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This document was published in 1996 as part of ITDG’s Dynamic Diversity series.

Fisherfolk safeguarding Aquatic Diversity
through their Fishing Techniques

Initial research by Janet Bell - Compiled by Brian O’Riordan - Series editor Patrick Mulvany

Overfishing, habitat destruction and the introduction of exotic species is having a devastating impact on aquatic
biodiversity and thus on fish populations. These impacts are exacerbated by capture fisheries and industrial
aquaculture and have led to all the world’s 17 main fishing grounds being fished at or above their sustainable
limits. In contrast, nurture fisheries used by artisanal fisherfolk and small-scale fish farmers maintain and develop
aquatic biodiversity. This booklet explains how, through supporting artisanal fisherfolk, the decline in the diversity
of fish species can be reversed.

This document was originally published in 1996 as a fully-illustrated booklet as part of Intermediate Technology’s
Dynamic Diversity series. It has been resissued in this more basic electronic format as a response to the South
Asia tsunami disaster. The text has not been revised. The original publication was produced with financial
support from the Worldwide Fund for Nature.

Intermediate Technology Development Group 1996, 2005 – www.itdg.org

Fisherfolk safeguarding Aquatic Diversity through their Fishing Techniques 1
Farmers, herders and fisherfolk
safeguarding biodiversity for food security
Introduction producers. It is called in situ conservation; it is
dynamic and the genetic resources develop through
Today ... we are called upon to help utilization and selection. The production systems
preserve the diversity handed down to us which support this biodiversity still ensure food and
... The manner in which we meet this livelihood security. They provide food for around
challenge will largely determine how – or one third of the world’s population as well as
whether – future generations will live on providing livelihoods for most of the world’s poor,
this planet. including the majority of farmers and herders and all
those dependent on artisanal fisheries.
Cary Fowler and Pat Mooney
Erosion of biodiversity
This introduction to the series of three Dynamic
Diversity booklets provides an overview of the These locally diverse food production systems are
common issues concerning the maintenance of the under threat and, with them, the accompanying
biodiversity of all food species. The important role of local knowledge and skills of the food producers.
fisherfolk in safeguarding biodiversity through their With this decline, the biodiversity of all food species
fishing techniques is described after this is disappearing and the scale of loss is extensive.
introduction, and the companion Dynamic Diversity More than 75 per cent of crop varieties have
booklets describe the roles of farmers and livestock disappeared; half of the breeds of many domestic
keepers in safeguarding biodiversity for food animals have been lost. In fisheries, all the world’s
security. 17 main fishing grounds are now being fished at or
above their sustainable limits, with many fish
Importance of biodiversity for food populations effectively becoming extinct.
security
The genetic erosion of the biodiversity of food
The biodiversity of food species, sometimes species is also exacerbated by the loss of forest
referred to as agricultural biodiversity, cover, coastal wetlands and other ‘wild’ uncultivated
agrobiodiversity or the genetic resources for food areas, and the destruction of the aquatic
and agriculture, is an important sub-set of general environment. This leads to losses of ‘wild’ relatives,
biodiversity: it is the basis of food security. It has important for the development of biodiversity, and
been developed by smallholder farmers, herders losses of ‘wild’ foods essential for food provision,
and artisanal fisherfolk, in a wide range of particularly in times of crisis.
ecosystems over thousands of years, in order to
produce food of desired qualities and taste, for local Causes of genetic erosion
nutritional, social and economic needs.
There are many causes of this decline, which has
To achieve this, food producers developed locally been accelerating throughout the 20th century in
diverse production systems, increasing the reliability parallel with the demands of an increasing
of production and minimizing risk. Within these population and greater competition for natural
production systems the biodiversity of their crops resources. The principal underlying causes include:
and livestock was developed for varied
environments. For example, crop varieties and • The rapid expansion of industrial and Green
domestic animal breeds were developed that could Revolution agriculture, intensive livestock
withstand drought or floods, thrive on poor or rich production, industrial fisheries and aquaculture
soils, resist pests and diseases. Likewise, a rich (some using genetically engineered varieties
aquatic biodiversity, nurtured by fisherfolk, has and breeds) that cultivate relatively few crop
sustained local fish populations. varieties in monocultures, rear a limited number
of domestic animal breeds, or fish for, or
This conservation and development of biodiversity cultivate, few aquatic species.
continues today on the farms and rangelands, and
in the coastal waters, used by these food

Fisherfolk safeguarding Aquatic Diversity through their Fishing Techniques 2
• The globalization of the food system and the Conservation approaches
extension of industrial patenting and other
intellectual property systems to living The response of communities, states and
organisms, which has led to the widespread international institutions has been slow but is now
cultivation and rearing of fewer varieties and gathering pace. The global conservation movement
breeds for a more uniform, less diverse but has started to recognize this important component
more competitive global market. of biodiversity and the value of local food production
systems in conserving it.
As a consequence there has been:
In situ conservation
• Marginalization of small-scale, diverse, food As noted above, this is achieved through
production systems that conserve farmers’ maintaining and developing biodiversity in farmers’
varieties of crops and breeds of domestic fields and gardens, on rangelands and in coastal
animals, which form the genetic pool for food waters. The genetic resources develop through
and agriculture in the future. utilization and selection. A few exciting partnerships
have been set up between the formal scientific
• Reduced integration of livestock in arable community and local food producers to develop in
production, which reduces the diversity of uses situ conservation programmes, but these cases are
for which livestock are needed. still the exception rather than the rule. Despite
growing recognition for the success of community-
• Reduced use of ‘nurture’ fisheries techniques, based in situ biodiversity conservation and
that conserve and develop aquatic biodiversity. development, it is still peripheral to institutional
strategies, rather than being centre stage.
Reversing the trends
Ex situ conservation
The loss of this biodiversity could be reversed if
there were more support for policies and Ex situ conservation of genetic resources, in
programmes, including agricultural research and genebanks or in living collections located away from
extension and fisheries policies, which strengthen the production systems that developed the
the production systems developed by smallholder resources, has received most of the funding in
farmers, herders and artisanal fisherfolk. It is also recent decades. By definition, this strategy can only
important to develop systems to reward these preserve material taken from farms and the local
producers for their innovation and their contribution environment: it cannot develop diversity. While
to global food security, so that they have an valuable, it should be seen principally as providing
incentive to continue conserving and developing support to in situ conservation and development
this biodiversity. This could be achieved through the rather than vice versa. A good example of this is the
development and implementation of Farmers’ or use of ex situ genebanks kept within communities to
Communal Rights. support local production systems.

Farmers’ Rights, as proposed by the Food and Conservation in genetic ‘reserves’
Agriculture Organization (FAO), will enable farmers,
Another strategy that is sometimes promoted is the
and their communities, to: ‘ ... participate fully in the
formation of Genetic Reserves, usually in remote
benefits derived, at present and in the future, from
environments, in which communities are
the improved use of [their] plant genetic resources,
discouraged from developing their crop varieties
through plant breeding and other scientific
and animal breeds. This denies the possibility of
methods.’ The agreed resolution (FAO 5/89) also
diversity being maintained, for it is the interaction of
calls for ‘ ... the continued support to farmers and
old with new practices and new demands that has
farming communities in the protection and
developed the diversity of varieties and breeds.
conservation of their plant genetic resources.’ There
Similarly, in Marine Genetic Reserves from which
is a need, however, not only to implement Farmers’
artisanal fisherfolk are excluded, their expert
Rights but also to extend these Rights to include all
management of the ecosystem, which has
food providers – those who grow, nurture and
developed aquatic biodiversity for human use, is
collect the food we eat.
removed.

Fisherfolk safeguarding Aquatic Diversity through their Fishing Techniques 3
Institutional context consider Agricultural Biodiversity and it receives
reports from the FAO on current negotiations. It is
The main global institutions concerned with the hoped that the revised IU from FAO, including
conservation and utilization of the biodiversity of all Farmers’ Rights, will be included as a Protocol to
food species are the Food and Agriculture the Convention. However, the influence of the
Organization (FAO), the Convention on Biological World Bank, the Group of 7 (G7) and the World
Diversity (CBD), and the Consultative Group on Trade Organisation (WTO) on the Convention is
International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). The increasing, with the possibility that farmers will get
World Trade Organisation (WTO) is also a major little recognition for their contribution to biodiversity
influence on the international food system and conservation.
hence, indirectly, on biodiversity. Between them,
and their governing bodies, these institutions are The United Nations General Assembly is reviewing
the major influence for developing global systems progress of the Earth Summit’s Action Plan
that affect the biodiversity of food species. There (Agenda 21), in 1997, 5 years after Rio. This may
are other important institutions which focus on affect how agricultural biodiversity is governed in
specific aspects, for example the International future.
Convention for the Protection of New Varieties of
Plants (UPOV), and these are referred to in the Consultative Group on International
subject-specific booklet. Agricultural Research
Food and Agriculture Organization The CGIAR comprises 16 International Agricultural
Research Centres. Its overall purpose is to promote
The FAO is the principal intergovernmental international research on sustainable improvements
institution concerned with agricultural biodiversity. It in the productivity of agriculture, forestry and
achieved the agreement of 148 countries in June fisheries in countries of the South, in ways that
1996 to a Global Plan of Action for the Conservation enhance nutrition and well-being, especially of low-
and Sustainable Utilization of Plant Genetic income people. It has a System-wide Genetic
Resources for Food and Agriculture (GPA), which Resources Programme managed by one of the
contains activities on in situ conservation, among Centres, the International Plant Genetic Resources
others. This will be taken forward in FAO’s World Institute. The CGIAR, collectively through all its
Food Summit (WFS) and at subsequent Centres, has the largest ex situ genebank
negotiations in the FAO Commission on Genetic collection, which is now held in trust by the FAO.
Resources for Food and Agriculture (CGRFA). This The CGIAR is the major influence on agricultural
Commission is extending its brief from covering only research internationally but it urgently needs to
plant genetic resources to include domestic animal develop its programmes in ways that are more
diversity (for which FAO already has an responsive to the majority of poor farmers, herders
international programme), fish genetic resources and fisherfolk.
and forest genetic resources.
World Trade Organisation
The Commission is also the forum in which the
International Undertaking on Plant Genetic The WTO incorporates the General Agreement on
Resources (IU), which includes a commitment to Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which, since the Uruguay
Farmers’ Rights, will be negotiated. Round of negotiations, now includes the marketing
of agricultural products. It is promoting trade
The FAO is also a key proponent of Sustainable liberalization and the removal of subsidies and
Agriculture and Rural Development through various protection for local food production. Another part of
of its programmes and is implementing a Code of its mandate is to promote a Trade Related
Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, among other Intellectual Property Rights system (TRIPs), which
relevant programmes. favours the development of patents, or other
effective systems of intellectual property protection,
Convention on Biological Diversity for living organisms. A review of this is due in 1999.

The CBD was negotiated in Rio at the Earth Summit
Key policy issues
in 1992. The CBD’s controlling body, the
Conference of the Parties to the Biodiversity In order to achieve improved conservation of
Convention (COPs), meets annually and reviews agricultural biodiversity, policies and programmes,
progress in the development and implementation of at all levels, need to:
the Convention. One aspect of its mandate is to

Fisherfolk safeguarding Aquatic Diversity through their Fishing Techniques 4
• Promote the conservation, development and communities. Alternative rights regimes must
legal use of a wide range of biodiversity of food be pursued which recognize and reward
species in ways which encourage the local indigenous innovation. These contrast with
improvement of the genetic resources patents and plant breeders’ rights which may
contained in crop varieties, domestic animal exclude food providers from receiving any
breeds, fish species and ‘wild’ foods. benefits or even from being able to access
freely the genetic resources they developed.
• Increase consumption of locally produced
foods and generate awareness among • Support locally determined priorities for
consumers of the importance of maintaining agricultural, livestock, fisheries and forestry
agricultural biodiversity. research and extension. These should become
more responsive to the diverse needs of the
• Emphasize in situ conservation and utilization, majority, poor, Southern food providers, rather
maintaining dynamic diversity rather than than a Northern-dominated research agenda.
freezing (and losing) diversity in genebanks.
These ex situ genebanks should only be used • Increase recognition and support for
as a back-up to the living, dynamic and appropriate technologies, which respect and
evolving collections used and nurtured by food nurture the environment, increase biodiversity,
providers. and sustain and support livelihoods, especially
those technologies embodied in the local
• Accord special priority to local development of knowledge and skills of food providers. A much
genetic resources for food and agriculture for more careful assessment is needed of the
local ecological niches and specific market and impacts of new technologies, including
social needs. This can be achieved through biotechnology, on the environment, peoples’
support for local crop breeding and local seed livelihoods and biodiversity.
marketing schemes. It may require the removal
of some legal and commercial constraints, for • Improve formal and informal sector linkages
example to the use of semi-finished crop and increase co-operation between formal
varieties and varieties that are not on official researchers and NGOs and food providers in
lists. Similarly, there needs to be order to achieve the goal of improved
encouragement for schemes to develop local conservation and utilization of genetic
domestic animal breeds and edible aquatic resources for food and agriculture. The formal
species. sector needs to understand and value the
strengths of the informal sector, particularly in
• Increase recognition and reward to women who the areas of conservation and utilization,
have been the principal nurturers and training, advocacy and research. This will
developers of the biodiversity of food species. require increased support and the removal of
Any programme or initiative should use gender legislative and institutional barriers.
sensitive techniques in planning and
implementation. It is important to ensure that Call for action
any reward systems benefit women, in
particular. Concern about securing a diversity of affordable,
safe, nutritious foods is being voiced by
• Safeguard the ownership of, and rights of communities throughout the world. Before it is too
access to, this biodiversity by local late, policy and practice needs to turn around in
communities – especially through the favour of smaller-scale, people-centred, biodiverse
implementation of farmers’ or communal rights. food provision. The aim of this booklet is to provide
These should be based on the recognition that information for the debate and to stimulate action to
genetic resources for food and agriculture are a reverse the decline in the biodiversity of food
heritage of farming, pastoral, fishing and forest species.

Fisherfolk safeguarding Aquatic Diversity through their Fishing Techniques 5
Fisherfolk safeguarding aquatic biodiversity
through their fishing techniques
Underlying the capability ... to achieve the leading to a dramatic five-fold increase in fish
sustainable contribution of fish to ... food catches, from some 20 million tonnes per annum in
security are two critical policy requirements. 1950 to about 100 million tonnes per annum today.
These are: the maintenance and In recent years most of this increase in production
enhancement, where possible, of the resource has come from aquaculture as yields from marine
base and of biodiversity; and the equitable fisheries have levelled off and in some cases
allocation of resources and the benefits derived declined. China and India are the two main
from their use. aquaculture producers in the world. Between them
they produce over 65 per cent of the world
Food and Agriculture Organization1 aquaculture production. It is also important to note
that in 1993, over 80 per cent of the world’s
Livelihoods and food security aquaculture production came from the developing
countries, including more than 85 per cent of all
Fisheries have provided livelihoods and food farmed fin fish.8 These increases in fish production
supplies to communities of fisherfolk for millennia.2 have been achieved through using ever more
Fish provide the world’s only major food source intensive capture fishing techniques and industrial
harvested from the ‘wild’. They are thus dependent aquaculture production systems, leading to the
on the naturally renewable aquatic biodiversity destruction of the aquatic environment and
found in the world’s oceans and inland waters. As biodiversity, and the loss of marine fish stocks.
fishing and fish production techniques become
more intensive, this biodiversity is being rapidly
Aquatic biodiversity
eroded through habitat destruction, overfishing and
the introduction of exotic species, threatening food There are 20,000–30,000 species of fish in a
security. multitude of diverse marine aquatic ecosystems
worldwide, and in freshwater environments many
Currently, fish provide the fifth largest food new fish species continue to be ‘discovered’ by
resource, and are the primary source of animal science.12 Yet, 40 per cent of the world’s fish catch
protein – 65 million out of 253 million tonnes of comprises only 20 species, of which the Peruvian
animal protein eaten by people. They provide more anchovy accounted, in 1993/94, for nearly 10 per
than 50 per cent of the animal protein intake for cent. While this may demonstrate the potential that
over one billion people in Asia, as well as millions of other types of fish could play in providing food for
people in coastal African and Latin American human kind, it conceals the fact that there are
countries and in small island developing states.3,4 complex and far-reaching interdependencies
between fish species and their environment that are
In these countries in the South there are an essential to sustaining global fisheries production.
estimated 10 million full-time and 10 million part-
time, almost all male, fisherfolk.5 Together with More than 90 per cent of the marine fish catch
wives and dependants, an estimated total of comes from the 9.9 per cent of the ocean that lies
between 150 and 200 million people worldwide are over the continental shelf, especially in key habitats
dependent for all or part of their livelihoods on in the nearshore waters, in the inter-tidal zone, and
artisanal fisheries. These fisheries produce about in the land areas immediately adjacent to the coast
25 per cent of the total world marine fish catch, and – coastal rivers, bays, wetlands, estuaries,
contribute about 40 per cent of the fish destined for mangroves, saltmarshes, mudflats, sea grass and
direct human consumption. Their contribution to seaweed beds, and coral reefs. About two thirds of
local food security is important, particularly in all commercially valuable fish species spend the
isolated coastal communities.6 first – and most vulnerable – stages of their life in
these waters.13 In the 0.1 per cent of the oceans
These artisanal fisheries, which nurture fish stocks, where underwater currents rise to the surface – the
are under threat. Over the past five decades, there upwelling zones – significant catches are also
has been an industrial and technological revolution made,14 the remaining 90 per cent of the open
in the world’s marine and freshwater fisheries, oceans, while yielding relatively few fish, is

Fisherfolk safeguarding Aquatic Diversity through their Fishing Techniques 6
essential for providing resources needed to century naturalist and would-be evolutionist, Jean-
maintain fish populations in the productive 10 per Baptiste de Lamarck, encapsulates the still widely
cent of the seas.15 prevailing view on fisheries: ‘Animals living in ... the
sea waters ... are protected from the destruction of
Fisheries ultimately depend on the quality and their species by man. Their multiplication is so
integrity of the whole ecosystem, and the rapid, and their means of evading pursuit or traps
biodiversity within it. To threaten the health of the are so great, that there is no likelihood of his being
ecosystem and its biodiversity is to threaten the able to destroy entire species of these animals.’19
health of the fisheries that rely on it. Removing key Many people, including fisheries experts, have
species from this environment can dramatically continued to commit the same error of thinking.
effect the structure of ecosystem, can destabilize Their mistakes have reduced marine fisheries
fisheries, and hasten their collapse.16 In general, populations to extremely low levels, destabilized
the more biodiverse the ecosystem, the more stable marine ecosystems and impoverished coastal
and sustainable. The maintenance of aquatic communities.20
biodiversity and a precautionary approach to the
use of aquatic ecosystems is therefore of The environmental problems, and impact on local
fundamental importance to conserving fisheries. aquatic biodiversity, caused by aquaculture (the
Once severe loss or degradation of biodiversity has cultivation of fish and other aquatic foods)
occurred within an aquatic ecosystem, irreversible production can also be devastating on aquatic
changes are likely to occur. biodiversity. It is not sufficiently taken into account
when planning aquaculture developments. With
It is essential, therefore, to conserve habitats and many planners seeing the cultivation of
within-habitat diversity, providing varied ‘domesticated’ and genetically improved varieties of
environmental niches to which particular species fish as being the main new source of fish, the
are genetically suited. These can provide shelter expansion of this form of production, without
from predators as well as a variety of feeding, adequate safeguards, could further erode aquatic
spawning and nursery grounds for a wide range of biodiversity, threatening the wider fishery and
potentially competing species. This diversity of livelihoods.
habitats allows otherwise incompatible, but often
interdependent, species to coexist.17 Extent of loss of aquatic
biodiversity
As well as an important end in its own right, a
healthy aquatic biodiversity is also an important Precise measurement of fish biodiversity is difficult
indicator of sustainability. A high level of aquatic and the measurement of loss tends to be more in
diversity results in diversity and security in peoples’ terms of species that are no longer caught in
livelihoods, and indicates the use of sustainable significant numbers than precision about species
fishing practices. For many fisherfolk, losing this that are ‘extinct’.
biodiversity goes hand in hand with losing
livelihoods and food security. A Chilean fishworker • In India, because of habitat destruction mainly
has described fisherfolk as the ‘lighthouses of the through trawling, local fishing communities no
sea’ (los faros del mar), because they sound the longer catch 150 species that were commonly
warnings when the biodiversity of the fishery is in caught 20 years ago.
danger: healthy fisherfolk reflect a healthy aquatic
biodiversity.18 • In Canada, the Grand Banks fishery produced
810,000 tonnes of cod in 1968 and because of
The problem: aquatic biodiversity overfishing only 150,000 tonnes in 1977. In
1992, a total ban on cod fishing was imposed
conservation – a low priority?
when it was realized that there were few, if any,
All the world’s 17 main fishing grounds are being cod left in the rest of the fishery that were old
fished at or above their sustainable limits. enough to spawn. In 1995, in the northern part
of the fishery no cod were found at all.21
This crisis in the world’s fisheries is having a
devastating impact on fish production and • In Africa, up to 75 per cent of endemic species
livelihoods. When considering this crisis, the have been lost in Lake Victoria, replaced by
importance of aquatic biodiversity to fisheries has introduced Nile Perch which make up 80 per
not been sufficiently recognized by fisheries policy cent of the catch. In other African lakes
makers and managers. A quotation from the 19th introduced species now make up 60-90 per

Fisherfolk safeguarding Aquatic Diversity through their Fishing Techniques 7
cent of the total catch: in Lake Kivu and Lake impact of trawling. During the 1970s, overall
Kariba introduced species comprise 85 per fish catches in Kerala declined and, within this,
cent of the catch, and in Lakes Cohoha and the artisanal sector’s catches fell to between 40
Rweru 60 per cent.22 and 60 per cent of pre-1970 levels.26

Causes of the loss of aquatic • In Senegal it is reported that many species that
biodiversity previously formed part of the artisanal catch
have become scarce, and some species have
The above are examples of the four main, and disappeared altogether. For example, La
interrelated, causes of the loss of aquatic Diaragne bream has completely disappeared
biodiversity: since foreign trawlers began to fish in
Senegalese coastal waters.27
• Habitat destruction, which makes the aquatic
environment uninhabitable, reducing the Intensive aquaculture production is also a cause of
number of species of all aquatic organisms. extensive environmental degradation in coastal
areas. Its impact on biodiversity is rarely positive,
• Overfishing, which affects whole ecosystems sometimes neutral, but usually negative to some
because of the disruptions to the food web degree. Aquaculture is being widely promoted by
caused by the loss of the targeted species that the Consultative Group on International Agricultural
is overfished. Research (CGIAR) and other international
agencies: ‘On the land we have learned to produce
• Wasting of fish, the losses of untargeted food by cultivation. But in the sea we still act as
species that are caught unintentionally, and are hunters and gatherers. The next great leap in
discarded. producing food will come from “domesticated” and
genetically improved varieties of fish and other
• The introduction of exotic species, deliberately seafood’.29 The leap is already in mid-air. In
or accidentally, which has a decisive impact by Ecuador, more than 120,000 hectares of
directly affecting the ecological balance mangroves had been cut down to make way for
between aquatic species. prawn ponds by 1987, and Thailand has
transformed 100,000 hectares.30 However, the
When aquatic biodiversity is lost it can increase aquaculture boom is being fuelled by ‘profit and
vulnerability: the depletion of pivotal species can export earnings, not hunger’.31
completely change the ecosystem from a rich,
diverse and relatively stable system to a poor, Although the potential benefits from shrimp farming
rapidly changing and highly vulnerable system.23 are lucrative, there are heavy associated costs. The
aquaculture ponds are not viable for more than 10
Habitat destruction: destroying the forests years, and are often useless after two or three. The
of the deep land is often damaged irreversibly, leaving families
Some fishing practices also destroy habitats. The with no replacement options for their livelihoods. In
use of fishing equipment which rakes and churns up addition, high capital costs mean that shrimp
the seabed (such as heavy trawling nets which are farming is the exclusive domain of wealthy
dragged along the seabed) can have a major landowners and corporate investors.32 The lure of
impact on the fishery habitat especially in tropical export markets increases the pressure on farmers
waters, making it inhospitable for fish and modifying to convert agricultural and common lands into
it in ways which changes its nature.24 Trawling also shrimp farms.33,34 As the shrimp farms die, the
removes fish and other species indiscriminately. corporations move on, but the communities cannot.
The increasing use of dynamite and cyanide is also
destroying not only fish populations but also Overfishing: fishing out the gene pool
habitats such as coral reefs which support them and The spread of capture fisheries has led to one of
a whole array of other marine life.25 the most serious global threats to marine
biodiversity: overfishing. Between the late 1940s
• In the fishing communities of Kerala, south and 1989, marine fish landings increased almost
India, fishermen have documented that many fivefold from 18 to 89 million tonnes.37 1990 saw the
natural reefs have been destroyed by trawling, first decline in 25 years, a drop of 3 per cent,38 and
and that 150 once-common species are no global fish catches seem to have reached a plateau.
longer caught by artisanal fishermen due to the Per capita catches have started to decline.39

Fisherfolk safeguarding Aquatic Diversity through their Fishing Techniques 8
It is not simply the size of the global fishing fleet • In the Philippines it is estimated that the
(which grew at twice the rate of fish landings collapse of major fishing grounds is uprooting
between 1970 and 1989) that has taken its toll on tens of thousands of fishing families each
fish stocks. The intensive use of new technologies year.46
for fish detection and the capture of large shoals,
coupled with the ability to process and preserve on The pressure to overfish comes not only from the
board, has turned fishing vessels into efficient need for profits by industrial fishing companies but
hunting machines. These technologies, along with also from the need for hard currency in Southern
large government subsidies, are allowing fishing countries. For example, the European Union (EU)
fleets to remain competitive while fish become more paid Senegal €18m to get increased access for the
and more scarce. EU fishing fleet to Senegalese fishery resources
during 1994/96. The EU-funded Oceanographic
In particular, the emphasis on mono-species fishing Research Centre had already warned in 1992,
(the practice of targeting single or relatively few however, that fish stocks off Senegal were so
species) results in many uneconomic and non- seriously depleted that there should be EU quota
target species, over-quota fish and small fish being reductions: fish stocks were already being fished at
discarded and wasted. For example, in the North their maximum sustainable levels by the local
Sea at least 40 per cent of the total biomass of fishing fleet.48
commercial species is removed each year.40 This
figure does not take into account discards which are Wasting fish: by-catch, high-grading and
often far greater than the landed catch. For discards
example, when using Beam Trawls in the North Sea
These three terms describe some of the most
for catching sole, for every kilogram of sole landed,
wasteful fisheries practices in modern commercial
as much as 10 kg of marine biomass is discarded41
fisheries:
and nearly 3 kg of bottom-living organisms are killed
by the Beam Trawls.42
• By-catch: fish caught unintentionally along with
targeted fish species, and often discarded
The majority of the world’s coastal waters where
trawling can be carried out (trawlable continental
• High-grading: making room for fish of the
shelves) have now been impacted by fishing,
highest value by discarding lower value fish
leaving few sanctuaries where biomasses and
biodiversity remain high.43 Such intense pressure
• Discards: over-quota, lower value or damaged
on aquatic populations depletes the gene pool and
fish that are dumped at sea.
reduces the potential for species to adapt to the
changing aquatic ecosystem.
They are a direct result of quota management,
where quotas are set for catching particular species
The fisheries crisis which is developing in the North
in specified fishing grounds. These quotas are
is putting pressure on fisheries resources in the
based on the ‘maximum sustainable yield’ concept
South. For example, 49 out of 55 trawlers of a
of fisheries production, which quantifies the
Canadian company were sold to developing
maximum catch levels that can be taken from any
countries after the onset of the 1992 Atlantic cod
fish stock, taking into account reproductive and
crisis.44 The sheer scale of these technologies,
growth rates of the fish, and the levels of intensity of
developed for large schools of fish in the temperate
fishing. The latter, or ‘fishing effort’, is still measured
waters, can have catastrophic consequences for
according to the size of boat and the horsepower of
fisheries and aquatic biodiversity in the tropics,
its engine, rather than the impact of all fishing
because of intrinsic differences between temperate
technology used in particular fishing grounds.
and tropical ecosystems. The impact of this
industrialization is that fishing communities in both
The use of ‘catch-all’ techniques, which literally
North and South are losing their livelihoods as fast
catch everything in the path of the nets, results in a
as the fish are disappearing from the sea.
significant proportion of the fish catch consisting of
fish which are over-quota, undesired species (i.e. of
• Between 30,000 and 40,000 fishermen and
little or no commercial value), fish that are
plant workers were put out of work when the
damaged, or which are below a marketable size.
Canadian Government closed the cod fishery
This ‘by-catch’ may be discarded. According to the
on the Grand Banks in 1992.45
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) this

Fisherfolk safeguarding Aquatic Diversity through their Fishing Techniques 9
amounts to at least 25 per cent of the total marine the wider fish population (e.g. in-breeding in
fish catch.47 hatchery-reared salmon).

One response of commercial fishing to quota Ways of conserving aquatic
management is the practice of ‘high-grading’, biodiversity: static or dynamic
keeping only the fish that will fetch the highest
diversity?
value, and discarding the rest. In many trawl
fisheries huge nets are in use, which have a Dynamic conservation by fisherfolk
catching capacity far in excess of the quotas
The conservation of aquatic biodiversity in situ has
allocated. Surplus, but perfectly edible, fish are
always been central to the strategies of nurture
simply dumped back in the sea, dead. As they are
fisheries. These strategies adopted by artisanal
not landed they do not count against the boat’s
fishing communities over millennia differ markedly
quota – but they should.
from the modern industrial approach to fishing,
using capture fishery strategies.55 Nurture fishery
Fishery management in the European Union is
technologies are necessarily selective, passive,
based on quota management and has done more to
low-energy and ecologically efficient. They may not
destroy fish stocks than any other fishery regime.
bring in the biggest catch in the short term, but they
Single species quotas in the multi-species North
ensure the sustainability of the fishery through their
Sea fishery has resulted in the unnecessary
harmonious interaction with the dynamics of the
destruction of thousands of tonnes of edible fish as
ecosystem, on which depends the aquatic
discarded ‘by-catch’.
biodiversity. These technologies are socially and
culturally embedded, and people’s involvement in
Introduction of exotic species
their creation, maintenance and management draws
Negative impacts of introducing exotic species may the wider community into the fishery, sharing the
be direct through the introduction of exotic species responsibilities.
to the environment, or indirect through the loss of
habitat.49 The development of aquaculture is one This community-based conservation has by
cause of the spread of exotic species to many parts definition taken place in situ, although it would
of the world, and a thus a potential threat to local rarely be recognized as a discrete activity. Instead,
aquatic diversity. it is an integral, but inseparable, component of the
complex web of rules and relationships drawn up to
The introduction of new species in aquaculture promote the long-term health of the fishery and
production, while providing the possibility for faster security of the fishing community.
growth rates, greater profitability, greater food
value, etc., also carries certain risks. These include: Nurture fisheries harvest a more diverse range of
species than capture fisheries. In the UK, for
• The displacement of less competitive local example, 65 per cent of the catch in 1994 came
species which share similar ecological niches from five species, with considerable waste in the
or on which the introduced species feed (e.g. ‘by-catch’ and discarded fish.56 Whereas artisanal
Nile Perch in Lake Victoria). fishermen in south India harvest some 200 species
(and virtually nothing goes to waste).57 This
• The introduction of exotic diseases to which the difference can only partly be explained by the richer
local fish populations have no resistance (e.g. diversity of warm, tropical waters compared with the
the introduction to the UK of Crayfish Plague – colder water nearer the poles. If species are useful,
a fungal infection fatal to indigenous crayfish – the incentive to ensure their survival is dramatically
through the introduction of American Signal increased. Since so many species are used and
Crayfish). valued by local communities, aquatic ecosystems
thrive. Even if species have no direct market value,
• Environmental degradation caused by the their importance in the ecosystem is usually
escape into the wild of potentially destructive respected.
species (e.g. clearance of aquatic vegetation
by herbivorous fish). Planners and policy makers often consider in situ
conservation through community-based strategies
• The introduction of fish stocks which develop as inadequate given the increased pressure on
recessive genetic characteristics that can affect resources, and favour establishing marine protected
areas, and other forms of fish ‘set aside’.58 These

Fisherfolk safeguarding Aquatic Diversity through their Fishing Techniques 10
reserves serve as replenishment areas for aquatic Genetic engineering
resources, maintaining the genetic diversity of key
species.59 However, by keeping fishermen out they A new technology now threatens the fishery:
run the risk of encouraging illegal fishing activities. If genetic engineering. Research is being focused on
such marine reserves are initiated in consultation a few species and characteristics such as fast
with fishing communities and participative manage- growth rates, and resistance to stress and disease.
ment regimes established, their effectiveness could The release of genetically manipulated fish raises
be greatly enhanced. biosafety issues, as the novel genes may spread
into wild populations and ecosystems with
Traditional aquaculture unpredictable results.66 In the case of the native
Californian Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch),
A significant proportion of aquaculture production there is evidence to show that due to cross-
comes from traditional methods which conserve fish breeding with genetically homogenized hatchery
stocks in situ. Aquaculture contributes to genetic fish, native populations have plummeted by 94 per
diversity by the development of domestic breeds, cent since 1949.67 Biosafety threats are of most
and shares with agriculture the need to conserve concern to people who share the ecosystem with
this man-made diversity along with wild aquatic the fish and whose livelihoods depend on it.
diversity.65 By combining diverse fish species of
different food habits and ecological niches, it Fisherfolk safeguarding aquatic
facilitates optimum use of available food in the fish
biodiversity
pond. Multi-species aquaculture or ‘polyculture’ is
based on the harmonious stocking of different While the management systems of capture fisheries
varieties of fish species at different levels of are technically based, those of nurture fisheries are
population, using an understanding of the socially based and still, to a varying extent,
production cycle and energy flow through the pond. spiritually based.69 They are an expression of social
There are planktonic feeders (at the pond surface relationships among people, manifested as rights to
and in mid-water) which feed directly off the exploit resources. Such community-based
‘phytoplankton’ and ‘zooplankton’ produced by the management is the key to sustaining the fishery. It
natural productivity of the pond. The faeces they is geared towards sustaining the aquatic ecosystem
produce further enhance the productivity of the and the fishery resource base. It promotes
pond, as does pond manuring (with agricultural and community-based ‘co-management’ of the coastal
household residues). Fish species which feed on commons, and advocates harvesting rather than
larger organisms in mid-water (small fish, insects, hunting approaches in the exploitation of aquatic
etc.) and the pond bottom (snails, worms, etc.) are resources. These systems only work if people are
also stocked. The result is that energy flow and confident that they or their communities will retain
transformation are extremely efficient. If this method access to the resource base in the long term.
of conservation in situ is to be sustained by Community-based strategies are increasingly
traditional aquaculture, then attention needs to be coming under pressure because this security is
focused on decentralized production, using diverse, being lost as the result of external intervention,
environmentally sensitive techniques. Protection affecting either their lives directly, or the resource
from introduced species and diseases is also base on which they depend.
required.
For example, the FAO/UNDP Integrated Coastal
Ex situ conservation Fisheries Management Project in Trinidad and
Tobago recognizes the important role of fishing
Ex situ conservation of aquatic resources has
communities, and includes as one of its broad
received little attention to date, except in the case of
strategy elements: the awareness creation on the
a few important food species. Recent interest in the
socio-economic contribution of the fisheries sector
pharmaceutical applications of marine resources
and its role as a natural monitoring unit of the
has led to a sharp increase in bioprospecting, but
environment.68
as yet has not been translated into concerted efforts
towards ex situ conservation. New technologies for
Fisherfolk’s Rights
ex situ conservation include cryopreservation and
genebanks. Over the last two decades efforts have been made
to establish management systems which recognize
traditional rights. Both the Territorial User Rights in
Fisheries (TURFs), which confer rights to fish in

Fisherfolk safeguarding Aquatic Diversity through their Fishing Techniques 11
particular waters, and Customary Marine Tenure subsumed by international law which allocates
(CMT) systems, which define the ownership of a ownership and responsibility to national and
particular fishery, show promise if they are regional entities. TURFs and CMT are not
developed in a way that ensures that rights are recognized by this international treaty.
conferred on local communities rather than
individuals.71 No strategy that hands over While UNCLOS has provided the means to define
responsibility to individuals will ever achieve long- ownership of marine resources with greater clarity,
term security: the community is the key to ensuring it has also drawn them into the global market place.
sustainability and equity. Coastal states are now effectively the designated
owners of 35 per cent of the world’s oceans and 95
The big players and global per cent of the global fish stocks.80 Through
instruments for conserving aquatic UNCLOS the interests and rights of traditional
fishing communities have been subsumed by the
biodiversity
State.
Trends in fisheries over the last five decades have
largely been towards centralization of fisheries Provisions within UNCLOS (Sections 61 and 62)
management and globalization of resource access allow fish stocks and other marine resources to be
and use. The centralization of fisheries bought and sold as commodities by the coastal
management by national and regional bodies has state (though subject to certain conditions). Through
largely been at the expense of local participation in joint-venture arrangements and other forms of
decision making. fisheries agreements with coastal states,
commercial interests are able to buy up marine
The globalization of the world fishery resources has resources. This has grave implications for traditional
linked the resource base more directly to distant livelihoods and food production systems which are
consumer demand. As a result, some 40 per cent of dependent on them.
the global fish catch now enters international trade.
This has tended to marginalize producers even Agenda 21 and the Ocean’s Chapter
further, and has put control of the resource base
Issues of responsibility and sustainable
into the hands of those who control the markets.
development were key to the 1992 Earth Summit
which led to the signing of the legally binding
The United Nations Convention on the Law
Agenda 21. Consequently, Chapter 17, the fisheries
of the Sea
chapter of Agenda 21, states that further measures
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the are required to ensure the effective implementation
Sea (UNCLOS), signed in 1982, is the most of UNCLOS. It also acknowledges that ‘the right to
important global instrument for regulating fisheries. fish is conditional and accompanied by the duty to
Others, like Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 and the UN manage and conserve resources for present and
Treaty on Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly future generations’,81 and links this to sustaining
Migratory Fish Stocks,79 relate to directly to the livelihoods and recognizing the rights of fishing
provisions of UNCLOS. communities.82 Nevertheless, like all the other
major instruments, Agenda 21 allocates control to
Although UNCLOS was agreed in 1982, and only the state rather than to communities. Although the
ratified in November 1994, by 1976 more than 60 motive for establishing these instruments
countries had laid claim to fishery resources in the (establishing more sustainable fisheries) is valid,
waters extending 200 miles from their shore – the approach is misguided, because the proven
Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs). Today more experts in maintaining biodiverse and sustainable
than 122 nations have established EEZs. However, fisheries, the fishing communities, have been
over 50 per cent of the total EEZ area (i.e. some 17 excluded.
per cent of the world’s oceans) are controlled by 10
countries, and 29 per cent by four countries: USA The Convention on Biological Diversity
(10 per cent), France (7 per cent), Australia (6 per
The Convention on Biological Diversity is the other
cent) and New Zealand (6 per cent).
legally binding agreement signed at the Earth
Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. Its objectives are:
There are serious implications of this new
ownership regime on coastal communities, and for
• The conservation of biological diversity
their traditional livelihoods and food production
(biodiversity)
systems. Traditional rights of access have been

Fisherfolk safeguarding Aquatic Diversity through their Fishing Techniques 12
• The sustainable use of its components employment, income and food security, and calls
upon states to protect their rights to resource
• The equitable sharing of benefits derived from access, decent working conditions and livelihood
genetic resources. security.

The Convention recognizes ‘the importance of The International Centre for Living Aquatic
biological diversity for ... maintaining life-sustaining Resources Management (ICLARM)
systems of the biosphere’. It acknowledges that
ICLARM is the Consultative Group on International
‘conservation and sustainable use of biological
Agricultural Research’s (CGIAR) only aquatic
diversity is of crucial importance for meeting the
research centre. Both FAO and ICLARM have set
food, health, and other needs of a growing world
up databases to gather information on fish diversity.
population’.
ICLARM has also made significant contributions to
fishery science and the in situ and ex situ
The Conference of the Parties to the Convention, at
conservation of fish species. In the case of ex situ
its second meeting in Jakarta in 1995 (COPS II),
conservation, the main motivation would seem to be
adopted the Jakarta Mandate. This outlines a
the quest for higher yielding species for fish
programme of action for implementing the
farming. The results are impressive (ICLARM’s
Convention with respect to marine and coastal
‘super tilapia’ is 60 per cent larger than its peers),
biodiversity.
but the introduction of new species can have a
negative impact on the overall diversity of marine or
The FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible
freshwater ecosystems.
Fisheries
The Food and Agriculture Organization’s (FAO) Other players
Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries sets out
As introduced species now make a significant
the principles and international standards of
contribution to food production and the wider
behaviour for responsible practices with a view to
economy, such benefits need to be weighed
ensuring the effective conservation, management
carefully against possible harmful effects. Criteria
and development of living aquatic resources. It
need to be established against which species
follows the lead of UNCLOS in assigning
transfers can be judged. The International Council
responsibility for fishery sustainability, as well as
for the Exploration of the Seas (ICES) and the
technical and biological management, to states.
European Inland Fisheries Advisory Council
(EIFAC) have devised a Code of Practice and a
The Code also addresses the rights of consumers.
Manual of Procedures for the Consideration of
It deals with issues of biodiversity through
Introductions and Transfers of Marine and
promoting the precautionary approach to fisheries
Freshwater Organisms. The Code of Practice is
management, by proposing the integration of
completely voluntary, and in most cases its
fisheries into coastal area management, by
provisions are not followed.
advocating the use of selective and environmentally
safe fishing gears, and by promoting responsible
aquaculture.

There are two particularly significant aspects of the
Code for artisanal fisheries:

• Protecting the rights of artisanal and small-
scale fishworkers to a secure and just
livelihood and granting them preferential
access to their traditional fishing grounds
(Article 6, (6:18)) and

• Ensuring that the livelihoods of local fishing
communities are not negatively affected by
aquaculture developments (Article 6, (6:19)).

The Code also recognizes the important
contribution of artisanal and small-scale fisheries to

Fisherfolk safeguarding Aquatic Diversity through their Fishing Techniques 13
about fishing, aquaculture, fish marketing and
processing and community management. While
Capture vs nurture fisheries most of the people who actually fish are male,
women play a key, though often hidden and
Capture fisheries unrecognized, complementary role in fishing
Capture fishery strategies consider fishing as a communities.
hunting activity, targeting selected species for mass
markets, where the range is open access and the Often at the first point of sale, women make an
fish stocks are common property. This strategy important contribution to decentralized systems for
leads to a ‘free for all’. Responsibility for managing processing and marketing fish. They may also be
fisheries is ill defined, and this leads to the so-called involved in many other aspects of the fishing
‘tragedy of the commons’ where what is left by one process, such as net-making. Through this role they
user is taken by another.9 As a result, all the world’s make a significant contribution to household income
main fishing grounds are being fished at or above and food security, and in the wider distribution of
their sustainable limits. Some 70 per cent of global fish in the coastal community. Their wisdom and
fish stocks are now regarded as fully exploited, local knowledge is integral to the management
over-exploited, depleted or recovering.10 systems drawn up by their communities. In many
instances it is the work undertaken by women that
Nurture fisheries ‘underwrites or provides the risk fund necessary to
sustain fishing activities’. It is important to use this
Nurture fishery strategies, by contrast, recognize type of information when planning initiatives with
the time needed for stocks to replenish themselves, fishing communities. Hitherto there has been little
and the need to conserve species diversity. The change in sectoral planning or project formulation
nurture fishery strategies of coastal fishing despite awareness that gender issues should be
communities the world over have evolved numerous considered.7
rules – often unwritten – to regulate their fisheries.
Some govern who may fish in which season and
]where; others stipulate the sort of fish that may be
caught; others relate to the kind of fishing gear that
Coral reefs under threat: the forests
may be used; and still others govern onshore
activities such as processing, net-making, and
of the deep
marketing.11 Sustainable nurture fisheries Coral reefs have been described as the rainforests
techniques developed and used by artisanal of the sea, due to their high species diversity: they
fisherfolk, especially in tropical waters, are now are among the most biologically diverse
having to compete with the industrial fishing fleet. ecosystems on earth. Covering only 0.17 per cent
of the Ocean floor, coral reefs are home to an
Likewise, rearing fish through traditional estimated 950,000 species, 25 per cent of all
aquaculture, especially in inland waters, has in a marine species. Healthy reefs are among the most
similar way evolved methods which ensure productive fisheries in the oceans. Producing a fish
sustainable production. But these nurturing catch of some 4-8 million tonnes annually, coral
methods are increasingly under threat from modern reefs account for 20-25 per cent of the fish catch in
intensive aquaculture production. Intensive systems many developing countries – making a vital
are providing an increasing proportion of total fish contribution to local food and livelihood security. An
available for consumption, increasingly through estimated 4 million small-scale fisherfolk (about 30
production of exotic species which can displace per cent of all subsistence fisherfolk worldwide)
local species. Their development often destroys depend on coral reefs for their livelihoods.28
aquatic habitats and their production systems cause
pollution: intensive aquaculture converts rich Coral reefs have proved to be fragile in the face of
biodiverse aquatic environments into polluted attacks from coastal pollution, coral miners, and
wastelands. ruthless commercial fishermen using heavy nets
and dynamite, causing directly or indirectly the
destruction of 5-10 per cent of the world’s reefs.
Given the current rate of destruction, another 60 per
Gender and local knowledge cent could be lost in the next 20-40 years and some
175,000 species will have gone with them.
Both men and women make valuable but different
contributions of their local knowledge and skills

Fisherfolk safeguarding Aquatic Diversity through their Fishing Techniques 14
Depleted biodiversity can
destabilize the fishery
Lost mangroves – lost biodiversity
In Lake Victoria a combination of human impact and
Mangrove forests are ecologically rich habitats. environmental changes has transformed fishery
Year round leaf and litter fall provide a continuous biodiversity beyond all recognition, destabilising the
supply of nutrients to an ecosystem that contains fishery and degrading the aquatic ecosystem. This
within it a richness of aquatic biodiversity. Alongside has grave implications for millions of people in the
the permanent brackish water residents, many three countries which border the lake (Uganda,
kinds of young fish and shrimps find shelter among Tanzania and Kenya) who depend on the lake’s
the mangroves roots and seek out food on the rise fishery.50 A fishery that once drew on hundreds of
and fall of the tide. species now rests on three: the endemic
Rastrineobola argentea, the introduced Nile Perch
Mangroves therefore play a crucial role in coastal (Lates niloticus), and the introduced Nile tilapia
ecosystems. They act as filters between land and (Oreochromis niloticus).
water, anchoring nutrients and trapping pollutants;
they prevent erosion and provide storm protection; Up to the 1970s the Lake Victoria fishery was
they create important nurseries and provide for dominated by more than 400 varieties of indigenous
subsistence fishing activities. A study by the Asian haplochromine fish, estimated to comprise over 80
Development Bank estimated that 1 hectare (ha) of per cent of the lake’s total fish biomass.51 The
mangroves produces an annual yield of 100 combined influences of environmental changes and
kilograms (kg) of fin fish, 25 kg of shrimps, 15 kg of human impact have resulted in the disappearance
crab meat, 200 kg of molluscs, and 40 kg of sea and possible extinction of 200-300 of these endemic
cucumber in a direct harvest and an indirect harvest fish varieties. The disappearance of this huge and
of up to 400 kg of fin fish and 75 kg of shrimps that varied biomass is the likely cause of cascading
mature elsewhere.35 changes in the ecosystem.52 For example, the
removal of the indigenous haplochromine fish,
But mangroves are being cleared in many countries which formerly turned over the bottom deposits,
to make way for commercial shrimp farms to meet have contributed to eutrophication and the
the ever-increasing demand, mainly in the North. In deoxygenation of the bottom waters. Likewise, the
the Philippines, the mangrove area declined from disappearance of phytoplankton-eating fish has
450,000 to 145,000 ha between 1920 and 1988. contributed to increasing algal blooms, and the
Much of this decline is the result of the introduction ‘algal mats’ which sink to the bottom where their
of shrimp farming, the environmental impact of decomposition further adds to deoxygenation.53
which has been immense.
Overfishing of endemic species in the 1950s
The shrimp farms that are developed face the same stimulated the introduction of exotic tilapias and Nile
problems as intensive monoculture production in Perch, the latter despite scientific advice against
agriculture, only worse. High levels of chemicals are such action. The introduced tilapias have now
needed to achieve high yields, and to control effectively replaced the lake’s two endemic tilapia
predators, competitors and disease. High species. This has grave implications for the
concentrations of shrimps in the ponds produce sustainability of the lake’s fishery. Nile Perch now
large amounts of faeces and urea. Together, these makes up more than 90 per cent of the fish that live
cause significant pollution downstream. The algae in the bottom of the lake, and 60 per cent of the
and other organisms multiply rapidly, creating catch.54
anoxia and toxicity, eventually causing a collapse of
the system, if disease has not already got the better The rehabilitation of the lake’s biodiversity and the
of the shrimps. This so-called ‘environmental institution of a management and regulatory
backlash’ resulted in Taiwanese shrimp production framework must now become the main priorities for
slipping from 100,000 tonnes in 1987 to only 20,000 the development of Lake Victoria and the survival of
in 1989, and a 60 per cent reduction in China’s the lake shore communities.
harvest between 1992 and 1993.36

The impact of this development on local aquatic
biodiversity is negative and permanent.

Fisherfolk safeguarding Aquatic Diversity through their Fishing Techniques 15
Signalling disaster These are made of concrete rings, used vehicle
tyres or, traditionally, from weighted down coconut
The introduction of the American Signal Crayfish to fronds. They form a social and technological
the UK (from its native USA via Sweden) in 1976 response to a fishery crisis, and are based on the
has had a devastating effect on freshwater ecology. fisherfolk’s age-old knowledge and understanding of
The incentive was the American Signal Crayfish’s their marine environment.61,62
large size of almost lobster proportions – and its
lucrative aquaculture market. Systematic studies of the effectiveness of these
ARs have been undertaken.63 They show that there
The rapid and uncontrolled spread of American has been rapid colonization of the ARs by resident
Signal Crayfish farming inevitably led to escapes, fish varieties. In each case it has been confirmed
and in some rivers they are now the most common that these reefs are attracting fish from a wide area,
animals. Introduction of a fatal fungal infection, leading to significantly enhanced catches. This can
Crayfish Plague, carried by the American Signal increase pressure, however, on already
Crayfish has decimated indigenous crayfish overexploited fish stocks, exacerbating the effects
populations. The American Signal Crayfish also of overfishing. Indeed the International Centre for
eats almost everything in sight, from fish eggs to Living Aquatic Resources Management (ICLARM)
weed, destroying the food chain and river ecology. has warned that ARs should not be used as fishing
According to government officials, ‘there is no grounds for this reason.
means of eradicating the crayfish short of draining a
water for at least a year – and with rivers that is not Longer-term strategies therefore need to be worked
a practicable proposition’. out with artisanal fisherfolk for how ARs are to be
used in the future. These should recognize that not
only do ARs help to restore biodiverse habitats, and
attract fish, they also have other benefits. They can
Artificial reefs: community-led in deter trawling, because they can damage fishing
situ conservation nets, and they can also be used to demarcate
fishing grounds. Furthermore, the construction of
In India, as in many other parts of the world, ARs can act as a focus for community action and
concerns about deforestation and land degradation awareness raising about the state of the fishery and
have resulted in numerous schemes to protect and the need to restore local aquatic biodiversity.64
rehabilitate the environment. Much less has been
done to find solutions to the degradation of the
aquatic environment. It goes unnoticed, because
the degradation is taking place on the seabed. ‘Out
of sight is out of mind’!
Indigenous fisheries management
in Indonesia
For the millions of small-scale fisherfolk whose The Indonesian government has been looking to its
livelihoods depend on harvesting the fishery fishing communities for some new ideas on
resources in the coastal zone, such an adage is an management. The approach used in the Maluku
anathema. The forests of the deep – the natural islands is one of the favoured models, as traditional
reefs and other seabed structures which provide practices have prevented overexploitation of the
habitats, shelter, food and breeding sites for the fishery, promoted village growth, and guaranteed
marine fauna and flora which they harvest – are as equitable catch distribution.
important as fertile land is to farmers ashore, or as
forests are to the forest dwelling communities.60 The practice of sasi involves establishing a closed
season and closed areas. In one village, the sasi for
In south India, the impact of capture fishery policies their adjacent estuary lasts all year, except for one
and practices on natural reefs, marine biodiversity day, when villagers are allowed to catch as many
and catches by artisanal fisherfolk has been fish as they want. This yields enough fish to meet
particularly pronounced. So, in order to attract fish the needs of all the village households for several
into the nearshore waters, to provide shelters for months. Petuanang governs who may fish in certain
depleted fish stocks, and to replace the natural areas. Outsiders are rarely allowed to fish in the
reefs destroyed by the actions of trawlers, south petuanang, but if they are permitted to fish they
Indian fisherfolk have been experimenting with must use the same fishing tackle as the locals.
artificial fish habitats, commonly in the form of They may also have to pay a fee to the village
artificial reefs (ARs). head, which is used for community development.

Fisherfolk safeguarding Aquatic Diversity through their Fishing Techniques 16
Rules and regulation are dynamic. For instance, New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu is the
since 1980, clams and sea-cucumbers have been ‘capture’ of traditional leadership by urban elites
protected by special provisions against which use their greater access to information and
overexploitation. political and legal power. In many cases this is
achieved through alliances with foreign commercial
Individuals’ social obligations hold the system interests, the most notorious being those associated
together. The formal leaders manage the system, with logging of tropical rainforests. Once subverted
while decision making and supervision are the it is difficult to reconstitute effective traditional
concern of informal leaders. Each village clan has leadership.75
its own task. In the case of sasi, one clan provides
messengers, another polices the event, while Despite the limitations of international laws, in some
another is responsible for the opening and closing areas fisherfolk have managed to establish their
rites. At the same time everyone has personal rights to their own exclusive fishing areas. In a
responsibilities related to the event. number of countries, such as Chile, Senegal and
Malaysia, governments now recognize the rights of
However, despite support from the government, the artisanal fisherfolk to preferential access in
system is still dying out. This is partly because of delimited coastal areas.76 The extent of this zone
the in-migration of people who do not understand varies widely. In many countries no such zone is
the system. It is also partly because of government recognized, in Madagascar the government
efforts to promote exports, which has led to a allocated an exclusive artisanal zone of only two
shortening of the sasi period and renting out nautical miles, in Chile six, while in Senegal the
petuanang rights to entrepreneurs.70 artisanal fishworkers are demanding 12 miles.77 But
difficulties can arise in trying to incorporate
traditional rights into international blueprint models.
In Papua New Guinea, one fisherfolk organization
The rights of fisherfolk: community- found the only way to protect local livelihoods was
to adapt their traditional rights using modern law.
based rights and preferential
However, as a result, traditional secondary rights
access are threatened, which are likely to cause greater
People-centred management can only work if polarization between the rich and poor.78
communities have guaranteed access to and rights
over the resources they need. In Kerala in south
India, communities traditionally kept the fishery in
balance by controlling hook size, banning night
fishing, and restricting the kind of bait used. In the
1980s, they also added lobbying to their list of
control measures – to get the government to
prevent trawlers from encroaching on their fishing
grounds. They achieved some success in 1989,
when a ban on trawlers coming inshore during the
monsoon (the spawning season) was enforced – at
least partially.72

Community-based systems of rights are highly
complex. One attempt to map fishing rights in Fiji
took several decades to complete.73 In the Pacific
region, a hierarchy of rights often exists, comprising
minority groups of primary rights holders who ‘own’
and determine who may use the resource, and
secondary, larger groups of users who have less, if
any, say in its management.74 As pressure on
resources increases, these secondary rights are
often sacrificed. Such hierarchical systems are
vulnerable to exploitation from external interests, as
the lure of power and money can easily tempt the
primary rights holders. A trend observed in Papua

Fisherfolk safeguarding Aquatic Diversity through their Fishing Techniques 17
Policy recommendations
• Global fisheries arrangements must seek to • Fishing communities must be granted
promote and strengthen nurture fishery preferential resource access rights, based
strategies, managed by fishing communities, on local needs and priorities in order to
which conserve aquatic biodiversity in situ, conserve aquatic biodiversity. Thus customary
rather than undermining them. tenure systems operating at local levels, written
or unwritten, must become part of property
• Global instruments and national policies systems in national and international law.
and programmes need to recognize the Fishing communities must be given full and
rights of fishing communities to livelihood affordable negotiating rights and dispute-
and food security, the importance of solving procedures related to any decision that
traditional knowledge and management affects them.
systems, the rights of fishworkers to acceptable
working conditions and the important • The concept and practice of ‘co-
contribution of women in fishing communities. management’ must be developed and
promoted. This envisages a process of
• Internationally agreed global instruments dynamic partnership between state and
need to be implemented in a way that is community, where community-based
supportive of traditional livelihoods through management is a central element, but where
the maintenance of the aquatic ecosystem and the complementarity of national government
aquatic biodiversity. All aspects of global enabling legislation and local community
instruments that focus on state level controls, knowledge and social controls is recognized.
and the allocation of benefits from
improvements in the fishery to states rather • A precautionary approach to fishery
than to communities who nurture the local management must be adopted, based on a
aquatic biodiversity, should be challenged. rationale of optimum rather than maximum
sustainable yield. Fishing activities should be
o Articles 6:18 and 6:19, concerning conducted in a manner that gives a high level
Artisanal Fisheries, of the FAO Code of certainty that the risk of irreversible
of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries ecological damage is negligible, and should
should be fully supported. actively guard against market forces which
continuously press for maximum extraction.
o The provisions in the Convention on
Biological Diversity on the equitable • ‘Catch-all’ methods and those methods
sharing of benefits derived from which damage and degrade the
genetic resources, to the extent that environment must be phased out in favour of
this can be extended to marine the development and use of selective and
genetic resources and benefit-sharing environmentally safe fishing methods, which
with local fisherfolk communities, must be afforded a high priority.
should be supported. The people-
centred aspects of the Jakarta • The development of artificial reefs, which
Mandate should be supported. rehabilitate aquatic ecosystems and restore
marine biodiversity, should be used to raise
o Aspects of Agenda 21 which focus on awareness at all levels on sustainable fisheries
state-level rather than community- management and on issues of ownership and
level control should be challenged. control of the coastal commons. They also
have a potentially important role to play in
o Interpretations of Sections 61 and 62 demarcating exclusive community-controlled
of UNCLOS, that support local fishing zones, and thereby facilitating
development priorities concerning the sustainable community-based management of
management of marine resources, fish stocks.
should be implemented.

Fisherfolk safeguarding Aquatic Diversity through their Fishing Techniques 18
• Environmental impact statements showing
neutral or positive gains to the environment
and aquatic biodiversity, especially
downstream, should be a requirement of
any planning permission granted for the
development of large-scale aquaculture
enterprises. The main priority for aquaculture
development should be low-cost sustainable
systems for local food production, using
approaches similar to those developed in East
Asian polyculture.

• Internationally binding regulations need to
be developed to limit the introduction of
exotic species. Only those species which
satisfy stringent criteria should be translocated
to other ecosystems, and their impact on local
biodiversity must be strictly monitored.

• International standards must be developed
to control the release of transgenic
mutations.

Fisherfolk safeguarding Aquatic Diversity through their Fishing Techniques 19
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Fisherfolk safeguarding Aquatic Diversity through their Fishing Techniques 21