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Contract No. 212206
Cost-Effective
Resource- and Cost-effective integration of
renewables in existing high-rise buildings
SEVENTH FRAMEWORK PROGRAMME COOPERATION - THEME 4
NMP-2007-4.0-5 Resource efficient and clean buildings
Grant Agreement for:Collaborative Project
(ii) Large-scale integrating project
D1.4.1 Report on performance evaluation and
documentation of state-of-the-art technologies in
EU25, USA and China
Due date of deliverable: month 7
Actual submission date: 30/04/2009
Start date of project: 01/10/2008 Duration: 48 months
Organisation name of lead contractor for this deliverable: NKUA
Final
Project co-funded by the European Commission within the Seventh Framework Programme (2007-
2013)
Dissemination Level
PU Public x
PP Restricted to other programme participants (including the Commission Services)
RE Restricted to a group specified by the consortium (incl. the Commission Services)
CO Confidential, only for members of the consortium (incl. the Commission Services)
212206 Cost-Effective D1.4.1 Report on performance evaluation and documentation
of state-of-the-art technologies in EU25, USA and China
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212206 Cost-Effective D1.4.1 Report on performance evaluation and documentation
of state-of-the-art technologies in EU25, USA and China
Authors:
Afroditi Synnefa (NKUA)
Karlessi Theoni (NKUA)
Santamouris Mattheos (NKUA)
Bastian Wittstock (USTUTT)
Dominique Cacavelli (CSTB)
Address:
National and Kapodistrian University of Stuttgart Centre Scientifique et
University of Athens Chair for Building Physics Technique du Bâtiment
Physics Department, Section Dept. Life Cycle Engineering (CSTB)
Applied Physics Hauptstrasse 113 Département Energie, Santé
Group Building Environmental 70771 Echterdingen et Environnement
Studies Germany 290, Route des Lucioles
Building of Physics - 5, Contact: BP 209, F-06904 Sophia
University Campus bastian.wittstock@lbp.uni- Antipolis Cedex, France
157 84 Athens, Greece stuttgart.de Contact:
Contact: dominique.caccavelli@cstb.fr
msantam@phys.uoa.gr
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212206 Cost-Effective D1.4.1 Report on performance evaluation and documentation
of state-of-the-art technologies in EU25, USA and China
Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .......................................................................................................................................... 6
1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................................... 9
1.2 THE COST EFFECTIVE PROJECT ............................................................................................................................. 9
1.2 THE OBJECTIVE .................................................................................................................................................... 9
2. STATISTICAL EVALUATION OF HIGH RISE BUILDINGS ....................................................................... 10
2.1 THE APPROACH ................................................................................................................................................... 10
2.2 DATA BASIS AND DATA ACQUISITION.................................................................................................................. 11
2.3 STATISTICAL EVALUATION ................................................................................................................................. 11
2.3.1 Overall Building Situation and General Historic Trends ........................................................................... 12
2.3.2 Technical and Constructional Building Data incl. Building Use ............................................................... 12
2.3.3 Facade-related Building Data .................................................................................................................... 14
2.3.4 Energy-related Building Data .................................................................................................................... 15
2.3.5 Economic Building-Data ............................................................................................................................ 16
2.3.6 Climate-related Building Data ................................................................................................................... 17
3. PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES RELATED TO THE INSTALLATION OF LOW ENERGY AND
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS IN HIGH RISE BUILDINGS ................................................................... 19
3.1 THE APPROACH ................................................................................................................................................... 19
3. 2 LOW & RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN BUILDINGS .............................................................................. 19
4. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION AND DOCUMENTATION OF THE STATE-OF-THE-ART
TECHNOLOGIES ..................................................................................................................................................... 24
4.1 CLASSIFICATION OF ADVANCED TECHNOLOGIES ......................................................................................... 25
4.1.1 High performance insulation systems......................................................................................................... 26
4.1.2 Advanced glazing ....................................................................................................................................... 26
4.1.3 Double skin Façade .................................................................................................................................... 27
4.1.4 Building integrated solar component ......................................................................................................... 28
4.1.5 Passive and active Cooling systems ........................................................................................................... 29
4. 2 EVALUATION OF ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY ENERGY PERFORMANCE ........................................................... 30
4.2.1 Methodology for the evaluation .................................................................................................................. 31
4.2.2 Classification of advanced technologies .................................................................................................... 34
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212206 Cost-Effective D1.4.1 Report on performance evaluation and documentation
of state-of-the-art technologies in EU25, USA and China
List of Figures
Figure 1: Visualization of the numbers of buildings per region and per decade of construction.. 12
Figure 2: Average gross building area per class of building height, incl. +/- standard deviation of
gross building height, indicated as vertical (red) bars. Assuming normal distribution of the values,
approx. 67 % of all values per class of building height lie within the vertical (red) bars. ............. 13
Figure 3: Relative shares of building usages, separately given for several classes of building
height. ....................................................................................................................................... 14
Figure 4: European buildings only: Number of buildings – separated into the different types of
usage – per major facade material, including all buildings from all regions. ............................... 15
Figure 5: Average heating energy consumption and average cooling energy consumption in
relation to the decade of the last change of the building. Note that the time range is greatly
reduced due to unavailability of heating energy consumption data. ........................................... 16
Figure 6: Average construction costs in € per m² gross floor area per decades of construction –
separately given for the EU, the USA and China. ...................................................................... 17
Figure 7: Average heating degree days and average cooling degree days per classes of latitude
north. ......................................................................................................................................... 18
Figure 8: Average heating energy consumption per classes of average heating degree days.
This graph is based on single buildings data. ............................................................................ 18
Figure 9: Façade area of the buildings and the non-opaque share ............................................ 20
Figure 10: Building categorization ............................................................................................. 21
Figure 11: Temperature: : Athens Tower (a ), Atrina (b), Avax (c) , Interamerican (d), Police HQ
(e), Mercator (f), Emona (g), TR3 (h) ......................................................................................... 23
Figure 12: Primary energy in 2003 (International Energy Agency. World Energy Outlook 2006.)
.................................................................................................................................................. 24
Figure 13: Vacuum insulation panel with glass fiber textile as cover on top of blank panel ........ 26
Figure 14: Vacuum glazing ........................................................................................................ 27
Figure 15: Examples of double skin façade (Permasteelisa Group) ........................................... 28
Figure 16: Photovoltaic cells fully integrated into the façade ...................................................... 29
Figure 17: Direct (left) and indirect (right) evaporative coolers
[http://www.mge.com/business/saving/madison/PA_42.html] .................................................... 30
Figure 18: Graphical representation of the heating and cooling contributions of the considered
envelope technologies in a specific climate ............................................................................... 31
Figure 19: Clustering of the heating and cooling contributions of the envelope technologies for a
specific climate .......................................................................................................................... 32
Figure 20: Graphical representation of the COP during the heating and cooling modes for the
HVAC and energy delivering technologies in a specific climate ................................................. 33
Figure 21: Clustering of the COP under heating and cooling modes for the HVAC and energy
delivering technologies for a specific climate ............................................................................. 33
Figure 22: Classification of cooling technologies for the Mediterranean zone ............................ 36
Figure 23: Classification of Artificial Lighting based on their Life Cycle cost .............................. 37
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Executive Summary
This public report is delivered in the framework of the project “Resource- and Cost-effective
integration of renewables in existing high-rise buildings” (Cost-Effective) within the European
Seventh Framework Programme. The main focus of the project is to convert façades of existing
“high-rise buildings” into multifunctional, energy-gaining components. The main objective of the
work described in this document is to collect all information necessary to support the execution
of the program and to identify problems and opportunities in existing high-rise buildings in EU25,
USA and China. This work is divided into three separate tasks:
a) Collection of statistical information on existing and new high-rise buildings in order to
determine the geographical distribution and the corresponding characteristics of high-rise
buildings.
The research and statistical analysis showed that:
The high-rise construction activity has increased over time (except for incisions through
World War II and in the 1990s) and the buildings generally got higher and larger over
time (historic development).
The majority of buildings are used as offices, with less significant other usages, mainly
hotels, adding to that. Neither a major change in building use over time, nor different
usages in different sizes of buildings could be observed.
Facades are mostly made of brick masonry or glass curtain walls. Materials such as
concrete and natural stone add to these facade setups. The use of materials for facades
or for the construction itself or the type of facades did not change significantly over time.
For heating and cooling energy consumption, which has been investigated only for
European buildings, as no such data was available for the USA and China, no clear
development of consumption values over time could be retrieved, neither a direct
correlation between energy consumption and type of building.
In terms of energy costs, a decreasing trend (with the exception of a peak with buildings
of the 1980s) over time of the last change to buildings can be noted, however. The
general level of energy consumption leaves a rather wide span for the improvement of
energy efficiency.
Different aspects have been investigated for Europe separately, in addition to the evaluation,
using data from all regions. It can be seen here that the construction practice in general differs
especially between Europe and the USA. European buildings are erected with brick facades less
frequently than US buildings and European buildings use curtain wall facade systems with glass
as a material more constantly. Construction costs generally increase with building height and
building size and it appears as if buildings in the USA are generally erected at lower costs as in
Europe or in China. Direct correlations between heating energy consumption and heating
degree days – as an indicator for the necessity to heat – and between cooling energy
consumption and cooling degree days could be derived. Yet, no additional climate-related
energy consumption patterns were visible.
The authors believe that this report should be used by the different partners of the COST-
EFFECTIVE project to support their respective actions of dealing with specific tasks and
questions within the project. These actions range from model development, e.g. for economic
analysis purposes, via component development with its technical considerations to the
212206 Cost-Effective D1.4.1 Report on performance evaluation and documentation
of state-of-the-art technologies in EU25, USA and China
development of marketing strategies or the preparation of a distribution of the systems to be
developed into the market.
In general, the availability of data is crucial for the task of providing a statistical basis for further
work within the COST-EFFECTIVE project. Yet, it proved that various relevant data are available
only in very limited extend and representative statements that are valid for all buildings can be
given only in a rather limited extend. It appears that in the past, no increased interest, e.g. of
statistical bodies such as national statistical offices or EUROSTAT saw a need for recording
building details on a broad basis. In this context, a commercially available database such as the
EMPORIS database used may support the task, yet here as well, data availability is not
homogenous over large ranges of buildings. Also, single data have to be verified critically, as
several apparent erratic values appeared in the data extracted from the EMPORIS database.
Within this task, that validation was part of the data acquisition and validation procedure.
b)Identification of problems and opportunities regarding the use of innovative systems in existing
high-rise buildings.
The first step for the development of new multifunctional components which combine
conventional and innovative low energy features is the identification of the problems and
opportunities related to their installation. This identification is the major objective of this work in
combination with a well based analysis of existing high-rise buildings. For this reason data
acquisition from high-rise buildings covering 7 EU countries was performed by the completion of
two questionnaires, an extended one to be filled in by the building manager concerning building
information (General Information, Building Description -Envelope-Interior Surroundings, Heating-
Cooling- Ventilation System, Lighting System, Other Equipment, Building Energy Management,
Indoor Conditions, Environmental Performance) and a short questionnaire for the occupants with
information for indoor conditions and system controls. The classification of the case buildings
was based on the installation of renewable and low energy systems and for the cases that these
systems did not exist; it was completed with the buildings that have the potential for installing low
energy systems according to the identified problems, as explained to their descriptions.
According to the analysis performed:
most of the case buildings have low energy systems installed on the façade. Systems
applied are mainly double skin facades consisting of double glazing and low-e coatings
and systems consisting of triple sun protective glazing.
In 8 buildings low energy systems installed concern HVAC technology and mainly the
following: cold and thermal storage, night ventilation, TABS on the roof and underground
cooling.
Lighting system is the sector that requires consideration by the majority of the buildings
investigated, for the improvement of their performance.
Requirements also focus on HVAC systems, façade and controls for a large part of the case
buildings. In nine buildings, no renovation has been performed since their construction. Four
buildings have been completely refurbished, while major renovations are related to façade and
HVAC systems.
A survey concerning the building user’s perception of indoor environmental conditions was
conducted in 8 building.
c) Cross-sectional analysis of the performance of the various state-of-the-art energy and
environmental technologies applied in high-rise buildings.
A state-of-the-art on advanced energy-efficient technologies has been performed. Thirty-three
promising technologies have been selected and documented for that purpose. They address the
major areas of energy use in buildings: space conditioning, water heating, lighting and
ventilation. Besides describing energy-using technologies, this state-of-the-art also presents
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212206 Cost-Effective D1.4.1 Report on performance evaluation and documentation
of state-of-the-art technologies in EU25, USA and China
building envelope technologies and building integrated solar components. Adaptation to high-
rise buildings has been permanently considered. A specific focus on technologies for which R&D
had the potential to advance commercialization was given.
Furthermore, a simplified methodology for evaluating the-state-of-the-art technologies with
respect to the building energy performance was developed. The methodology is adapted to suit
all the various technologies. Each participant has evaluated technologies in his/her own area of
expertise on the basis of available data. The methodology that was developed considers the
most important energy related parameters and splits energy conservation technologies in three
clusters:
a)Envelope Technologies
b)HVAC and Systems delivering Energy
c)Lighting Technologies
For each cluster, a qualitative evaluation is proposed that permits to identify the energy
conservation potential for a specific climate.
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212206 Cost-Effective D1.4.1 Report on performance evaluation and documentation
of state-of-the-art technologies in EU25, USA and China
1. Introduction
1.2 The Cost Effective project
This public report is delivered in the framework of the project “Resource- and Cost-effective
integration of renewables in existing high-rise buildings” (Cost-Effective) within the European
Seventh Framework Programme.
The main focus of the project is to convert façades of existing “high-rise buildings” into
multifunctional, energy-gaining components. In order to achieve this goal, the following tasks will
be performed:
Development of integrated building concepts, suitable for a major share of the high-rise
building stock, which can be characterised as the most cost-effective combinations of
existing and/or newly developed components
Development of new multi-functional façade components which combine standard features
and the use of renewable energy resources
Development of new business and cost models which consider the entire life cycle of a
building and which incorporate the benefits of reduced operating costs and greenhouse-gas
emissions.
Development of a decision support tool which will help the planners to find the best
integrated building concept.
The achievement of the project tasks involve the collaboration of 26 partners for a period of 48
months. The project contains eight work packages including Management and is coordinated by
the Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems (ISE)
1.2 The Objective
This Deliverable sums up the work that has been carried out in the framework of the first Work
Package of the Cost Effective project. The first WP aims to collect all information necessary to
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212206 Cost-Effective D1.4.1 Report on performance evaluation and documentation
of state-of-the-art technologies in EU25, USA and China
support the execution of the program and to identify problems and opportunities in existing high-
rise buildings in EU25, USA and China. More specifically the objectives are:
a) To collect statistical information on existing and new high-rise buildings in order to determine
the geographical distribution and the corresponding characteristics of high-rise buildings.
b) To identify problems and opportunities regarding the use of innovative systems in existing
high-rise buildings.
c) To do a cross-sectional analysis of the performance of the various state-of-the art energy and
environmental technologies applied in high-rise buildings.
In the following paragraphs the methodology to achieve these objectives is described as well as
the main results.
2. Statistical evaluation of high rise buildings
The main developments of the Cost Effective project are intended to be broadly applied to the
stock of existing high-rise buildings. Therefore, a statistical analysis of the high-rise building
stock is intended to support a general understanding of market opportunities, as well as to
provide the developers of the planned building concepts and facade components with
background data for use in the planning and design process, as well as to provide data that may
be used in the development of market analyses and business concepts.
Purpose and objective of this task is the provision of such statistical data to enable all project
partners to base their considerations of the target building stock on a profound data basis, rather
than on guessing.
2.1 The approach
The processes set up to collect and prepare the statistical data, assures that several
requirements are met and that the data can processed appropriately:
consistent – as far as possible – collection of data for Europe, the USA and China,
consistent and practicable collection of data by different partners,
support of the combination of different types of data to compensate for inhomogeneous
data and gaps in data acquisition for different countries,
harmonization of differently recorded data of the same type (e.g. different units, etc.),
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212206 Cost-Effective D1.4.1 Report on performance evaluation and documentation
of state-of-the-art technologies in EU25, USA and China
addressing of inconsistent and incomplete data due to different levels of availability.
For the collection of data, spreadsheet templates for the individual countries have been
distributed to all contributing partners and the results have been fed into a relational database.
The structure of this database has been specifically laid out to host different types of data with
different spatial, temporal, and subjective references. It allows the direct addition of new data,
both imported from spreadsheet templates, and as direct inputs into forms.
The evaluation of the data is done with the help of pivot tables and direct links to the data basis.
This allows the evaluation of data after an update of data. It also permits the partitioning of the
data into classes for focused analyses.
2.2 Data basis and data acquisition
The data acquisition for the different countries is done using a variety of different sources.
Where applicable, direct data from the building owners or building maintenance is included. In
addition to such direct information, databases with information, e.g. from different EU research
projects (El-Tertiary, HOPE, TOBUS, DATAMINE, ERABUILD, etc.) is used to mainly provide
specific values for specific groups of buildings. National statistical and meteorological (for
climatic data) organizations and EUROSTAT are evaluated. Additionally, a literature research is
conducted, trying to identify relevant literature-values and a significant share of information on
single buildings is taken from the “EMPORIS” database, which is commercially available from
Emporis Corp. For single buildings, a total of 18.402 datasets are provided. For economic data,
a total of 133 different datasets are given, for energy data, the total number of datasets amounts
to 409 and for climatic data, a total of 500 datasets is listed in the database.
2.3 Statistical evaluation
The evaluations of statistical data, as given below, are intended to raise a general understanding
of the situation of high-rise buildings that is based on the available data and to provide the basis
for conclusions and hints that can be useful for the reader’s specific purpose. As these purposes
vary between a general insight into the situation of high-rise buildings, via hints for successful
technical design to economic conclusions, intentionally, only very little interpretation of the
presented results is done.
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212206 Cost-Effective D1.4.1 Report on performance evaluation and documentation
of state-of-the-art technologies in EU25, USA and China
All statements of mean values, etc. refer to the respective size of the sample of the regarded
type of data. As these sample sizes vary and are not necessarily based on the same buildings,
general conclusions can be drawn only to a very limited extend.
In order to outline region-specific specialties, several relevant evaluations are done separately
for Europe, the USA and China. This will give the users of this statistical evaluation the
possibility to tailor solutions more specifically to different climates, cultures and traditions and
habits of construction.
2.3.1 Overall Building Situation and General Historic Trends
Generally, an increasing construction activity over time in the field of high-rise buildings can be
noted. As an example of the evaluations done,
Figure 1 provides the number of buildings erected per decade for the EU, the USA and China.
3.000
2.500
Number of erected buildings
2.000
1.500 China
USA
EU
1.000
500
0
19th 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s
century
Decade of building construction
Figure 1: Visualization of the numbers of buildings per region and per decade of construction.
2.3.2 Technical and Constructional Building Data incl. Building Use
The single buildings table yields a number of parameters that give information about technical
specification of the buildings, as well as about typical types of construction. All the given figures
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212206 Cost-Effective D1.4.1 Report on performance evaluation and documentation
of state-of-the-art technologies in EU25, USA and China
serve to possibly conclude patterns of correlating patterns, or, to outline that general patterns
can hardly be concluded from the given data.
Figure 2 presents the average gross building area per classes of building height and vertical
bars, indicating the range of +/- standard deviation of the respective class.
350.000
Average gross building area +/- Standard deviation of gross building area
300.000
250.000
Gross building area [m²]
200.000
150.000
100.000
50.000
-
< 50 50-100 100-150 150-200 200-250 250-300 > 300
Building height [m]
Figure 2: Average gross building area per class of building height, incl. +/- standard deviation of gross
building height, indicated as vertical (red) bars. Assuming normal distribution of the values, approx. 67 %
of all values per class of building height lie within the vertical (red) bars.
In order to investigate any possible correlations of the building’s usage with other parameters,
such as building height, year of construction or refurbishment (“last change to the building”) or
use area, Figure 3 as an example presents the relative distribution of building usages in several
classes of building height. While for all classes of building height, the usage type office prevails,
especially the highest buildings hold a significant share of the usage type lodging/hotel.
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212206 Cost-Effective D1.4.1 Report on performance evaluation and documentation
of state-of-the-art technologies in EU25, USA and China
100%
90%
80%
70%
Shares of building usages
60%
others
50% lodging / hotel
entertainment
40% commercial
industrial
30% office
20%
10%
0%
< 50 50-100 100-150 150-200 200-250 250-300 > 300
Building height [m]
Figure 3: Relative shares of building usages, separately given for several classes of building height.
2.3.3 Facade-related Building Data
As the facade is the major subject of the COST-EFFECTIVE project, special focus is directed to
several parameters that describe the facade. These evaluations may be used to find general
patterns on which building parameters have an influence on the type and technical setup of the
facade – if such patterns may be retrieved.
Figure 4 for instance, presents the number of European buildings per major facade material
used in the respective buildings. The columns of the numbers of buildings are separated into the
different types of usage. This visualization also clearly shows that the majority of the investigated
buildings are office use buildings. In terms of used facade material, glass facades (usually post-
mullion-structures) dominate the distribution, followed by natural stone facades and concrete
based facades. Metal facades and other materials are of reduced significance for high-rise
buildings.
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212206 Cost-Effective D1.4.1 Report on performance evaluation and documentation
of state-of-the-art technologies in EU25, USA and China
160
EU only
140
Number of buildings 120
100
others
80 lodging / hotel
entertainment
60 commercial
industrial
office
40
20
0
Steel Concrete glass brick nonferrous natural Others
materials materials
Building usage
Figure 4: European buildings only: Number of buildings – separated into the different types of usage – per
major facade material, including all buildings from all regions.
2.3.4 Energy-related Building Data
Aim of the Cost-Effective project is to provide integrated solutions for the integration of
renewable energy sources into the facades of high-rise buildings. Accordingly, energy-related
statistical data should be used to base technical developments on.
Part of the data acquisition in the Cost-Effective Task 1.1 was not only the collection of
disaggregated data on single buildings, but also to include aggregated data, e.g. from other
studies into the database. As several – if not all – of the energy performance parameters of a
building are directly or indirectly related to the climatic situation of the location of the building,
some of the energy-related evaluations are given below, integrating climatic data as well.
Figure 5 displays the average heating energy demand and the average cooling energy demand
of single buildings in relation to the time of the last change to the building. It can be noted that
this evaluation does not indicate clear trends. Neither the heating energy demand reduces over
time – as one might expect – nor does the cooling energy demand show a significant increasing
or decreasing pattern.
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212206 Cost-Effective D1.4.1 Report on performance evaluation and documentation
of state-of-the-art technologies in EU25, USA and China
160
140
120
Energy consumption [kWh/m²*a]
Average heating
100 energy
consumption
80 Average cooling
energy
consumption
60
40
20
0
1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s
Decade of last change to the buildings
Figure 5: Average heating energy consumption and average cooling energy consumption in relation to the
decade of the last change of the building. Note that the time range is greatly reduced due to unavailability
of heating energy consumption data.
2.3.5 Economic Building-Data
Another important focus area for the COST-EFFECTIVE project is the development of
appropriate economic models for the to-be-developed integrated systems, as well as to assure
cost-efficiency for the technologies and concepts. Consequently, economic indicators are
evaluated here, along with other building-related parameters.
Of the single buildings, approx. 5 % of the datasets bear information on construction costs. Such
rather limited number of available datasets may yield non-representative average values for
construction costs. Accordingly, especially exceptionally high or low values should be dealt with
rather carefully.
Figure 6, which presents the average construction costs in € / m² GFA1, shows a clear trend of
increasing construction costs for the USA and no clear patterns for Europe and China,
presumably due to the limited number of data.
1 GFA = Gross Floor Area
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212206 Cost-Effective D1.4.1 Report on performance evaluation and documentation
of state-of-the-art technologies in EU25, USA and China
4.500 €
Average construction costs per building [€/m² GFA]
4.000 €
3.500 €
3.000 €
2.500 €
EU
2.000 €
USA
CN
1.500 €
1.000 €
500 €
0€
19th 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s
century
Decade of building construction
Figure 6: Average construction costs in € per m² gross floor area per decades of construction – separately
2
given for the EU, the USA and China .
2.3.6 Climate-related Building Data
Statistical analyses on high-rise buildings also have to include the analyses of climatic data, as a
building always performs specifically with regard to its location and setup. Accordingly, heating
degree days and cooling degree days, both in relation to the latitude of the location are
presented (Figure 7), before building-specific energy-performance data are given.
The values between 30°N (approx. latitude of e.g. Hangzhou in China or Houston, TX, in the
USA; as a reference: Cyprus lies around the 35°N) and 65°N (approx. latitude of e.g. Lulea in
Sweden or Fairbanks, AK in the USA) show distinct patterns, for heating degree days, a
constant increase when moving north and for cooling degree days a constant decrease when
moving north.
2
Note that the absence e.g. of the European bar for the 1970s may be due to a lack of data for gross floor
area for those buildings with cost information, which have been erected in the 1970s in Europe.
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212206 Cost-Effective D1.4.1 Report on performance evaluation and documentation
of state-of-the-art technologies in EU25, USA and China
4.500
4.000
3.500
Degree Days [K*d/a] 3.000
2.500
Average heating
degree days
2.000
Average cooling
degree days
1.500
1.000
500
0
31-35 N 36-40 N 41-45 N 46-50 N 51-55 N 56-60 N 61-65 N
Latitude in N
Figure 7: Average heating degree days and average cooling degree days per classes of latitude north.
For heating energy consumption data, two sources are available: on the one hand, the single
buildings information hold data on the specific heating energy consumption and on the other
hand, the energy data table holds general or aggregated information on energy consumption,
e.g. from previous studies or projects. Figure 8 provides the average heating energy
consumption, based on single buildings data, in relation to heating degree days on the buildings’
locations. These data show a clear trend of increasing heating energy consumption with
increasing heating degree days.
250
Average heating energy consumption [kWh/m²*a]
200
150
100
50
0
< 500 500-1.000 1.000-1.500 1.500-2.000 2.000-2.500 2.500-3.000 3.000-3.500 3.500-4.000
Heating degree days [K*d/a]
Figure 8: Average heating energy consumption per classes of average heating degree days. This graph is
based on single buildings data.
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3. Problems and opportunities related to the installation of low energy
and renewable energy systems in high rise buildings
The main focus of the project is to convert façades of existing “high-rise buildings” into
multifunctional, energy-gaining components. The implementation of this goal requires the
determination and classification of the building characteristics in order to investigate the
application of innovative systems in existing high-rise buildings. The first step for the
development of new multifunctional components which combine conventional and innovative low
energy features is the identification of the problems and opportunities related to their installation.
This identification is the major objective of this work in combination with a well based analysis of
existing high-rise buildings.
3.1 The approach
Twenty two high-rise buildings with different architectural, constructive, systems and energy
characteristics from Greece, Germany, Austria, Slovenia, Switzerland, France and Spain were
selected for data acquisition.
Building analysis related to the installation of innovative energy systems require the
consideration of building characteristics and the occupant’s perception of the building conditions
and controls. For this reason data acquisition from high-rise buildings was performed by the
completion of two questionnaires, an extended one to be fill in by the building manager
concerning building information (General Information, Building Description -Envelope-Interior
Surroundings, Heating- Cooling- Ventilation System, Lighting System, Other Equipment, Building
Energy Management, Indoor Conditions, Environmental Performance) and a short questionnaire
for the occupants with information for indoor conditions and system controls.
3. 2 Low & renewable energy technologies in buildings
Figure 9 presents the façade area of the investigated buildings and the non-opaque share.
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60000
total
transparent
50000
40000
Facade area (m2)
30000
20000
10000
0
a
Ho DF
RO
oc er
De ini s te rs
2
Te ha R3
olf ital
Em m
G che i on
Ro s
To k
Ad qu an
se s
To t urm
Ra l ex
k
Te tor
a
M wer
nh e H am ax
At r
on
au
x y an
TR
ar
es u
ri n
e
o
ll ih mb
er ead ri c
M tha
E
sp
ca
ow
C T
ZE
t
a u l ic er Av
lec
-p
m ar
ala B
hh
ut tra
ur
e
er
T
ns
G
s
he
Fr Po Int
At
Building
of
Figure 9: Façade area of the buildings and the non-opaque share
The classification of the case buildings is based on the installation of renewable and low energy
systems. The initial aim was the categorization according to the existing systems of this type,
however not all the buildings had these systems installed. For this reason the classification was
completed with the buildings that have the potential for installing low energy systems according
to the identified problems, as explained to their descriptions.
The categories concern systems of this type for the façade of the building, HVAC systems,
controls (eg. automatic controls, BMS), ventilation and lighting systems.
The classification is presented at Table 1. Indication “I” is for installed systems and “P” for
systems that have the potential to be installed according to the problems of each building.
Renovations of the building are also indicated in total
Table 1: Building categorization
No Building Category
Façade HVAC Controls Ventilation Lighting RENOVATION
1 Athens Tower P P P P P HVAC 50%
HVAC 50%-Lighting
2 Atrina P P 80%
3 Avax I I I I I -
4 Interamerican P TOTAL
5 Police Headquarters P P P P ENVELOPE-HVAC
6 Fraunhofer Administration I I I -
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7 Deutsche Bank Head Office I I I I I TOTAL
8 Galaxy Tower I I I I TOTAL
9 Mercator P P HVAC 100%
ENVELOPE 85%-
10 Telecom P P HVAC,LIGHT 100%
11 Emona P P P P HVAC,Lighting 30%
12 TR2 P P P TOTAL
13 TR3 P P P HVAC 100%
Chamber of
14 Commerce&Industry P P P P -
15 Tellihochhaus P FACADE 100%
16 Rolex Siege Mondial I -
17 Rathaus I FACADE 100%
18 Messeturm I -
19 Tour EDF I P -
20 Hospital I I -
21 Golf-park office building I I -
ZERO emissions Acciona
22 Solar I I I I -
As presented in Figure 10, most of the case buildings have low energy systems installed on the
façade. Systems applied are mainly double skin facades consisting of double glazing and low-e
coatings and systems consisting of triple sun protective glazing. In 8 buildings low energy
systems installed concern HVAC technology and mainly the following: cold and thermal storage,
night ventilation, TABS on the roof and underground cooling.
Lighting system on the other hand is the sector that requires consideration by the majority of the
buildings investigated, for the improvement of their performance. Requirements also focus on
HVAC systems, façade and controls for a large part of the case buildings
12
P I
10
8
No Buildings
6
4
2
0
Façade HVAC Controls Ventilation Lighting
category
Figure 10: Building categorization
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In nine buildings, no renovation has been performed since their construction. Four buildings
have been completely refurbished, while major renovations are related to façade and HVAC
systems.
A survey concerning the building user’s perception of indoor environmental conditions was
conducted in 8 building, 5 in Greece and 3 in Slovenia. The number of questionnaires answered
in each building is shown at Table 2.
Table 2: Occupants survey
No Building No Questionnaires
1 ATHENS TOWER 46
2 ATRINA 53
3 AVAX 44
4 INTERAMERICAN 198
5 POLICE HEADQUARTERS 122
6 MERCATOR 18
7 EMONA 9
8 TR3 27
The thermal perception of the buildings occupants is presented in Figure 11.
ATHENS TOWER ATRINA
14 25
summer
summer
12 w inter
w inter 20
10
No occupants
No occupants
15
8
6 10
4
5
2
0 0
cold cool slightly neutral slightly w arm hot cold cool slightly neutral slightly w arm hot
cool w arm cool w arm
temperature tem perature
(a) (b)
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AVAX INTERAMERICAN
14
summer 100
90 summer
12 w inter
80 w inter
No occupants
10
70
No occupants
8 60
50
6
40
4 30
20
2
10
0 0
cold cool slightly neutral slightly w arm hot cold cool slightly neutral slightly w arm hot
cool w arm cool w arm
temperature tem perature
( c) (d)
MERCATOR POLICE HQ
16 50
summer summer
14 45
w inter w inter
40
12
35
No occupants
No occupants
10
30
8 25
6
20
15
4
10
2 5
0 0
cold cool slightly neutral slightly w arm hot cold cool slightly neutral slightly w arm hot
cool w arm cool w arm
tem perature temperature
(e ) ( f)
EMONA TR3
6 14
summer summer
5 w inter 12
w inter
10
4
No occupants
No occupants
8
3
6
2
4
1 2
0 0
cold cool slightly neutral slightly w arm hot cold cool slightly neutral slightly w arm hot
cool w arm cool w arm
tem perature tem perature
( g) ( h)
Figure 11: Temperature: : Athens Tower (a ), Atrina (b), Avax (c) , Interamerican (d), Police HQ (e),
Mercator (f), Emona (g), TR3 (h)
This data could be used from the different partners of the COST-EFFECTIVE Project to support
their respective actions of dealing with specific tasks and questions within this project. These
actions range from a model development to a system development and installation.
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4. Performance evaluation and documentation of the state-of-the-art
technologies
Buildings are responsible for at least 40% of energy use in most countries. The absolute figure is
rising fast, as construction booms, especially in countries such as China and India (Figure 12).
Figure 12: Primary energy in 2003 (International Energy Agency. World Energy Outlook 2006.)
Commercial building encompasses a diverse mix of structures and purposes – from small retail
establishments to high-rise office buildings, from neighbourhood schools to universities. Despite
their differences, commercial buildings share a large and growing appetite for energy. They
account for 30% of the total European primary energy consumption.
A large number of energy-efficient technologies exist that could curtail this increase. In recent
years, improvements have contributed to reducing energy use. Hundreds of other technology
improvements have and will continue to improve the energy use in buildings. While many
technologies are well understood and are gradually penetrating the market, more advanced
technologies will be introduced in the future.
A state-of-the-art on advanced energy-efficient technologies has been performed. Twelve
partners contributed to the documentation of thirty-three promising technologies selected for that
purpose. They address the major areas of energy use in buildings: space conditioning, water
heating, lighting and ventilation. Besides describing energy-using technologies, this state-of-the-
art also presents building envelope technologies and building integrated solar components.
Adaptation to high-rise buildings has been permanently considered. A specific focus on
technologies for which R&D had the potential to advance commercialization was given.
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Furthermore, a simplified methodology for evaluating the-state-of-the-art technologies with
respect to the building energy performance was developed. The methodology is adapted to suit
all the various technologies. Each participant has evaluated technologies in his/her own area of
expertise on the basis of available data
4.1 Classification of advanced technologies
The advanced energy-focused technologies listed by the partners have been classified following
several thematic domains:
Thematic or Cluster Advanced technologies
High Performance Vacuum Insulation Panels
Insulation Systems Transparent thermal insulation
Low-e glazing
Advanced glazing Electrochromic and thermochromic glazing
Transparent aerogel
Vacuum glazing
Façade Double Skin Facade
Building integrated solar Solar air collector
component Facade integrated solar thermal water collectors
Façade integrated photovoltaic
Radiative cooling, incl. Cool paints
Cooling Ground cooling
Evaporative Cooling
Desiccant Cooling
Solar absorption Cooling
Activated building mass cooling systems
Review on heat pump
Heating and DHW Reversible ground water heat pump
Activated building mass heating systems
PCM thermal storage in building
Heat/Cool storage Borehole Thermal Energy Storage (BTES)
Heat Recovery Waste heat recovery systems
Ventilation Demand controlled ventilation
Hybrid ventilation
Lighting Light Emitting Diode (LED)
Compact Fluorescent Lights (CFL)
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Building Management System
Control and Automatic control for lighting
management systems Review on solar control systems
Energy minimizing control systems
Room climate control systems
Electricity production Photovoltaic modules
systems PV-Th collectors
Combined Heat and Power generation (CHP)
Five promising clusters of technology have been selected for description to give an idea of the
wide range of possibilities.
4.1.1 High performance insulation systems
Solar walls with transparent insulation (TI) need massive storage walls – and do not work with
light weight walls like porous concrete or insulated walls. For this reason they will be not suitable
to existing high-rise building in most cases.
Daylighting with TI provides high thermal performance to glazing (less than 0.5 W/m2K), allows
a wide range of total solar energy transmittance g (from 15 to 45%) and provides diffuse daylight
to rooms without hard shades. They are suitable to existing high-rise building.
Figure 13: Vacuum insulation panel with glass fiber textile as cover on top of blank panel
4.1.2 Advanced glazing
Low-e and solar control glazing, electrochromic and thermochromic glazing, transparent aerogel
and vacuum glazing are energy-efficient technologies suitable to high-rise buildings, which have
often large glazed area.
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In vacuum glazing for instance (Figure 14), the space between the panes is evacuated down to
below 10-3 mbar, which almost completely eliminates thermal conductivity. The panes, each
coated with a highly infrared reflecting layer to minimize thermal radiation, are supported by a
matrix of spacers to prevent collapse. In such an assembly four distinct heat transfer
mechanisms contribute to the total heat transmission coefficient. Using double-glazed
assemblies with evacuated gaps, vacuum glass systems can achieve heat transfer coefficients
of 0.8 W/m²K for the entire window and 0.5 W/m²K for the glazed area. Important factors when
selecting suitable spacers are that they have low thermal conductivity and are nearly invisible.
Figure 14: Vacuum glazing
4.1.3 Double skin Façade
A double skin façade can be defined as a traditional single façade doubled inside or outside by a
second, essentially glazed façade (see figure 15). A ventilated cavity - having a width which can
range from several centimetres to several metres - is located between these two skins.
Automated equipment, such as shading devices, motorized openings or fans, are most often
integrated into the façade.
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Active Wall® Interactive Wall® Closed Cavity
Façade®
Figure 15: Examples of double skin façade (Permasteelisa Group)
Double Skin Façades for office buildings aim at increased transparency combining acceptable
indoor environment with reduced energy use. The system seems more suitable in northern
Europe than in countries with high solar gains where overheating problems or higher energy
consumption for cooling may occur.
4.1.4 Building integrated solar component
In a high-rise building, façade areas are much larger than roof area. Various types of solar
components can be integrated into a building façade:
Solar air collectors
Solar water collectors
Photovoltaic cells
Photovoltaic cells can be installed on facades in various way :
Photovoltaic cells fully integrated into the façade system (Figure 16)
Photovoltaic cells used as rear ventilated façade system
Photovoltaic used as secondary shading device
Photovoltaic cells used as flexible membranes (facade and roof)
Thin layer photovoltaic cells used as shading device within insulated glazing units
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Figure 16: Photovoltaic cells fully integrated into the façade
Performances of an integrated solar components are on one hand the solar energy recovered
and on the other hand its performance as a building element (shading effect if the solar collector
is used as shading device, …).
4.1.5 Passive and active Cooling systems
Passive systems are devices that can be integrated into the building to perform the function of
heat transfer and storage with little or no assistance from electrical or other non-renewable
energy sources. Passive cooling techniques can be classified in three main categories:
a) Solar and Heat Protection Techniques that may involve: Landscaping, and the use of outdoor
and semi-outdoor spaces, building form, layout and external finishing, solar control and shading
of building surfaces, thermal insulation, control of internal gains, etc.
b) Heat Modulation Techniques that deals with the thermal storage capacity of the building
structure. This strategy provides attenuation of peaks in cooling load and modulation of internal
temperature with heat discharge at a later time.
c) Heat dissipation techniques which deal with the potential for disposal of excess heat of the
building to an environmental sink of lower temperature. The main processes of heat dissipation
techniques are: ground cooling based on the use of the soil, and convective and evaporative
cooling using the air as the sink, as well as water and radiative cooling using the sky as the heat
sink.
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When the above systems use various device to enhance the cooling mechanism they become
active systems. However the main active cooling systems are the heat pumps, including
absorption systems.
The radiative cooling systems are not the best choice for high-rise buildings since there
efficiency depends mainly on the roof area.
In the dry locations, evaporative cooling offers remarkable saving potentials (see figure 6). In
high humidity climates such as the Mediterranean, solar hybrid desiccant cooling could be a
promising alternative to standard HVAC installations but the high-rise buildings offer little
possibilities of implementing solar collectors with a low tilt angle (on the roof) and the use of
solar thermal façade collectors for solar cooling is challenging because of the large angles of
incidence for the solar direct irradiation.
Figure 17: Direct (left) and indirect (right) evaporative coolers
[http://www.mge.com/business/saving/madison/PA_42.html]
The energy performances of ground cooling systems are usually expressed by unit of ground
area. So those systems are not recommended when the available ground area is limited (high-
rise buildings in urban environment).
Solar absorption cooling systems require solar collectors preferably with a low tilt angle therefore
it is challenging to use them in high-rise buildings.
Thermally activated building mass cooling systems are good systems in terms of investment and
exploitation costs. Ceiling cooling systems offer fast response times without an air based system.
4. 2 Evaluation of advanced technology energy performance
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A simplified methodology for evaluating advanced technology energy performance has been
proposed. The methodology and the evaluation results are described in the following paragraphs.
4.2.1 Methodology for the evaluation
The methodology that was developed considers the most important energy related parameters
and splits energy conservation technologies in three clusters:
a)Envelope Technologies
b)HVAC and Systems delivering Energy
c)Lighting Technologies
For each cluster, a qualitative evaluation is proposed that permits to identify the energy
conservation potential for a specific climate.
A. Envelope Technologies
The specific evaluation of the energy potential of a considered envelope technology is proposed
to be performed in comparison to a reference technology. The Heating and Cooling Contribution
of the system (HCS and CCS respectively) per m2 of the building is calculated for all considered
systems and for a given climate.
The obtained results may be represented in a graphical way as in the following Figure18.
HCS(i)
CCS(i)
Figure 18: Graphical representation of the heating and cooling contributions of the considered envelope
technologies in a specific climate
Two dimensional fuzzy clustering techniques may be applied thus, various major clusters may
be defined as in Figure 19:
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B
HCS(i)
D
A C
CCS(i)
Figure 19: Clustering of the heating and cooling contributions of the envelope technologies for a specific
climate
The specific meaning of each cluster is the following:
Cluster A : Systems with low Heating and Cooling Contribution
Cluster B : Systems with High Heating and Low Cooling Contribution
Cluster C : Systems with Low Heating and Medium to High Cooling Contribution
Cluster D : Systems with Medium Heating and Cooling Contribution
At the end the following evaluation Table 3 is prepared:
Table 3: Qualitative classification of the energy potential of the considered envelope technologies
Envelope Southern Continental Mid European North European
Technology Mediterranean Coastal Coastal
Technology 1 A B C D
Technology 2 B A C C
Technology 3 D C B A
……………. C B C B
Technology i D A D B
Technology n C D A C
B. HVAC and Systems delivering Energy
The methodology proposes to evaluate the mean annual COP of the system (i) in heating and
cooling mode. For systems providing both heating and cooling, we may have a COPH(i) and
COPC(i) for the heating and cooling mode respectively. Thus, for a specific climate a graphical
representation like in the following Figure 20 may be obtained.
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COPH(i) COPC(i)
Figure 20: Graphical representation of the COP during the heating and cooling modes for the HVAC and
energy delivering technologies in a specific climate
By applying fuzzy clustering techniques, the following classification (Fig.4) may be obtained for a
specific climate
B
COPH(i)
D
A C
COPC(i)
Figure 21: Clustering of the COP under heating and cooling modes for the HVAC and energy delivering
technologies for a specific climate
The specific meaning of each cluster is:
Cluster A : Systems with low COPH and COPC
Cluster B : Systems with High COPH and Low COPC
Cluster C : Systems with Low COPH and Medium to High COPC
Cluster D : Systems with Medium COPH and COPC
Any other clustering may be obtained as well as a function of the characteristics of the data. At
the end an evaluation similar to the one given in Table 2 will be prepared.
For Systems offering only heating or cooling, the specific COPH or COPC will be calculated for a
given climate. Then by applying one dimensional fuzzy classification, the following classification
may be obtained for COPH or COPC,:
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E D C B A
Low to Medium
COP Medium To
Low COP Medium COP High COP
high COP
C. Lighting Technologies
Classification of the performance of artificial lighting systems according to the following three
criteria :
1. Lumens/watt delivered
2. Color of Light
3. Color Rendering index
4.2.2 Classification of advanced technologies
A. Cooling technologies
Classification of the cooling technologies has been performed using the above mentioned
methodology for HVAC systems. The conventional cooling technologies given below in Table 4
and the corresponding COP values have been considered together with the four hybrid
technologies, buried pipes, radiative cooling and evaporative cooling and solar cooling systems.
Table 4 Classification of COP performance of various cooling systems according to EUROVENT
COP Class Air Cooled Air Cooled Ducted Air Cooled Floor Water Cooled
A >= 3.1 >= 2.7 >=3.8 >=5.05
B 2.9-3.1 2.5-2.7 3.65-3.8 4.65-5.05
C 2.7-2.9 2.3-2.5 3.5-3.65 4.25-4.65
D 2.5-2.7 2.1-2.3 3.35-3.5 3.85-4.25
E 2.3-2.5 1.9-2.1 3.2-3.35 3.45-3.85
F 2.1-2.3 1.7-1.9 3.05-3.2 3.05-3.45
G <2.1 <1.7 <3.05 <3.05
It has been calculated that the COP of cooling systems under the Mediterranean climates are:
Ground Coupled Heat Pump : 10.5
Direct Evaporative Cooling : 5.6
Radiative Cooling : 2.4
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Earth to Air Heat Exchangers : 6.6
Dessicant Cooling : 4
Solar Absorption Cooling : 1.47 in primary energy
PV Hybrid cooling, based on Si unglazed hybrid components : 2.63
Using conversion factors, COP values are as follows in terms of primary energy3:
Ground Coupled Heat Pump : 4
Direct Evaporative Cooling : 2.1
Radiative Cooling : 0.9
Earth to Air Heat Exchangers : 2.4
Dessicant Cooling : 1.8
Solar Absorption Cooling : 1.47
PV Hybrid cooling, based on Si unglazed hybrid components : 1.1
3
Worldwide Trends in Energy Use and Efficiency- International Energy Agency 2008
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Figure 22: Classification of cooling technologies for the Mediterranean zone
B. Classification of artificial lighting technology
Based on the existing knowledge, the different artificial lighting technologies have been
classified according to the three selected criteria. In parallel, information on the average life of
the sources as well as some qualitative characteristics is given.
Lamp Type Watteges System Color Col Average Life Start to Restrike Lumen
Efficacy Temperat or Rated Cycle full Time Maintenance
(lm/W) ure (K) Ren Life (h) Cost Brightnes
deri s
ng
Inde
x
Incandencent 3-1500 4-24 2800 98+ 750- High Immediate Immedia Good/e
2000 te xcellent
Halogen 5-2000 10-22 3000 80- 2000- High Immediate Immedia Good/e
90 4000 te xcellent
High Voltage 60-2000 14-22
Tungsten 40-250 14-17
2000
Low Voltage
Tungsten 5-150 10-21
2000
Low Voltage 10-250
with reflector 2000-
4000
Compact 5-55 28-79 2700, 80- 5000- Low 1-2 Immedia Fair
Fluorescent 3000, 90 10000 minutes te
3500,
4100,5000
, 6500
With built in 9-25 41-48
ballast 7-32 58-63 5000 2 min
8000 1 min
With external 5-11 28-60
ballast 5-26 42-50 8000 1 min
16-28 50-57 8000 1 min
18-55 40-79 8000 1 min
8000- 1 min
10000
Full size 4-215 40-89 Warm 49- 7500- Low 0-5 Immedia Fair/Exc
Fluorescent white=300 85 24000 seconds te ellent
0
White=300
0
Cool white
= 4100
Also, 5000
and 6500
Mercury Vapor 40-1250 19-43 Coated=4 15- 24000+ Moderat 3-9 10-20 Poor/Fa
000 50 e minutes minutes ir
Clear=570
0
Metal Halide 32-2000 38-110 3100,4100 65- 6000- Moderat 3-5 4-20 Good
,5000 70 20000 e minutes minutes
Ellipsoid 250-1000 62-96
scattering 6000
Tube clear 250-3500 69-110
Tubular clear 70-150 67-82 1000-
R7S 3000
6000
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Tubular clear 250-1000 73-86
Fc2
6000
Ellipsoid Down 70-100 66-85
scattering
5000
Tubular clear 2000-3500 85-86
E40
1000-
Tubular not 1000-2000 96-100 6000
outer bulb
4000-
6000
High Pressure 35-1000 22-115 Standard= 22- 16000- Low 3-4 1 minute Good/E
Sodium 2100 85 24000 minutes xcellent
White
HPS =
2700
Low Pressure 100-200 1740 40- 16000 Low Point 10 3 minutes
Sodium 60 minutes
LED’s 10-100 2700- 80- 50000 Low Point Immedia Immediate
10000 90 te
White LED 10-100
Red / Orange 50
LED
A global classification of the artificial lighting sources can be performed based on the life cycle
cost of the different technologies. Such a classification is given below in Figure 23.
Figure 23: Classification of Artificial Lighting based on their Life Cycle cost
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