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2409.15,60-61 PART 02
Page 1 of 12
FOREST SERVICE HANDBOOK
San Francisco, CA
FSH 2409.15 - TIMBER SALE ADMINISTRATION HANDBOOK
R5 Supplement No. 2409.15-94-2
Effective February 7, 1994
POSTING NOTICE. Supplements are numbered consecutively by handbook number and
calendar year. Post documents in numerical order of chapters (FSH 1109.12, sec.4.32, ex.01).
Retain this transmittal as the first page of this document. The last supplement to this handbook
was 2409.15-94-1 to 2409.15,60-61 PART 01.
Superseded New
Document Name (Number of Pages)
2409.15,60-62 Part 02 - 12
Digest:
60 - This supplement is a reissuance of Chapter 60 to conform the format and structure of the
Handbook to the requirements of electronic directive issuance. It incorporates Interim Directive
2409.15-92-1 which gives instructions for the cutting or undesignated hazard trees that must
immediately felled to eliminate a safety hazard.
This supplement makes no other substantive changes to the text. Removes duplication with
national directives.
RONALD E. STEWART
Regional Forester
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FSH - 2409.15 - TIMBER SALE ADMINISTRATION HANDBOOK
R5 SUPPLEMENT NO. 2409.15-94-1
EFFECTIVE 2/7/94
CHAPTER 60 - PAYMENTS
61.32 - Skidding and Yarding (B/BT6.42). Skidding and yarding is one of the most difficult
sale operations to conduct within allowable resource damage constraints. Inadequate
administration of this operation can result in serious damage to basic resources within a very
short period of time. To effectively lessen this potential damage, the Sale Officer must
coordinate the presale followup needs, operating schedule decisions and the preoperations
meeting with the log removal operation.
The following is a discussion of the various types of equipment used in the log removal
operation.
1. Tractor Skidding.
a. Equipment Considerations. Unless the timber sale contract specifically limits
the width of a tractor, any size tractor is permissible for log skidding unless
unnecessary damage to the resource occurs. Sale Administrators should check
individual contracts for unique equipment requirements such as winches, dozer
blades, arches, tractor width limitations, number of chokers, rubber-tired skidders and
so on.
b. Skid Road Location and Construction.
(1) Purchaser and Forest Service must agree to acceptable locations for all tractor
roads and skid trails.
(2) Check individual contracts to determine Purchaser's obligations to flag
proposed locations of skid roads and skid trails. After completion of flagging, Sale
Administrators shall determine if the flagged location is acceptable. Flag skid trails
prior to construction and felling.
(3) Plan downhill or contour skidding distances of approximately 20 chains in
length and minimize uphill skidding when possible.
(4) Do not allow more than 2 or 3 skid roads to enter a landing as a general rule.
(5) Have skid roads enter landings at as level a grade as possible.
(6) Approve landing and skid road locations so that crossings of streamcourses are
rare. If it is necessary to cross a streamcourse, require the installation of the same
temporary log crossings or culverts as for a temporary road and require operator to
keep soil out of running water. Do not approve drainage crossings at locations or
angles where cross drains cannot be effectively installed later. Ensure the installation
of cross drains so runoff can drain from the skid road before it reaches the drainage.
Avoid agreeing to stream crossings closer than 5 chains (330 feet).
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(7) Do not approve tractor roads involving through cuts that cannot properly drain
before reaching landings or drainages.
(8) On uniform ground, tractor roads should be about 2 chains (132 feet) apart
except where they converge.
(9) A tractor road about 12 feet wide is sufficient for straight skidding. Allow
some additional width on curves.
(10) Avoid sharp turns as much as possible. Suggest shear logs (logs placed along
the edge of the skid trail) to be used at sharp turns when necessary to protect the
residual stand.
(11) On steep ground, undulate or
break grade to alleviate drainage problems. Never agree to locations that involve
long, sustained grades. Break grade every 5 chains (330 feet) if possible. Grades up
to 30 percent will properly drain roads under most conditions. Over 30 percent,
tractor control becomes limited and quality of cross drains suffer. Hand constructed
cross drains may be necessary on slopes over 40 percent.
(12) When soil conditions permit,
construct tractor roads to the depth necessary to keep the tailend of skidded logs from
rolling down the hill on curves and destroying needed stocking or other protected
vegetation.
(13) If the operator felled timber
before reaching agreement on skid road locations, require the skid road location
needed to complement the felling lead even if it means the operator has to skid uphill
or use a longer route. This would be a remedy to a breach situation.
(14) Do not locate tractor roads in or closely parallel to wet, spongy or slide areas,
meadows, drainages or dry draws. In addition, do not locate roads adjacent to and
parallel to permanent roads or any other place where the added runoff from the tractor
trail will cause erosion or damage to the watershed.
(15) Do not approve skid road locations through heavy reproduction or other
protected vegetation when alternatives are available.
c. Skidding Operations.
(1) Skidding Operations in Regeneration Areas.
(a) Do not allow tractors to wear out a skid road. Retire a tractor road before it
becomes channeled to the point where it cannot properly be cross drained. Watch for
this in areas of sensitive soils.
(b) Sale Administrators have several options if trees are found marked for
regeneration cutting on slopes over 35 percent. One option is to winch such trees to
tractors stopped at the 35 percent slope limit. Tractor skid these logs downhill to
constructed skid roads. Another option is to mark out designated trees after
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agreement with the Purchaser Representative is reached and the agreement is
documented in writing.
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(c) Make a special effort when laying out skid roads in regeneration units to
predict what kind of erosion prevention problems will occur after harvesting the
timber.
(d) Locate tractor roads so they do not converge in areas sensitive to erosion.
(2) Skidding Operations in Residual Stands. The same restrictions in C(1) above
also apply to skidding in residual stands. In addition, consider the following:
(a) Back tractors as close to logs as stocking conditions will tolerate. Hook on to
logs and endline one log at a time out of the residual stand. Only allow operators to
bunch logs to make up a turn of logs at locations where damage will not occur to the
residual stand.
(b) When necessary, require operators to endline logs out of residual stands.
Endlining distances will vary depending on local practices and may range from 30 to
75 feet and greater in cases where the appraisal provided for extra endlining
allowances.
(c) Do not allow choker setters to set chokers in the breaks.
(d) Do not allow tractors to roll out logs to break limbs and to accommodate
choker setting without digging under logs.
(e) Require buckers to cut all exposed limbs from skidded logs which might
damage the residual stand.
(f) Do not allow tree-length skidding when tractor roads will not accommodate
this without excessive damage.
(g) Require rigging cuts in unmerchantable down material when this will prevent
unnecessary damage to needed stocking or felled trees.
(h) Do not allow arches or illegal dozer blades to operate in a residual stand or off
constructed roads or skid roads without written agreement.
(i) Restrict rubber-tired skidders and crawler tractors equipped with grapples to
approved skid roads unless equipped with a winch.
(j) Rubber-tired skidders are faster and often cheaper to operate than crawler
tractors. However, they cannot work side hill on steep ground as well as crawler
tractors. Check to ensure unnecessary damage is not occurring with a rubber-tired
skidder on steeper ground.
Regardless of the kind of equipment used, require the needed level of resource
protection intended by the timber sale contract.
2. Cable and Skyline Yarding. Consider cable landing and yarding considerations
together. Equipment specifications show optimum yarding distances for stated conditions.
Consult the logging operator for variations in equipment. The use of tag lines, tower height, size
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of mainline available, yarder horsepower and ground conditions also influences yarding distance
capabilities.
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a. Ground profiles and Yarder Capability. It is unrealistic to expect specified
yarding equipment to cope with every yarding problem encountered on a typical sale.
Problems may include:
(1) Sidehill Yarding. It is not usually possible or desirable to completely
eliminate sidehill yarding. It is possible to identify yarding problems and site
disturbance potential associated with sidehill yarding. On clearcut operations, use of
sidehill yarding generates excellent results with respect to meeting erosion prevention
guidelines.
(2) Downhill Yarding. For running skylines in clearcuts, downhill yarding is not
a problem. For most other systems, the objective generally is to minimize downhill
yarding unless sale design specifically calls for downhill yarding.
Accurately define the system requirements.
b. Erosion Prevention and Streamcourse protection. Discuss timber sale
administration erosion prevention and streamcourse protection requirements with the
Purchaser Representative or Field Representative. Where problems exist and it is not
possible to work out satisfactory solutions, initiate action to resolve problems by
timber sale contract modification procedures. Do not permit tractor logging in areas
specified for cable logging unless the timber sale contract is modified or tractor
logging is agreed to under the Substitute Methods C provision.
c. Considerations Unique to Skyline Operations. Skyline yarding differs from
conventional yarding in that skyline yarders have the capability of
yarding with one end of logs suspended above the ground. This results in less impact
on the ground and on related resources.
Basically, there are two classes of skylines: Short-span which is normally limited
to a maximum reach of one thousand feet and extended reach (long-span) which is
normally limited to maximum yarding distances of 2,500 - 3,000 feet. Some
European systems, however, can reach up to 5,500 feet.
(1) Corridor Widths. Corridors should not be wider than 15 feet and rarely exceed
20 feet in width. Control corridor widths by designating rub trees at the time the
corridor is located and agreed upon.
(2) Rub Trees. Most residual stand damage occurs during lateral yarding because
of a sideway motion of the skyline. Rub trees at strategic locations can drastically
reduce this action and minimize damage. Rub trees are generally severely damaged.
Mark them for removal unless they are needed for snags or other resource needs.
(3) Deflection. Normally, deflection of the skyline should never be less than 5
percent to get the necessary suspension of logs. The Purchaser should run ground
profiles when deflection is questionable.
(4) Carriages. The carriage on the skyline must have two capabilities which are
pulling slack or having slack pulled through it and it must be capable of maintaining a
fixed position on the skyline.
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(5) Lateral Yarding. Short-span systems can laterally yard effectively for up to
150 feet provided there is proper positioning of the carriage and location of rub trees.
Some European and conventional long span systems can laterally yard up to 300 feet
provided the Purchaser takes proper steps in yarding to protect the resources. Longer
lateral yarding sometimes may be preferable and cheaper than establishing an extra
landing and setting up the system.
(6) Sidehill Yarding. It is usually not desirable to sidehill yard; it results in wider
corridors due to gravity and causes extensive damage to the stand on the downhill
side of the corridor. Corridors should be as close to the fall line as possible.
(7) Converging Corridors. With larger long span systems, space landings farther
apart and have several corridors converging to the same landing. A clearcut situation
normally will occur near the tower. Try to limit the number of corridors to 3 or 4 per
landing.
Short-span systems should seldom need more than two corridors per landing.
Normally the corridors should be parallel and 200 to 300 feet apart.
(8) Tail Holds. Tail hold anchors should be firm and adequate for the system
used. If there is a need for more deflection, rig in standing trees. When rigging a
standing tree, use guylines. The Purchaser usually rigs these trees ahead of the
corridor change.
3. Helicopter Yarding. A typical helicopter yarding cycle consists of: (1) flying from
the landing to the hooker at the pickup point, (2) hovering over the anticipated load while the
hooker attaches the chokers to the electrically controlled hook on the end of the tag line, (3)
flying from the pickup point to the landing with the load and (4) hovering over the landing to
release the load. A loader then removes the logs to waiting trucks or to storage areas. Maintain
radio communications between helicopter and ground personnel at all times.
To be efficient, carefully integrate helicopter yarding into the complete system of felling,
bucking, yarding, loading, and hauling. This requires good coordination.
Prior to the start of each helicopter sale, the Sale Administrator should:
a. Resolve any conflicts between appraisal design premise and actual lifting
capacity of helicopters. Consider lengthwise ripping of minimum length logs if such
short logs still exceed the lifting capacity of specified helicopters. Using explosives
to split logs is unsatisfactory due to excessive loss of merchantable volume.
b. In areas with a dense hardwood understory, some hardwoods may require
felling and bucking to prevent hangups when yarding.
c. Traffic control on roads may become a problem. Due to the unique nature of
the yarding, expect sightseers. It may be necessary to provide an observation area to
accommodate these visitors.
d. Check the sale area for aborted logs. Flag these logs for removal.
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61.41 - Streamcourse Protection (B/BT6.5). The following points are basic fundamentals in
streamcourse protection:
a. Document all agreements between Purchaser/Field Representative and Sale Officers.
b. Agree to streamcourse crossings by skid trails, tractor roads and temporary roads
before construction.
c. Require Purchaser to repair all damage to streamcourses which include banks and
stream channels to the extent possible.
d. Remove all logging debris from streamcourses in an agreed upon manner that will
cause the least disturbance. Document this agreement.
e. Do not permit logging equipment to operate within 50 feet slope distance of the
normal maximum flow of protected streamcourses shown on the sale area map unless another
distance is posted prior to advertising. Modify this distance by written agreement when needed
in order to protect streamcourse values.
f. Endline logs out of streamside buffer areas. Only permit equipment in these areas at
agreed upon locations.
g. Locate cross drains and other erosion control structures to avoid channeling sediment
into streamcourses.
h. Remove material resulting from temporary roads and skid trails from streamcourse
crossings to the extent possible. Wherever ground conditions permit, restore stream banks to
original conditions by reshaping and grass seeding disturbed areas.
61.42a - Meadow Protection (B/BT6.61). Remove slash deposited in meadows from Purchaser's
operations. This may require hand removal.
61.42c - Landings (B/BT6.63).
Sale Administrators must be familiar with specific land use planning, soil and watershed
protection direction, topography, presale planning and planned logging system capabilities in
order to evaluate landing location and restoration needs. Consider both the Purchaser's
objectives and Forest Service land use objectives when administering landing construction.
The Sale Administrator shall participate with the Purchaser/Field Representative to select landing
locations which are mutually acceptable. Landing locations must be compatable with necessary
truck road locations, the skidding plan, timber felling leads and resource protection requirements.
If a landing location proposed by the Purchaser is unacceptable, Sale Administrators should
explain the reason to the Purchaser and aid in the development of an alternate location. The Sale
Administrator shall document agreed upon locations. Drawing a map and attaching it to the
Timber Sale Administration Report, form R5-2400-181, helps avoid conflicts or
misunderstandings.
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Do not approve the reuse of landings from previous timber sales if they do not meet current
resource protection or land use constraints.
Although a Purchaser may desire landing locations with short skidding distances, most Forest
Service tractor skidding appraisal estimates are based on skidding distances of up to 20 chains
(1/4 mile or 1,320 feet). Use this distance as a guideline when agreeing to skid trail layout.
Select landing locations which minimize damage to reproduction, young growth timber and
desired vegetation.
Landing locations should reduce the need for excavation and need to take into account soil
erosion potential.
Locate landings near points of ridges to facilitate skidding of felled timber laying between
drainages. Skillful location of landings can eliminate the need to skid logs across drainages.
1. Landings for Ground Skidding Equipment. Review presale planning notes for an
idea of what the sale design intended. The number of landings depends on volume cut per acre
and sensitive areas to avoid. A general rule of thumb is to have no more than one landing per 20
acres except when there is a need for more landings to limit resource protection problems.
a. Location. Approve landings that:
(1) Minimize the number of main skid roads.
(2) Minimize abrupt changes in skidding direction to protect the residual stand
from log skidding damage.
(3) Minimize needed excavation.
(4) Minimize side-cast into drainages, meadows and other sensitive areas.
(5) Minimize impact on residual stand, sensitive drainages or other sensitive areas
including view zones.
(6) Provide effective drainage.
(7) Avoid unnecessary skidding across drainages or other sensitive features.
Special needs sometimes arise when permitting landings adjacent to a permanent
road. For each proposed landing location adjacent to permanent roads, determine
needs for landing slash cleanup, protection of streamcourses and erosion prevention
measures. Only approve landing locations where it is possible to obtain satisfactory
rehabilitation and soil stabilization.
b. Size. Landing size will normally vary from one quarter acre for shovel loaders
to one third acre for frontend loaders. Smaller sized landings can sometimes safely
accommodate Purchaser's needs.
c. Frequency. Do not permit more landings than are needed. Sometimes more
landings are acceptable as a means of reducing the overall impact on
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resources. Examples for more landings include highly broken topography and
frequent streamcourses. Additional landings may eliminate the need to skid logs
across streamcourses.
d. Construction. Provide space on the uphill side of the landing to store landing
slash. Uphill storage facilitates landing cleanup. Sale Administrators should
estimate the volume of slash that will be generated and plan landing locations and
sizes accordingly. If excavation is necessary, require installation of adequately
sloped banks and drainage ditches at the top of the cut to accommodate runoff.
Avoid excavated landings in highly erosive soils such as decomposed granite.
e. Decking, Storing and Loading Operations. Do not allow landing size to grow
to accommodate high volume loading levels. An average landing can generally
accommodate up to 200 MBF per 8-hour day. Any more than this will require
additional landing space to accommodate trucks, log decks and skidding machines.
This may cause excessive damage to the resources. The best way to avoid excessive
impact is to recommend a second logging side to the Purchaser Representative. See
provision B/BT6.4 requirements concerning unnecessary damage to the residual
stand. It is particularly important on any loading operation to require adequate fire
clearance around truck and loader operations and fuel storage areas.
f. Operations on a Landing.
(1) Limit the number of skidding machines to protect the residual stand and other
resources.
(2) Require felling hazardous snags or damaged trees before using the landing.
(3) Do not allow the construction of truck turn arounds that unnecessarily damage
residual timber and other desired vegetation.
(4) Observe California Logging and Sawmill Safety Orders and the timber sale
contract fire precautions in administering landing operations.
2. Landings for Cable Yarding Systems. Consider the following guidelines when
agreeing to landings for cable yarding systems.
a. Location. Locate landings on ridgetops, flats or benches whenever possible.
In addition to the landing location considerations to protect resources for ground
skidding equipment, consider the following for cable yarding systems.
(1) Provide adequate anchors for all cable systems.
(2) Provide proper alignment for tail anchors for skyline systems.
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(3) Provide safe guy angles. Landing location may not provide minimum angles
required due to resource needs.
(4) Provide ample room between hill and spar when yarding downhill.
(5) Provide for yarding distances which are compatible with resource values and
the equipment. The desired yarding distance should be that which best meets
resource objectives. This may require longer yarding distances and be more
expensive.
(6) Minimize sidehill yarding and blind leads.
(7) Provide enough deflection to safely do the job.
(8) Prevent unsafe "V" or diamond leads.
b. Size. Landing size depends on many factors. Purchasers may seek larger,
more economic log handling areas. This, however, may be in direct conflict with
land management considerations which usually restrict landing size on steeper
ground. In any event, provide adequate room to meet California Logging and
Sawmill Safety order requirements.
For swing boom yarders, require a minimum three-foot clearance behind the
counterweight.
c. Frequency. Agree to landing spacings that provide resource protection and
economical logging. For most mobile yarders of the short span skyline type,
landings should be at least 150 feet apart. Larger long span type skyline or high lead
yarders require larger landings spaced farther apart.
d. Construction. Side casting material during landing construction can result in
unacceptable resource damage. The following should be considered to reduce the
impacts of landing construction:
(a) When needed and agreed upon, change yarding and/or loading specifications
by contract modification or special C provision under substitute measures.
(b) Swing logs from under the yarder with some type of tractor and deck along the
road by written agreement or contract modification.
(c) Incorporate landings into specified road design and utilize or end haul excess
material by written agreement or contract modification.
(d) Recognize that most machinery cannot operate on landings which slope more
than 6 percent.
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Some newer timber sale contracts require the incorporation of some or all of the
landings on a sale into the specified road design. This is normally done on steep
terrain or unstable soils to control landing size, prevent excessive sidecast and ensure
adequate clearing prior to construction. Purchaser credit for this type of landing
construction is allocated in the same manner as specified roads.
e. Decking, Storing and Loading Operations. Landings should have adequate
room to store and deck logs on or adjacent to landings to permit the efficient loading
of log trucks. Normally, do not permit loading areas that accommodate more than
one truck. In cases where the Sale Administrator discovers a resource problem, a
swing operation may be necessary. The maximum grade for trucks during loading is
approximately 12 percent.
3. Landings for Helicopter Yarding. In helicopter timber sales, the Forest Service
usually designates the landings during the preparation phase.
a. Location. In addition to the precautions recommended under landings for
ground skidding equipment to prevent resource damage, consider the following for
helicopter landings:
(1) Locate landing to provide approaches which take advantage of prevailing
winds. Provide at least two directions for approach.
(2) The location of truck roads must accommodate safe helicopter flight patterns to
and from landings. Truck road locations should meet criteria in temporary roads and
transportation facilities.
b. Size. A safe landing is a prime consideration. For a safe landing operation, a
minimum area 200 feet in diameter, clear of all loose materials and objects which
could be hazardous if displaced by rotor downwash, is needed just for the yarding
helicopter alone. Helicopter landings can be up to 1 to 1 1/2 acres in size when they
are also used for loading trucks and fueling and servicing helicopters.
To keep up with the demands of a large helicopter, it may be necessary to provide
enough room to store 150 to 200 MBF of logs.
c. Construction. Construct landings that are in compliance with the California
State Logging and Sawmill Safety Orders and:
(1) Designate all unsafe trees such as large trees in flight path, snags and so on
prior to felling them.
(2) Provide adequate areas for slash disposal by specified methods. Construct
disposal areas adjacent to the landing if needed.
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(d) Landing Slash. Ensure that the Purchaser disposes of landing slash as yarding
progresses. Select adequate disposal areas near the landing to accommodate the
extroardinary amount of slash peculiar to a helicopter landing operation.
e. Fuel and Service Area. Fuel and service areas are as critical as landings. In
many instances, the landing is also used for fuel storage. Locate fuel areas away
from live streams, draws and areas of slash concentrations. For safety, locate fuel
and service areas apart from the yarding landing if possible. Proper clearance is
necessary for fire protection. A fire that develops near a fuel storage area could
cause serious problems.
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