ASSOCIATION FOR CITIZENSHIP TEACHING

							         Commissioned Research Article




         Title : Education Policy, Management and ICT: the case of
         Citizenship Education in English secondary schools


         Author : Gary Prosser




Produced by citizED
(supported by the Training and
Development Agency for Schools)

SUMMER 2006

More information about the series of
Commissioned Research Articles can be
found at www.citized.info
                                     Research Article – Policy, management & ICT: The case of CE

Education Policy, Management and ICT: the case of Citizenship Education in English
secondary schools

“And whatever my commitment, which is unequivocal, to development in this area, it must always be
qualified by a determination always to focus on this pedagogical question, not just to say that it’s enough
to get the kit; it’s not enough to get the kit; we have to have the kit, but we also have to have teachers
who are trained and confident in using the kit, and we have to understand how to use each particular bit
of kit in a way which focuses on particular educational standards. And the challenge which I set to
myself, to my department, to the organisations, to the industry, to schools, to all of us, is to say let us
focus ruthlessly, as I say, on this question of understanding pedagogically how we use this to make a
real difference.” (Clarke at Bett 2004)

ICTs in education

Recent thinking in educational communities has being shaped by the idea that educational
institutions must foster lifelong learning, specifically that they must promote skills required to live
in a society characterised by change (Mioduser et al 2003 p25) and the emergence of the
knowledge society. A significant driver of this change and of the knowledge society is
understood to be the development of information and communication technologies (ICTs). Thus
Government-led policies in English schools over the last 15 years has intended that hardware,
software and networks be used increasingly in and for teaching and learning in schools (Clarke
at Bett 2004).

Dale et al (2004) argue that teaching and learning with ICTs is a complex interrelationship of
education policy, management and ICT. Each of the three components interact with each other
so that ‘practice sets limits to policy and vice versa’ (p458). Charles Clarke’s comments in the
quotation above represent an example; they make clear that the ICT policy is limited by
practice, specifically by subject pedagogy.

Subject pedagogy, that is teachers’ understanding of their subject, is an important dimension of
educational management because subject pedagogy relates to all levels of the education
system from classroom (what constitutes ‘good’ practice) to government (what is included or
excluded from curriculum orders).

This shift of policy focus from 'having the kit' to 'how to use the kit' suggests a view of ICT as
alternative tools or media, rather than a catalyst (Watson 2001), albeit with indeterminate
implications for teacher practice (Burbles and Callister 1999). Furthermore it indicates that
reflection on pedagogy should identify where/how (or even if) digital technologies can be useful
in education. A focus on pedagogy in relation to ICTs involves additional management
complexity for the education system and for educational technologists because different
curriculum subjects have their own pedagogical practices which may be more or less
compatible with the affordances of the available ICTs. In addition the management issue of
determining how ICTs will be used based on subject pedagogy raises the possibility that for
certain subjects, for reasons I will explain, ICT use may be in some respects inappropriate.

ICTs across subjects

As the penetration of ICTs into schools has intensified (especially hardware infrastructure)
teachers are reported to have growing confidence in using ICT in their subject teaching. Even
so less than 15% of secondary teachers use ICTs in half (or more) of their lessons (Becta
2005). This use moreover varies widely across curriculum subjects (see Fig 1) with most taking
                                  Research Article – Policy, management & ICT: The case of CE

place within ICT (99%), Design & Technology (66%), Science (49%) and Mathematics (41%).
The ‘Arts’ subjects such as Art & Design, English, MFL, Music are considerably lower at
typically 20-30%. A group of subjects including Citizenship Education, PSHE, RE, PE are lower
again (7-11%).




Fig 1 from Becta 2005 p33

The quantity of use is of limited value as an indicator of the contribution of ICTs to the outcome
of teaching and learning. For example, there are broadly 3 different types of ICTs: those for
retrieval and storage of information; those for production of materials and those for
communication. Each type is likely to involve different skills and knowledges and presumably
some ICTs can be used in a ‘drill and practice’ manner just as any other media can. Indeed the
Becta report understands this

“There is no direct link between the fact of use of ICT and attainment gains, though there is
some evidence that where there is a solid tradition of subject-related ICT use, levels of use do
relate positively to attainment gains p34.

Furthermore quantity of use figures do not reveal whether the role the ICTs have is central or
peripheral to teaching and learning in the different subjects. For example are ICTs being used to
promote students' subject knowledge and relevant skills or to produce materials differently in
say, Maths and Science, Art & Design and MFL?

If the pedagogies of some subjects do not have a 'solid tradition of subject-related ICT use' what
does that mean for the role of ICTs in those subjects? I am now going to consider some of the
management issues of teacher practice and ICT in relation to a subject where there is currently
                                   Research Article – Policy, management & ICT: The case of CE

little use of ICT. Since I have some familiarity with literature on citizenship education this
assignment will consider the use of ICTs in the teaching and learning of citizenship education.
This particular subject is also relevant to this paper because it too is a part of education policy
and I will argue that in a case like this policy sets limits to policy.

Citizenship Education

Following the Crick Report of 1998 (QCA 1998), Citizenship Education (CE) became part of the
National Curriculum as part of the Curriculum 2000 Review and a statutory subject in English
secondary schools in 2002. Programmes of study have been published by the Qualifications
and Curriculum Authority together with reports of schools inspections by OFSTED (Huddleston
and Kerr 2006). A range of initial teacher training programs have been established by the
Training and Development Agency for Schools (formerly the Teacher Training Agency).

It is important to appreciate that CE is seen as ‘more than a subject’ (Breslin 2004; Brett 2004)
extending beyond a body of knowledge. As unit 3 of the CE Programme of Study (QCA 2001)
indicates CE includes ‘Developing skills of participation and responsible action’. In other words
CE is about values and dispositions involving learning that takes place through active
involvement in real, topical, ultimately moral issues (Huddleston and Kerr 2006), so-called
‘active’ citizenship.

Somewhat similar to ICT (Mioduser et al 2003, Becta [1]), CE has been envisaged as having a
transformational effect on schools (Breslin and Dufour 2004) and society

“We aim at no less than a change in the political culture of this country both nationally and
locally... to build on and extend radically to young people the best in existing traditions of
community involvement and public service, and to make them individually confident in finding
new forms of involvement and action among themselves.” (Crick Report 1998).

To the extent that this statement represents a part of education policy, is it a policy compatible
with that of extending use of ICT in teaching and learning of CE ? If these policies are to some
degree incompatible then one would expect to see forms of conflict in management of CE, for
example poorly conceptualised teacher CPD (in relation to ICT for CE), poorly designed ICT
resources (for CE) and perhaps poorly articulated examples of good (CE) teaching practice
using ICT. There is some evidence that this is the case as I will illustrate in the next section.

ICT and Citizenship Education

In a wide ranging literature review of citizenship, technology and learning by Selwyn (2002)
commissioned by Nesta Futurelab, a body ‘helping to transform the way people learn’ principally
through the use of digital technologies [2] the author finds that ‘ICT can be (and is currently
being) used to support only limited forms of citizenship education’ (p2).

Selwyn warns that citizenship education is ‘ripe for the misapplication of ICT’ (p25) and speaks
of a danger that ‘policymakers and educationalists will see ICT as a convenient means of
delivering an awkward part of the curriculum’ (p26). He nevertheless identifies 4 likely
applications of ICT for facilitating teaching and learning of citizenship:

1. sources of information
2. means of engendering discussion
                                   Research Article – Policy, management & ICT: The case of CE

3. helping learners to produce materials
4. for whole school activities and practices

These four applications can be analysed using the levels of innovation model offered by
Mioduser (2003); see Fig 2.

Domains                                        Levels of innovation
                                  Assimilation   Transition       Transformation
                 Content          Source of      Student-led      The whole
                                  information    source of        school (is part
                                                 information      of curriculum)
                 Didactic         Production of Collaborative Engendering
                 solutions        materials      production of discussion
CE                                               materials        (with new
                                                                  partners,
(Curriculum)                                     Production of outside school
                                                 (new forms       time/space)
                                                 of) materials

                                                   Engendering
                                                   (more)
                                                   discussion
                 Assessment              -                -                 -
                 methods
                                                                                       Fig 2

This analysis suggests that the 4 applications of ICT in CE would be indicative of only lower
levels of innovation in school and teacher practice and thus the school will ‘keep its identity and
basic course of operation while changing the character of particular activities’ (ibid p31). There
is then likely to be only a small potential contribution from ICT applications such as these
towards school transformation. While this may not be of much interest to individual CE teachers
it is likely to be of more interest to those looking for ways to promote the political engagement of
young people in and out of school.

A significant problem identified by Selwyn is that there is ‘little high calibre empirical research
focussing on technology and citizenship’ (p2) and thus a lack of evidence of how these
applications may contribute to improving teaching and learning CE. Four years after the Selwyn
review, there is still only weak evidence of any practice in this regard. A search through the 350
or so specially written resources for ITT trainers and trainee teachers in CE created through the
citizED programme of the Training and Development Agency for Schools [3] reveals only 3
dealing with ICT for teaching and learning (a much larger number cite web based information
sources of course but always unreflectively). I will refer to one of these in detail below. Similarly,
the recently published Making Sense of Citizenship CPD Handbook (Huddleston and Kerr 2006)
contains only 3 pages (of 230) addressing use of ICTs in the subject. These pages contain 1
case study summary with only teacher and student enthusiasm offered by way of evidence of
efficacy.

The QCA (2001) has published a document which maps ‘areas where the two programmes of
study (CE and ICT at KS3) are compatible’. This shows 4 of the 6 CE skills/knowledges (2a, 2b,
3a, 3c) mapped against 5 ICT (1b, 3a, 3b, 3c, 4a). But actual examples of practice are sparse –
                                  Research Article – Policy, management & ICT: The case of CE

the QCA National Curriculum in Action website has only 3 exemplars for ICT use in CE at KS3
[4].

But even if good quality examples of practice were available, while necessary they are not by
themselves sufficient. Webb and Cox (2004), from their review of literature containing empirical
evidence into teacher pedagogies and ICT use in education (ie across all subject areas), point
out that success in using ICT to enhance the subject being taught requires that the teacher is
able to identify suitable affordances of the ICTs to be used, and plan for how these will provide
opportunities for students’ learning.

Such an approach as Webb and Cox suggest is lacking in the available exemplars for CE. For
example, one of the 3 papers on the citizED website, titled ‘Citizenship and New Technology’
(Williamson 2006) seeks to offer three exemplar classroom activities that are ‘ways of using ICT
that address both the implications of ICT use for individuals and society as well as to allow
children and young people to produce materials using new digital tools’. These activities involve
uses of ICT in accordance with Selwyn’s applications 1 and 3.

The paper offers no explanation of what affordances the suggested ICTs offer, as compared
say to pencil and paper or television or whiteboard or to alternative ICTs. No clarification of the
contribution of the ICT elements to student learning, or improving student learning, is made and
no information about expected learning outcomes or methods of assessment is provided –
developing these has been left to the implementing teacher.
From the point of view of classroom management, it is apparent that there are very
considerable technical and management barriers involved for teachers wishing to implement
ICTs such as those offered, including

      the apparently targeted ICT resources will likely require a lot of preparation and
       execution time and are dependent on facilities (“always have a plan B when technology
       is critical to the lesson plan” [5])
      curriculum time is very limited (5% at best)
      some of the Internet based resources are quite novel with potentially unforeseen
       management issues
      certain of the ICTs are very unlikely to obtain the quality of transparency required to
       ensure that student focus is on the learning task rather than on the learning tool
      there are few specialist citizenship teachers who can turn these activities into
       appropriate, assessable learning objectives
      appropriate CDP training in use of ICT for CE is lacking (Personal correspondence [6])
      CE not highly prioritised access for in-school ICT facilities (Personal correspondence [5])

These barriers are of concern if the resource requirements (of time especially) of use of ICTs is
not commensurate with the learning objectives to be achieved. Another concern is that such
uses of ICTs as those offered in these activities is made without any empirical evidence for their
effectiveness. There is therefore a risk that some ICT activities can reduce teaching and
learning outcomes even for innovative teachers wishing to utilise novel technology-rich activities
such as these.

I have argued that currently available models for use of ICTs in CE are problematic because the
management issues raised by incorporation of ICTs are substantial. This suggests a need for
caution on the part of educational technologists and teachers wishing to extend ICT use in CE.
                                  Research Article – Policy, management & ICT: The case of CE

But ‘caution’ may be insufficient; as we now consider one of the main pedagogical tools in CE
then ‘concern’ seems more appropriate.

Citizenship education and discussion

Selwyn suggested that ICT might be a means of engendering 'citizenship discussion'. CE
according to Huddleston and Kerr (2006) emphasises approaches to learning and teaching
based on real-life, everyday experience and active involvement. This seems consistent with the
view that the main pedagogical tool of CE teachers is talk and especially debate [5].

Pykett (2004) shows how discussion and debate provide means of developing the main skills
and understandings required by the citizenship programmes of study and how the processes of
discussion and debate are intimately linked with the very nature of citizenship in a democracy.
She also draws attention to the political nature of discussion and debate in the context of the
power relations between teacher and students. Pykett is arguing that debate in CE contributes
to developing critical thinking. She offers 3 model activities as exemplary formats and strategies.
There are two aspects I want to draw attention to in relation to this pedagogical tool of
discussion in CE:

1. the learning environment
Pykett recounts how the classroom as learning environment could be easily and successively
manipulated into several distinct forms in accordance with the different skills to be developed by
pupils, to illustrate and facilitate the different forms of debate (political literacy).

Can ICTs provide better, or even similar, learning environments for debate and discussion in
CE? The currently available ICTs for discussion such as texting, email discussion boards (types
of asynchronous discussion) and instant messaging services (synchronous discussion)
arguably create a different kind of discussion to same physical space based, face to face, talk.

Asynchronous 'discussion boards' provide a quite different environment to the synchronicity of
the classroom – they therefore raise management and pedagogical issues because the
affordances are quite different. Synchronous 'chat rooms' are suited to smaller groups of
individuals, and significantly advantage those with irrelevant skills (“you are voiceless here
unless you are a very quick writer” Shepard et al 2004). Furthermore text based discussion
medium will have its own additional challenges for classroom management. ICTs are not
necessary for recording discussion for reflection or assessment. Except in the case that
discussion involves individuals located beyond the physical boundaries of the school, I find it
hard to identify any clear gain to be had from current ICTs over face to face discussion.

2. authenticity
Perhaps because of its everyday, real-life nature, Pykett shows how a teacher was able to use
discussion to negotiate authentic opportunities for pupils to take responsibility for determining
their curriculum.

I consider this important since young people especially value discussion opportunities in school
and there is a clear need for the nature of democracy in schools to be clarified [7] so that the
educational policy for CE is not undermined by double standards.

If, as Pykett suggests there is a problem for established teachers with the ‘dreaded discussion’
amongst students and teachers because of its challenging nature and because of the
                                     Research Article – Policy, management & ICT: The case of CE

management issues thereby raised then there is a risk that ICT applications may, unfortunately,
appear to be relatively attractive alternative pedagogical tools.

Conclusion

Discussions reviewing progress in achievement of policy in respect of use of ICTs in education
have been framed in terms of barriers (Becta 2003), lack of impact (Somekah 2004), reluctance
(Watson 2001) sometimes focussing on teacher attitudes, values and beliefs. Yet as my
beginning quote from Charles Clarke indicates, policy makers are recognising that subject
pedagogy has a legitimate and important contribution in determining how ICTs are appropriately
used in particular contexts. However, it may be that it is the pedagogy of ICT that has to be
reframed with much greater clarity on the specific affordances ICTs can provide in relation to
subject pedagogies. These affordances should be supported with good quality empirical
evidence.

The subject pedagogy of CE is somewhat different to that of most other National Curriculum
subjects. It has an emphasis on the learner himself and his actions as well as his knowledge
and skills. Policy in relation to CE and the management issues of use of ICTs in CE I have
identified place limits on the policy of extending use of ICT in teaching and learning of CE.
Critically, the main pedagogical tool of CE is talk and currently available ICTs offer no
appreciable benefit in this respect. In addition, evidence of the efficacy of ICTs for improving
teaching and learning in CE is lacking. These are reasonable grounds for CE teachers to have
concern about current models of ‘how to’ use ICTs in their teaching and learning.

Notes
[1] http://about.becta.org.uk/display.cfm?cfid=99090&cftoken=64c7d7aa90aa1d40-E1211A95-C498-
         1B5E-0D9033AB5E32BB67&page=1616 accessed 25/4/2006
[2] see http://www.futurelab.org.uk/about_us/index.htm accessed 21/4/06
[3] www.citized.info
[4] National Curriculum in Action http://www.ncaction.org.uk accessed 15/4/2006 NB All 3 use ICT only
         in relation to production of resources.
[5] comment from a current ITT citizenship education tutor (Primary and Secondary)
[6] comment from a current ITT citizenship education tutor involved with the Training and Development
         Agency’s CPD Certification programme.
[7] There is recognition by schools that they are ‘moderately democratic’. This suggests that the idealism
         of citizenship as involving equal democratic participation of everyone in a school is giving way to
         an acceptance that there are limits to participation and democracy in schools. Citizenship
         Education Longitudinal Study: second cross sectional survey 2004. NFER 2005.


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                                    Research Article – Policy, management & ICT: The case of CE

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