Health and Environmental Concerns

							 Health and
Environmental
  Concerns
      
Background
 Radiation
Natural Background Radiation
     Background Radiation
• Remember that
  these characteristics
  of radiation still
  apply
  – Time
  – Distance
  – Shielding
    Environmental Impact of
     Nuclear Power Plants
1. Impact due to the construction process
2. Effects of nuclear fuel production (fuel
   cycle)
3. Radiation exposure to workers and
   public during normal operation of the
   plant
4. Potential radiation exposure resulting
   from an accident
               Energy Footprints
  Land required for emissions-free generation of 1000 megawatts
Method         Requirement / Description             Land Area (sq. miles)

Photovoltaic   100 km2 @ 10% efficiency                      40
Wind           3,000 Wind Turbines @ 1 MW ea.                40 – 70
Biogas         60,000,000 pigs or 800,000,000 chickens       ??

               6,200 km2 of sugar beets                      2,400
Bioalcohol     7,400 km2 of potatoes                         2,800
               16,100 km2 of corn                            6,200
               272,000 km2 of wheat                          104,000

Bio-oil        24,000 km2 of rapseed                         9,000
Biomass        30,000 km2 of wood                            12,000

Nuclear        <1 km2                                        1/3

          Idaho National Laboratory & General Atomics Corporation
Environmental Pathways




         http://web.ead.anl.gov/resrad
Environmental Modeling




    http://web.ead.anl.gov/resrad
Groundwater Modeling
Greenhouse Gas Emissions
    Greenhouse Gas Emissions




"Life-Cycle Assessment of Electricity Generation Systems and Applications for Climate Change Policy Analysis," Paul
J. Meier, University of Wisconsin-Madison, August, 2002.
 Greenhouse Concerns
       2 x CO2                      4 x CO2
     of Existing                  of Existing
       Levels                       Levels




                                                 EPRI


                                  Temperature Rise
-5   0   5   10    15   20   25
     Nuclear Power is Clean
• Without nuclear, CO2 emissions would increase
  by between 160 and 180 MMTCe every year, an
  increase of at least 10%.
  – Annual U.S. CO2 emissions today are 1,600 MMTCe, and this
    level is 240 MMTCe over our 1990 annual level of 1,360
    MMTCe, our goal under the United Nations Framework
    Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
  – The carbon savings value of U.S. nuclear plants is over $4
    billion each year, based on the National Commission on
    Energy Policy report recommended initial price ceiling for
    allowances $7/tCO2.

• Without nuclear, U.S. electricity sector NOx and
  SOx emissions would increase by 25%.
Environmental Release
           • Acid Rain
             Contribution
           • 1000 MWe
             – Nuclear
                • SO2 - 0
             – Coal (1.5% S)
                • SO2 - 90,900 tons
             – Fuel oil (0.37% S)
                • SO2 - 22,496 tons
     Radiation from Burning Coal
  • 1 – 10 ppm Uranium
  • Thorium ~2.5 times
    greater concentration
    than Uranium
  • Average of 1.3 and 3.2
    ppm, respectively
  • Effective radiation dose
    100 times greater from
    a coal plant than a
    nuclear plant


http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/rev26-34/text/colmain.html
   Meteorological Factors
• To understand the relationship between
  the rate of discharge and the ground
  level concentration
  – Atmospheric stability
    • (temperature gradient)
  – Velocity
  – Type of terrain
  – Inversion height
  – Chimney height
                               www.fluent.com
Plume Modeling
                       Gaussian Plume
             Q                        
                       1 y 2 H 2 
C(x, y)           exp  2  2 
                                   
           y zU    
                       2  y  z 
                                      
                                     
                                      




                                                             H
                                                         h
                                               (X,0,0)
                                           (X,Y,0)
          Atmospheric stability
 • Pasquill’s categories
      A - extremely unstable
      B - moderately stable
      C - slightly unstable
      D - neutral conditions
      E - slightly stable conditions
      F - moderately stable
         conditions
      (G - extremely stable
         conditions)
      Look up the factors in
         charts (next slide)

Introduction to Nuclear Engineering,
Lamarsh, 2001.
 Pasquill’s Categories




 y G    y F     z G    z F 
          2                     3
          3                     5
 Radionuclides
  in the Body
• Whole Body • Bone
  – 3H            –   90Sr

  – 14C           –   137Cs

  – 24Na          –   226Ra

  – 60Co          –   235U

• Submersion      –   239Pu


  –   41Ar     • Thyroid
  –   87Kr        –   131I

• Lung
  –   222Rn
   Effects of Whole-Body Exposure                                     Lamarsh,
       to Acute Radiation Doses                                         2001.

Acute dose
                                Probable observed effect
  (rems)
               Chromosomal aberrations and temporary depression of white
  5 to 75
               blood cell levels in individuals. No other observable effects.

               Vomiting in 5 to 50% of exposed individuals within a few hours,
 75 to 200       with fatigue and loss of appetite. Moderate blood changes.
                      Recovery within a few weeks for most symptoms.
                  For doses of 300 rems or more, all exposed individuals will
                 exhibit vomiting within 2 hours. Severe blood changes, with
              hemorrhage and increased susceptibility to infection, particularly
200 to 600      at the higher doses. Loss of hair after 2 weeks for doses over
              300 rems. Recovery from 1 month to a year for most individuals
              at the lower end of the dose range; only 20% survive at the upper
                                       end of the range.
                Vomiting within 1 hour. Severe blood changes, hemorrhage,
                   infection, and loss of hair. From 80 to 100% of exposed
600 to 1000
              individuals will succumb within 2 months; those who survive will
                              be convalescent over a long period.
 Cancer Rates around Nuclear Plants

• Nuclear plant workers have LOWER mortality
  than Americans overall
   – 35% lower for all cancers
   – 66% lower for all non-cancer deaths
• Americans receive more radiation from natural
  sources than from nuclear energy plants
   – Average resident gets 360 millirem a year from natural
     sources
   – Average nuclear energy plant worker receives 160
     millirem a year
   – The limit at plant fence is 5 millirem a year



                                        Nuclear Energy Institute
                  Energy means Life
     Africa China                     CEE     EU    France                  North America
                                      C
                                                                                              20
70
                                                                                              15
60
                                                                                              10

50                                                                                            5

40                                                                                            0
     0                     2,5               5                                          7,5
                      Energy consumption per Capita (toe/y)

                 Life expectancy (years)
                 % of children dying before the age of 5
         World Market for Nuclear Energy, A. Bugat, October 22, 2003, Washington D.C.
       Improved Health from Nuclear
          Health effect                Study             Cases/Yr
•   Mortality                          HEI, Pope           30,100
•   Respiratory Hospitalizations       4 pooled            20,100
•   Asthma ER visits                   Schwartz             7,160
•   Chronic Bronchitis                 Pooled              18,600
•   Asthma attacks                     Whittemore         603,000
•   Lost work days                     Ostro            5,130,000
•   Minor restricted activity          Ostro           26,300,000

                 Abt Associates, Clean Air Task Force, October 2000



Nobody in the U.S. has ever been injured by nuclear energy!
In Case of an Accident
• Emergency Planning Zone
  – Plans set in place and public informed
    about what to do should an accident occur
• Shelter versus Evacuation
  – Extent of radiation release determines
    whether to hide in shelters or move away
    from the accident
• KI for 72 hours keeps radioactive iodine
  from concentrating in your thyroid
Risk Comparisons




          Cochran and Tsoulfanidis, 1990
  Examples and Problems
• Plume Model