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Chapter 2
• The Basis for the transcription of speech
sounds
• Different Types of Transcription
• Transcription Practice
• Distinctive Features
1
Some Sounds Differ according to
their Environment
kip keep there is usually no puff
of air (aspiration) with the
“p”
pik peek there is always
aspiration with the “p”
Q: Is the difference between these two “p”s
2
significant?
What are the basic or significant
sounds of English?
• The significant sounds differentiate meaning:
1. aI s D mAb
2. aI s D mApH (p with
aspiration)
3. aI s D mAp (p without
aspiration)
(1) and (2) differ in meaning;
(2) and (3) do not.
(1) and (2) are contrastive.
• So, p and b represent different phonemes in 3
English
The Phoneme
• A phoneme is a speech sound that is
capable of differentiating meaning.
The sequence
pill bill till dill kill gill
indicates that p,b,t,d,k,g are phonemes in
English
4
Variation within a Phoneme
worksheet 1-4
Question: What about p and pH (aspirated
“p”)?
Do they represent different phonemes in English?
( Problem 4 shows that p and pH do represent different phonemes in Hindi)
Answer: They do not.
p and pH are allophones of the phoneme p
p and pH are in complementary distribution:
where pH occurs, p does not
where p occurs, pH does not 5
Complementary Distribution
• The distribution of allophones in their respective
phonetic environments such that one never
appears in the same phonetic context as the other.
• For example, the [p] and [pH] allophones of /p/
are in complementary distribution in the word
initial vs. post-[s] environments:
[pHIn] and [spIn]
*[pIn] and *[spHIn]
6
Phonemic Notation
/p/ phoneme
[pH] [p] [p|]
allophones
for [p|] lips remain
closed
7
How do we determine the significant
sounds of a language?
1. aI s D mAb
2. aI s D mAp
• Significance is determined by contrast,
as in
[mAb] versus [mAp]
• [mAb] and [mAp] are
contrastive or minimal pairs
8
The significant sounds are found
by testing minimal pairs
[pHIl] 1pHaIl vaIl
bIl dIl tHIl kHIl 2 pHIn Tin
gIl fIl *vIl 1 3pHaI DaI
mIl 4pHA zA
wIl *Til2 *Dil3 5Ip iN
sIl
*zIl4 nIl lIl 6No contrast for [Z] vs.
Il [p]
Sil tSIl *Nil5 but [Z] and [p] are
dzIl not phonetically similar so we
*Zil 6 hIl assume they are separate
phonemes.
pHil contrasts with bil, and 9
pHil contrasts with dil, etc.
The Need for an Alphabet
• We need to represent the contrasting sounds
of any given language unambiguously
• We need an alphabet to do this
10
Transcription: Which Alphabet?
• We need unambiguous representation of sound
• How about the English spelling system?
– Same sound, different symbols to,too,two
– Different sounds, one symbol dad, father, call, sofa
– One sound, sequence of symbols tough, physics
– One symbol, sequence of sounds exit [EgzIt]
– Symbols, but no sound pneumonia
11
Phonetic Transcription
• Conclusion: We need a phonetic alphabet
with ONE SYMBOL for ONE SOUND
• Two systems used by linguists
– American
– IPA
12
American Transcription
s&, z&, c&,
j&, y
• arose from need to transcribe indigenous
languages of North America
• a “practical” system for publication
(typographically easy)
• aims at “phonemic” transcription
with phonetic detail consigned to
discussion notes
• intended for American languages only 13
International Phonetic
Association/Alphabet
• founded in France in 1886
• an organization for teachers of language
originally
• aims at a system that will represent all
languages
14
The International Phonetic Alphabet
Principles of the IPA
• a separate letter for each distinctive sound
• universal use of one symbol for the same sound across
languages
• use of ordinary letters of roman alphabet where possible
• alphabet should accord with phonemic principle and
cardinal vowel system
• diacritic marks only for
– suprasegmentals
– non-meaningful distinctions
– minute shades of sound for scientific purposes
15
English Articulation of [b]
(Lab 3)
lips
Silence
(no v. cord [b]
vibration)
v.cord
vibration
LABM030
16
English Articulation of [ph]
(Lab 3)
lips
Silence
(no v. cord [p]
vibration)
v.cord
vibration
LABP030 [h]
(aspiration)
17
Hindi Articulation of [p]
(Lab 3)
lips
Silence
(no v. cord [p]
vibration)
v.cord
vibration
(no
aspiration)
18
IPA Non-roman Consonant Symbols
N eng
T theta
D eth
S esh
Z yogh
turned r
Pullum & Ladusaw. Phonetic Symbol Guide. U of Chicago Press.
19
IPA non-Roman Vowel Symbols
E epsilon
Q ash
U upsilon
open o
A script a
turned v
schwa
20
Notational Conventions in
Transcription
/ / encloses phonemic transcriptions
[ ] encloses phonetic (allophonic) transcriptions
# denotes a word boundary
+ denotes a morpheme boundary
V stands for any vowel
C stands for any consonant
C0 stands for a sequence of zero or more
consonants 21
Transcription Types
• Phonemic Transcription
bEt pAt
• Broad Phonetic Transcription
bER pHAt
• Narrow Phonetic Transcription
bER pHAt
WWW
22
Relations between Speech Sounds
worksheet Free Var.
Relation Element Example
• contrast phoneme /p/ vs. /b/
• complementary allophone [p] vs. [pH] pin vs. spin
distribution
• free variation phoneme/allophone
[p] vs. [pH] stop vs.
stoph
[E] vs. [i]
economics
23
New Symbols to Capture Variation
Symbol Name Articulation
R fishhook r flap
glottal stop glottal
stop
tilde l velarized l
l6 under-ring devoicing
n` syllabicity mark same as
[n] 24
Doing Phonemic Analysis
• Determining the relationship of 2 sounds
– Are there minimal pairs: pQt vs. bQt
if yes, then the relation is contrast
– If no, do the sounds differ predictably:
pHIn vs. spIn
if yes, then the relation is complementary
distribution. Determine the basic
allophone.
– If no, the sounds must be in free variation. 25
The Trick of Phonemic Analysis:
List all environments of the sound in question
Burmese
Voiced nasals occur: Voiceless nasals occur :
# ___ i h ___ i
# ___ w h ___ w
e ___ # h ___ y
# ___e h ___ e
# ___ w h ___ w
The voiceless nasal occurs after . . .
The voiced nasal occurs . . . 26
The Elsewhere Condition
• a principle governing two overlapping rules
which dictates that the more specific rule
should be tried first followed by the more
general rule:
EXAMPLE: In Burmese,
- nasals are voiceless after /h/,
- elsewhere they are voiced.
27
The Notion of a Natural Class
• Speech sounds can be described by
articulatory features
t - a voiceless alveolar stop
m - a voiced bilabial nasal
• Sounds can be grouped by features
Voiced stops: b,d,g
Labials: p,f,b,v,m,w
• We call such a grouping a natural class of sounds
28
Natural Classes of Sounds
Capture generalizations about
• the sound systems of a language
e.g. English plural [s] vs. [z] relies on voicing
• dialect variation
• the pronunciation of borrowed words
• first language acquisition
• processes of sound change
worksheet: Natural Classes
29
Background on
Distinctive Features
• Until the 1960’s, the phoneme prevailed as
the basic unit of the analysis of sound
• The system that treated the phoneme as the
basic unit was called Taxonomic Phonemics
• in the ‘60s, linguists (in particular Noam
Chomsky and Morris Halle) pointed out
difficulties with the rigid system of T.P.
• we will now look at one of these difficulties
30
Taxonomic Phonemics
• developed by American linguistics
• divorced sound from meaning
• assumed certain principles that would lend a
“scientific precision” to phonemics
31
The Phoneme
• A phoneme is a family of similar sounds
which language treats as being “the same.”
• If there is a contrast between two sounds in
one environment, then these two sounds
must be considered different phonemes in
all environments.
Bernard Bloch. Phonemic overlap.
32
In most environments, the presence
of [A] and [A] is predictable
• The long/short distribution in
pAt pAd
lAk lAg
mAp mAb
indicates that [A] and [A]are allophones
in complementary distribution
33
But in some words, [A] vs. [A] is
the only contrasting sound
• The contrast of /A/ and /A/ in
bomb [bAm] balm [bAm]
indicates that /A/ and /A/ are phonemes in contrast
Contrast also in
sorry starry
bother father
34
Asymmetry in Phonemic
Representations
To account for the phonemic contrast of
bomb b[A]m balm b[A]m
Taxonomists had to claim that the distinction
in [pAt] ~ [pAd]
was also phonemic even though the variation
is predictable from context
35
Features
• Chomsky pointed out that we could have
both the predictability of [pAt]
[pAd] and the contrast of [bAm]
[bAm] by describing the sound
variation with
• a unit smaller than the phoneme (the feature)
• a lexicon that contained underlying features
• rules to describe the variation
Chomsky, N. 1964. 36
Chomsky, N. & M. Halle. 1967.
A Feature Account of the A ~ A
Distinction
Lexicon Phonological Rule Pronunciation
/bAm/
[bAm]
/bAm/
[bAm]
/pAt/ V-long/__-voiced [pAt]
/pAd/
[pAd]
37
A Feature Matrix in the Lexicon
• A word is represented as a Feature Matrix
b A m
consonant + - +
labial + - +
long - + +
.... ... ... ...
38
Distinctive Features
• Many features are based on articulation
+labial +coronal +dorsal
• Some are based on acoustics
+strident +high +sonorant
• Most are based on a combination of
articulation and acoustics
+round +lateral +continuant
39
Advantages of Distinctive
Features
• Features allow the statement of generalizations
V V / _________ C V
+tense tense -stress
divine divinity [aI]
[I]
profane profanity [eI]
[Q]
serene serenity [i] [E]
40
Advantages of Features
• Features represent allophonic variation as a
systematic rather than a random process
English: V V / _____ -Voiced
-long
• Features directly reflect the articulatory and
acoustic activity involved in each sound
41
Features as Universals
• Currently about 24 are used
• they constitute a claim about what is
possible in human phonological behavior
• the binary (+/-) nature of the features
plays into claims of universality
42
Feature Oppositions
Roman Jakobson, 1941
Silence
-consonantal +consonantal
+high -high +oral -oral
-back +back +labial -labial +labial -labial
• apply in language acquisition
• apply in language dissolution
• correspond to the frequency of sounds in the world’s
languages _
43
Feature Oppositions
Stage 1: +/-consonant papa or baba
Stage 2: +/-oral papa, mama
Stage 3: +/-labial mama/nana, papa/tata
Stage 4: +/-high papa, pipi
Stage 5: +/-back pipi, pupu
44
References
Chomsky, N. 1964. Current Issues in Linguistic Theory.
Chomsky, N. & M. Halle. 1967. The Sound Pattern of English.
Jakobson, Roman. 1941. Child’s Speech, Aphasia, and Linguistic
Universals.
45
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