   Encode general knowledge about the
      domain.

  •   Encode a description of the specific
      problem instance.

  •   Pose queries to the inference
      procedure and get answers.

  •   Debug the knowledge base.
The Ontology of an Ontology



  •   Categories (Natural Kinds)

  •   Measures

  •   Composite Objects

  •   Time, Space, and Change

  •   Events and Processes

  •   Physical Objects

  •   Substances (Stuff)

  •   Mental Objects and Beliefs