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October 26, 20005
Dear Delegates:
Welcome to the 2005 Montana Model United Nations Conference. I am so glad that you have decided to participate
in the conference this year. I am very excited to begin this session and am looking forward to a fun and interesting
debate.
My name is Kristin Sheehy, and I am the Chair of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
(UNCTAD). I am a senior at the University of Montana and am a double major in History and Political Science. I
have previously been a vice-chair in the Montana Model United Nations and competed with the collegiate MUN
team at the University of California, Berkeley Conference, where our team placed third.
The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development consists of 192 members. UNCTAD also works closely
with many non-governmental organizations (NGO’s) as well. There are 111 organizations that have observer status
within the UNCTAD. UNCTAD also works closely with other international organizations and UN programs.
UNCTAD deals with issues relating to globalization and development, international trade and commodities,
investment, technology development, and works on problems relating to the least developed countries.
In UNCTAD this year I am looking forward to listening to good debate. I would like to see delegates working
together to build realistic resolutions. I anticipate interesting debate that follows the rules of procedure.
Parliamentary procedure is very important in committee hearings, ensuring that you can get your point across.
There are two web sites that I recommend delegates look at before they come to the conference. The first is the
website of the Montana Model United Nations, www.cas.umt.edu/mun. On this website you can find important
information specifically related to the Montana conference. It has the rules of procedure, topic backgrounders and
committee information. The other website that will be helpful in preparing for the conference is www.unausa.org.
This website has a good preparation guide and some background information on the Model United Nations program.
As a reminder, the conference this year will be held on November 21 and 22, 2005. We are really looking forward
to the conference and hope it will be a wonderful experience for you.
Please do not hesitate to email us if you have any questions.
Respectfully,
Kristin Sheehy
UNCTAD Chair
kristin.sheehy@umontana.edu
Jesse Mahugh
UNCTAD Vice Chair
jesse.mahugh@umontana.edu
Kristin Sheehy
UNCTAD Chair
Committee History and Structure
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
The United Nations has always been concerned with international trade and development. Before the
creation of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), there were many conferences
held on specific subjects relating to international trade and economic development, but there was no agency that
provided international consensus and a global view of the progress needed or actions that should be taken. The
advent of UNCTAD changed this. UNCTAD was originally proposed in 1962 by the Economic and Social
Committee of the United Nations. The first meeting of UNCTAD was held from March 23, 1964 to June 16, 1964
in Geneva Switzerland.1 In December of 1964 the General Assembly passed resolution A/L.449 that made
UNCTAD and its subsidiaries a permanent organ of the UN. This resolution set out the mandate for UNCTAD.
UNCTAD was to promote international trade, especially between countries with different economies, to
create policies regarding international trade and economic development, to coordinate other agencies dealing with
international trade and development within the UN, to work toward multilateral agreements on trade, and to try to
streamline trade and developmental policies. 2 UNCTAD meets once every four years in different locations. Any
country that is a member of the United Nations is also welcome to participate in UNCTAD. There are currently 192
members.3 The Trade and Development Board was established by UNCTAD to meet every year and to implement
the decisions made by the conference between sessions. The Trade and Development Board has seven committees
that any of the member nations can participate in. UNCTAD has its own permanent secretariat, and the secretary
general is Dr. Supachai Panitchpakdi of Thailand. The Secretary-General is appointed by the United Nations
Secretary-General and is confirmed by the General Assembly. 4 There are about 400 staff members in the secretariat
to fulfill the needs of UNCTAD.
When UNCTAD was originally created there were only 120 members at the first session. That number has
continued to increase to the 192 that are represented today. Throughout the history of UNCTAD it has been a
contributing force in many important standards in international trade and economic development. UNCTAD played
an important role in defining the target of .7% of a countries gross domestic product as the official development aid
given to poor countries by more developed countries. This standard was passed by the GA in 1970. 5 One of the
most important acts by UNCTAD was the identification of the Least Developed Countries in 1971. This brought the
attention of the world to the problems that the poorest countries were facing. UNCTAD has since become the
primary institution within the UN that deals with issues relating to the economic development of the Least
Developed Countries. In 1981 the first UN Conference on Least Developed Countries was organized. 6 This is a
continuing conference that meets every ten years to discuss the specific problems of these nations. UNCTAD also
publishes a Least Developed Countries Report every year, defining the problems these countries face and attempting
to create solutions. In addition to highlighting the plight of the poorest countries, UNCTAD also releases a
collection of economic statistical studies each year. The UNCTAD Handbook of Statistics looks at such information
as the international merchandise trade, trade and commodity price indices, how international trade is structured in
different regions, how trade is structured with regards to specific products, indicators of development, and
international finances among others.7
The Trade and Development Board originally consisted of only 55 members. In 1976, the Board expanded
to include all of UNCTAD, and therefore all member nations.8 This board reports to the General Assembly through
1
Everyman’s United Nations, page 255-258.
2
Yearbook, 1964, page 210-211.
3
UNCTAD’s Membership, www.unctad.org,
4
Osmanczyk, Encyclopedia, 392.
5
A Brief History of UNCTAD, www.unctad.org.
6
Ibid
7
Handbook of Statistics, 2004.
8
Osmanczyk, Encyclopedia, 932.
2
the Committee on Economic and Social Affairs. It also does the preparatory work for the Conference sessions.
“The Trade and Development Board has seven committees, which are open to all UNCTAD members: the
Committee on Commodities, the Committee on Manufactures, the Committee on Invisibles and Financing related to
Trade, the Committee on Shipping, the Committee on Preferences, the Committee on Transfer of Technology, and
the Committee on Economic Co-operation among Developing Countries.” 9
UNCTAD also has a close working relationship with many non-governmental organizations (NGO’s).
UNCTAD works with many international organizations such as the World Trade Organization, the World Bank, the
International Monetary Fund, and many other United Nations organizations. NGO’s are allowed observer status in
UNCTAD, and there are currently 111 NGO’s that have observer stats. A full list is available on the UNCTAD
website. This is a good example of the desire of UNCTAD to build a more global consensus on international trade
and development. The conference works with as many of the participants as possible in order to create
recommendations to submit to the General Assembly.
UNCTAD deals with a wide variety of issues relating to international trade and development. They work
toward creating an international consensus regarding the myriad of issues that they deal with. They want to create
global standards for economic development aid to countries. They work toward creating coherent national, regional
and international policies to effectively deal with the economic issues the world is faced with today. UNCTAD does
a lot of the background research and statistical studies for issues relating to international economics and trade. It
examines the policies of governments, non-governmental organizations, and international organizations and attempts
to create a policy where they are all working toward the same goals and not conflicting and working against
progress. The ultimate goal of UNCTAD is to create an environment that will promote trade and economic growth
in all nations. UNCTAD is one of the major proponents of the Least Developed Countries and is working to create
fairer trade for all nations so that so many are not excluded from progress and economic growth. UNCTAD in the
Sao Paulo Consensus, agreed to “continue to monitor and assess the evolution of the international trading system
and of trends in international trade from a development perspective, and in particular analyze issues of concern to
developing countries.”10 UNCTAD delivers its opinions to the General Assembly that then votes whether to adopt
those recommendations or not.
Globalizations and development is one of the primary issues that UNCTAD is concerned with. UNCTAD
recently published the Trade and Development Report of 2005 which analyzes current economic trends and assesses
how well the goals of the conference are being met. Africa has a special place within UNCTAD. The Office of the
Special Coordinator for Africa supervises the progress being made toward the goals set forth in the Millennium
Declaration.11 Africa is of special importance because in many instances there is limited trade and opportunity for
growth. UNCTAD is working hard on solutions to help resolve the development problems in Africa. This is one of
the areas where UNCTAD has focused its resources. Another related issue that is being addressed is debt in
developing countries. UNCTAD promotes a policy of some debt forgiveness for developing countries in order to
stimulate more economic growth. Another way to stimulate trade and economic growth is to diversify trade. Many
of the poorest countries are dependent on a few commodities to sustain trade. UNCTAD is working with these
nations to try and diversify their trade in order to stabilize their markets as well as to promote sustainable economic
development. UNCTAD is one of the most forceful voices in the UN in support of the Least Developed Countries.
Issues relating to these countries are always being looked at by the Conference. The goal is to create some
consensus or policy that will help these nations enter into the international economy on a more equal level. One way
that UNCTAD promotes doing this is by sharing technology that will facilitate trade and allow these nations to start
interacting with the international market. Science and technology are important in helping nations develop and their
economies grow. One of the primary objectives of UNCTAD is to share this technology that will help these nations
on their path to development.12
The Trade and Development Board will hold its 52nd Session in Geneva, Switzerland on October 3-14,
2005. The agenda for this meeting will cover a wide range of issues. One of the first issues that will be discussed is
economic growth and the reduction of poverty in the 1990s. The Board hopes to learn from the previous decade and
improve efforts in the new one. Global interdependence is also an issue on the agenda; the Board will talk about
how the interdependence of nations affects trade and development. The Least Developed Countries also has a large
place in the agenda for this year. The Board will be looking at the progress report for the implementation of the
9
Ibid.
10
Sao Paulo Consensus, 2004, page 19.
11
Millennium Declaration, 2000.
12
www.unctad.org.
3
Program of Action for the Least Developed Countries for the Decade 2001 -2010.13 Economic development in
Africa is also going to be addressed, more specifically the impact that foreign investment has on growth and
development. The Board will also look at other matters relating to trade and development. 14
UNCTAD is an official organ of the General Assembly. The conference reports directly to the General
Assembly where all of the agreements that it passes are sent. The General Assembly can then vote to pass them or
not. UNCTAD agreements must first go through the GA before they are put into effect. The Trade and
Development Board does not report to the General Assembly but to the Committee on Economic and Social Affairs.
Membership of UNCTAD is open to all member states of the United Nations. The Board of Trade and
Development is also open to all members of the UN. The main difference is that UNCTAD allows NGO’s to have
observer status.
13
Trade and Development Board Agenda, TD/B/52/1, July 29, 2005.
14
Ibid.
4
Recommended Resources
Bangkok Plan of Action, Symbol TD/390, United Nations Document, 2000. Retrieved October 27, 2005 from
http://www.unctad.org/en/docs/ux_td386.en.pdf
This is the document produced by the previous Conference in 2000; it offers an overview of issues of
importance, goals and direction that can be compared to the Sao Paulo Consensus.
Everyman’s United Nations, A Complete Handbook of the Activities and Evolution of the United Nations During its
First Twenty Years, 1945-1965, 8th edition, United Nation Publication E.67.I.2, New York 1968.
This is another general reference that gives a good background on the creation of UNCTAD.
Osmanczyk, Edmund Jan, Encyclopedia of the United Nations and International Agreements, 2nd edition, Taylor and
Francis Inc. 1990.
This is a good reference for general information on UNCTAD and other UN programs.
Sao Paulo Consensus, Symbol TD/410, United Nations Document, 2004. Retrieved October 27, 2005 from
http://www.unctad.org/en/docs/tdl380_en.pdf
This Consensus was passed by the last Conference and is the most recent look at what UNCTAD has done,
the progress it has made and issues that it will focus on in the future.
UNCTAD Handbook of Statistics, United Nations Publication E/F.05.II.D.4, New York, 2004.
This resource gives the statistical data that UNCTAD collects and utilizes in its decision-making.
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Homepage. Retrieved on October 27, 2005 from
www.unctad.org.
This website offers a brief and general history of UNCTAD, programs that it is operating, a list of all the
member states as well as observer NGO’s, recent publications and access to relating UN documents. This
site also provides access to UNCTAD’s agreements that have passed. Most of the basic information about
UNCTAD and the issues it is concerned with is found here.
United Nations Millennium Agreement, Resolution A/55/L2, 2000.
This UN Agreement details the aims of the UN in the new millennium in all areas of work. Documents and
reports on the UN Millennium Development goals can be found at
http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/documents.html while general information about the Millennium
Development Goals is located at http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/
Yearbook of the United Nations 1964, United Nations Publication 65.I.1, Office of Public Information, United
Nations, New York, 1966.
This provides the original resolution that created UNCTAD and contains its mandate.
5
Kristin Sheehy
UNCTAD Chair
Topic #1 Background
Defining and Developing a Fair Trade Policy
“Solidarity and a strong sense of moral responsibility must be the guiding light of national and international
politics.”15 This assertion in the Bangkok Declaration adopted at the 2000 United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development (UNCTAD) held in Bangkok, Thailand, is a good illustration of the beliefs and goals set forth by this
conference. The conference focused on developing a policy through which international trade would be more
equalized. Implying primarily that the poorest and developing countries should be given assistance in entering the
global market in a competitive manner. UNCTAD has historically been one of the strongest voices in the
international community in support of the least developed countries (LDCs) and developing nations, it has typically
been the liaison between the LDCs and the more developed nations. UNCTAD has worked to achieve a global
economic system that is equitable and fair as well as free. Fair trade and free trade are very different goals and each
requires a unique policy. The ultimate goal of UNCTAD is to facilitate communication and cooperation between
the LDCs and the more developed nations in order to find a way to bring the LDCs onto a more even playing field
with the rest of the world. The trade policies that UNCTAD implements are designed to give LDCs assistance in
entering the global market. The policy of free trade would prohibit giving any preference or additional assistance to
some countries, but in order to achieve fair trade it is necessary.
There are many issues that relate to the creation of a fair trade policy, at UNCTAD X in 2000, the Bangkok
Declaration specified a few of issues that would be important in creating this policy: “This will involve, among other
things, improving market access for goods and services of particular interest to developing countries, resolving
issues relating to the accession to the WTO16, and providing technical assistance.”17 Other issues that are important
in order to achieve fair trade are: the need for countries to build an infrastructure that can respond to the demands of
the market, technology development and a transfer of this technology to developing countries. The ultimate goal of
this policy should be the ability of the LDCs and the developing countries to be self-sustaining and fully integrated
in the world economy. Increasing access to the world market is also a major issue to contend with in dealing with
fair trade. Making the world market more accessible to developing countries, and encouraging their entrance should
be one of the primary goals in articulating a fair trade policy. Allowing LDCs free access to trade their goods will
go a long way toward improving their overall economic status and capability. Allowing the use of duty-free and
quota-free markets will also help stimulate the entrance of LDCs into the world market. The use of special and
differential treatment (SDT) to aid particular countries is also an option to assist some nations entering in to the
world market. This allows for special cases of countries that may need more intensive and detailed help to receive
it, in order to be put on the even playing field in the world economy. One of the most important areas that
UNCTAD has influence over is helping LDCs create national policy that will help with their integration into the
world economy. UNCTAD works very hard with developing nations to help them create national policies that will
help initiate growth and independence in the global market. This area of policy is where UNCTAD has the most
influence.
The issue of fair trade is a relatively new one for UNCTAD to focus on. The conference has always dealt
with some of the issues involved in it, but has recently made a concerted effort to work on a solution to the problem.
In 2000, at the Bangkok conference, the declaration stated that the “Conference emphasizes commitment to a
multilateral trading system that is fair, equitable and rules-based and that operates in a non-discriminatory and
transparent manner and in a way that provides benefits for all countries, especially developing countries.” 18 The
conference then passed the Bangkok Plan of Action19 which was a guideline for what UNCTAD thought needed to
happen in the future. One of the major tenets of this plan was that there needed to be some sort of uniform policy
regarding international trade, tariffs, and LDCs. There was a great need to define how LDCs and developing
countries were going to enter into the world economy and have a fair chance at succeeding. One of the ideas that the
Plan proposed was that “market access conditions for agricultural and industrial products of export interest to LDCs
should be improved on as broad and liberal a basis as possible and urgent consideration should be given to the
15
Bangkok Declaration, section 9.
16
World Trade Organization
17
Bangkok Declaration, section 10.
18
Bangkok Declaration, section 10.
19
Plan of Action, 18 February 2000, TD/386.
6
proposal for a possible commitment by developed countries to grant duty-free and quota-free market access for
essentially all exports originating in LDCs and other proposals to maximize market access for LDCs.” 20 Allowing
LDCs less restricted access to the world markets would help to establish them in the economy. This would be an
initial hand up until they could sustain trade in their own right. This is why it was so important for UNCTAD to
work with domestic governments to ensure that trade would be sustainable once the assistance was gone.
In 2004, UNCTAD met in Sao Paulo, Brazil where the conference once again took up the issue of fair
trade. The LDCs continued to be an issue of concern as their place in the global economy did not improve as hoped.
“The share of the African countries and LDCs in world trade has continued to fall, and their terms of trade have
deteriorated, making it difficult for them to build competitive productive and supply capacity. In the face of this, all
WTO members have committed themselves to the objectives of duty-free, quota-free market access for products
originating in LDCs.”21 The commitment to creating a trade environment that would help the LDCs enter into the
global economy was the main theme of this consensus. The Sao Paulo Consensus essentially reaffirmed the goals
set forth by the Bangkok Plan of Action. Stressing that the LDCs needed to be included into the world economy,
and that there needs to be international support in order to help them achieve that goal. Trade can not be fair if a
large portion of the world is excluded due to the fact that they are unable to enter into trade. The initial help is what
UNCTAD is attempting to provide. Another program that the Sao Paulo Conference supported was the use of the
Global System of Trade Preferences among Developing Countries (GSTP). The GSTP promotes preferential
treatment and creates many opportunities to increase trade, especially for the LDCs. One of the goals set forth at
Sao Paulo addressed reviewing the use of SDT. “Special and differential treatment provisions should be conceived
as a developmental tool addressing developing countries’ particular needs and reviewed with a view to making them
more precise, effective and operation, in order, inter alia, to facilitate the beneficial and fuller integration of
developing countries into the rules-based multilateral trading system.” 22 While UNCTAD is looking to assist
developing countries enter into the global economy, these special provisions are not seen as permanent.
The most recent development in this area is the development of what has been called the “Trade Marshall
Plan” by some. This plan has been developed with the growing belief that expanding market access alone will not
be enough to bring the LDCs into the world market in a competitive way. This plan is an attempt to find a solution
to this problem. There are three main pillars to this plan, the first being the creation of duty-free and quota-free
markets. This is not a drastic change from the plans of the past years. This option has long been looked upon as
beneficial. This would change the current system of unenforceable preferential treatment and apply a uniform
policy to all LDCs. The second pillar of this plan is to provide support for the LDCs in improving their internal
trade structure and building opportunities for gain, such as tourism and entertainment. The third pillar of the plan is
a “Trade-for-Aid” package that would help to offset the costs of making these changes. 23 This is the most current
thinking in the area of fair trade and has yet to be put into effect.
The idea of making the world economy a fairer marketplace began back in the 1970’s with the beginning of
many programs that are still in place today. One of the first programs instituted was the Special and Differential
Treatment for the Developing Countries. This plan was put into place to favor the developing countries in order to
help them gain access to the global market and succeed in international trade. The goal was to help overcome some
of the initial inequalities faced by the LDCs by favoring them in trade. This was to be accomplished through many
different measures. One of the most important measures to carry out this goal was the Generalized System of
Preferences (GSP). The problem found with these programs though, prohibited them from having the desired effect.
They were not all-inclusive and were not mandatory for all nations. The fact that they were voluntary made it
almost impossible for them to succeed. GSP plans were autonomous, leading to many different policies. One of the
goals of the current UNCTAD is to create a comprehensive policy in an attempt to eliminate this inconsistency. The
best way to promote trade and development is through consistent, uniform plans, and the lack of this has made it
difficult for some countries entering into the world economy.
Trade preferences have been in place since the 1970’s as well, but these seem to have little effect on the
overall status of LDCs trade and position in the global market. “Preferences have led developing countries, and
LDCs in particular, to invest in economic activities that have little chance of survival in the absence of such
preferences.”24 There are many opponents of preferential treatment and international organizations have moved
20
Ibid. section 58.
21
Sao Paulo Consensus, section 66.
22
Ibid. section 82.
23
UNCTAD Press Release, UNCTAD/PRESS/PR/2005/020/Rev.1, 14 June 2005.
24
Trade Marshall Plan, page 27.
7
toward other measures such as GSP to help developing countries enter the world economy and strengthen their
national plans for trade development. The creation of UNCTAD was one of the most important steps taken by the
international community to combat the problems facing LDCs and developing countries. UNCTAD has been a
strong force in achieving many of the systems that are in place today. The creation of a fair trade policy has never
been defined as such and in order for the goal of helping developing countries enter the global economy successfully
to be achieved, there needs to be a uniform concept of what is acceptable and what is unacceptable, for both
developing and developed nations.
In the drafting of a fair trade policy there are many different issues and aspects regarding trade that need to
be considered. One of the most important issues to be addressed is how much aid should be given to LDCs to assist
their integration into the world market. This question then leads to a discussion of how that aid is to be distributed,
what are the circumstances necessary for international aid, how long will this aid be available, and where the
funding will come from. What form the aid will take is another related issue, technology improvement, monetary
assistance, or a better position in markets for a time? In the creation of a fair trade policy, attention needs to be paid
to all of the participants, both the developed and developing countries. The policy should reflect a compromise of
these competing interests, as well as a rationale for why it is necessary to promote fair trade above free trade in some
instances. Looking more toward this theoretical side of policy, a definition of fair trade ought to be reached, in order
for there to be a unified vision of what is to be accomplished. A fair trade policy should also take into account
previous efforts that have been made to equalize trade opportunities, examine how they were successful and
improvements that could be made. Developing uniform standards for implementation of this policy is essential.
Without standards to judge the necessity of aid, or the obligation to give aid, there will be no coherent policy.
Standards need to be reached detailing what is necessary for a country to receive aid, factors such as income,
population, and GDP are some of the areas involved. There must be a way of applying solutions created by the
conference in order to make trade fair and less subjective. The mandate of UNCTAD must be considered while
formulating a fair trade policy, who does UNCTAD champion, and how does this affect their policy? Keep in mind
the goals set forth by both past and current conferences. There are many other issues that enter into the formation of
a fair trade policy. The issues stated above are a few examples of places to start when brainstorming ideas. They
are also some of the key issues that need to be addressed in developing and defining a fair trade policy.
8
Recommended Resources
Bangkok Plan of Action, Symbol TD/390, United Nations Document, 2000. Retrieved October 27, 2005 from
http://www.unctad.org/en/docs/ux_td386.en.pdf
This is the document produced by the 2000 UNCTAD conference. This is the first look at redefining the
fair trade practices already in place. It is the precursor to the ideas found in the Sao Paulo Consensus.
Bangkok Declaration: Global Dialogue and Dynamic Engagement, United Nations Document TD/387, 18 February
2000. Retrieved on October 27, 2005 from http://www.twnside.org.sg/title/twr116j.htm
This is a good overview of the ideas expressed in the Plan of Action, it generalizes what the conference
hoped to accomplish through their Plan.
Generalized System of Preferences and the Multilateral Trade Negotiations, United Nations Document
TD/B/C.5/52/Rev.1, United Nations Press, New York, 1978.
This document is a good view of the GSP and what its goals were. This is a good resource for
understanding the goals and hopes of GSP during the time it was created.
Sao Paulo Consensus, Symbol TD/410, United Nations Document, 2004. Retrieved October 27, 2005 from
http://www.unctad.org/en/docs/tdl380_en.pdf
This is the document produced by the last UNCTAD conference held in 2004. It is one of the most current
resources on the actions of the conference.
Towards a New Trade “Marshall Plan” for Least Developed Countries. Retrieved October 27, 2005 from
http://www.unctad.org/en/docs/ditctabpov_en.pdf.
This is the newest plan of the UNCTAD conference dealing with the issue of fair trade. This is the new
approach that is being planned. It also has a lot of good background on what has been done before in this
area.
UNCTAD Study Proposes New Trade ‘Marshall Plan’ for Least Developed Countries, UNCTAD Press Release,
UNCTAD/PRESS/PR/2005/020/Rev.1, 14 June 2005. Retrieved October 27, 2005 from
http://www.unctad.org/Templates/webflyer.asp?docid=5982&intItemID=1634&lang=1
This press release is an excellent overview of the Trade Marshall Plan and what it hopes to accomplish.
United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3362 (S-VII), September 16, 1975: Development and International
Economic Cooperation, in The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 70, No. 1 (Jan.,1976), 204-
216.
This resolution is an additional source to give insight into what the United Nations hoped to accomplish in
the 1970s regarding trade. This document refers often to UNCTAD and what they should accomplish in
their next conference.
Walter, Robert S., International Organizations and Political Communication: The Use of UNCTAD by Less
Developed Countries, in International Organization, Vol.25, No. 4 (Autumn, 1971), 818-835.
This article, while not directly related to developing fair trade, is an excellent overview of how UNCTAD
is an institution that champions LDCs. This analyzes how successful UNCTAD has been in accomplishing
its aims. This is an excellent look at both the positive and the negative sides of UNCTAD.
9
Jim Zadick
CCPCJ Chair
Topic #2 Background
Creating a Global Consensus on Intellectual Property Rights and Patents
Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) cover a broad range of topics and products, including everything from
AIDS/HIV drugs to pirated music and soft drink formulas. Formally, IPRs are defined as “legal and institutional
devices to protect creations of the mind such as inventions, works of art and literature, and designs.” 25 Governments
have been attempting to regulate IPRs through patents, trademarks, industrial designs, trade secrets, and copyrights
for over two centuries. Those that apply for and receive IPR protection through patents, trademarks, etc, gain an
exclusive right to the product, process, or name in question for a set period of time which varies by type. The most
concerted and important efforts regarding IPRs have occurred in the last decade, with the creation of the World
Trade Organization (WTO) and subsequent adoption of the Trade Related aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
(TRIPS) agreement in 1995.26 All current international IPR debate occurs under the shadow of this agreement,
which established minimum levels of protection and enforcement of IPRs, and has 148 member nations. 27 With the
inclusion of TRIPS in the WTO, IPRs became a center piece in the debate on international trade. Not only does this
debate involve how to stem the illegal copying and piracy of IPR-protected materials, but how to best manage IPRs
between more and less developed nations.
Developed nations historically favor stricter enforcement and regulation of IPRs to protect business
developments and encourage innovation, while developing countries often favor less binding and more relaxed
IPRs, and the resulting easy transfer of ideas, as a path to greater development. With today’s highly technological
world, IPRs have become an even bigger issue, as the threat of idea theft (such as bootlegging and software piracy)
and the promise of increased development (through shared innovations) loom larger than ever before. The issue of
IPRs thus balances between two sides, begging the question, “What combination of enforcement and regulation will
satisfy all nations’ interests in protecting business while continuing to allow advancement and benefits from new
knowledge?”
What is Happening Now
As previously stated, the most important recent development in the realm of IPRs was the creation of the
TRIPS agreement. This agreement today forms the basis of IPRs regulation and enforcement, and can be seen as the
starting point for any reformation. Specifically, TRIPS outlines an international standard for IPRs and states three
basic principles: treat all national and foreign products equally, treat all national products of trading partners equally,
and recognize that IPRs should aid in technical innovation and the transfer of technology. 28 TRIPS requires all
signers to maintain a minimum level of Intellectual Property (IP) protection, although it allows lesser developed
countries a grace period of either five or ten years to implement the agreement, depending on their level of
development (giving a greater amount of time to poorer countries). This was done to allow a more open flow of
ideas in countries that lack a high degree of industrialization and/or a high tech industry. The reasoning behind this
is that if countries are allowed to be lenient on IPRs while they develop, new technology is not monopolized by one
company entity for the duration of an IPR, which can be seen as a roadblock to efficient development.
Besides internationally standardizing IPRs levels and providing a time table for implementation, the TRIPS
agreement also provides a venue for adjudicating disagreements in an international setting through the Dispute
Settlement Body of the WTO. Countries in a disagreement over IPRs and their enforcement can bring cases to the
body for settlement, adding a level of certainty during IP conflicts in an often chaotic international environment.
Ultimately, TRIPS represents the current status of international IPRs, yet it is certainly not the last word. Much
uncertainty surrounds the TRIPS agreement, for “it is widely accepted that the effects of TRIPs on industry and
25
Intellectual Property Rights: Implications for development: UNCTAD-ICTSD Policy Paper [on-line]; Available
from http://www.iprsonline.org/unctadictsd/policyDpaper.htm accessed Sept. 23, 2005.
26
Rajah Rasiah “TRIPS and Capability Building in Developing Economies: Critical Issues” Journal of
Contemporary Asia 33, no. 3 (2003): p. 339
27
Intellectual Property: protection and enforcement [on-line]; Available from
http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/agrm7_e.htm accessed Sept. 23, 2005
28
Overview: The TRIPS Agreement [on-line]; Available from
http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/trips_e/intel2_e.htm accessed Sept. 23, 2005.
10
technology will vary according to countries’ levels of economic development,” making the application of a uniform
agreement difficult and contentious.29
Despite this relatively recent agreement on IPRs, debate continues to rage over how to best administer an
IPRs system that does not hamper poor countries’ access to new technologies while still providing an economic
incentive for invention through the granting of exclusive rights to new innovations, as the current conflict over
AIDS/HIV drugs illustrates. Essentially, developed (rich) countries and businesses believe that “effective protection
and policy supports [IPRs] for markets are necessary to increase the willingness of innovative firms to provide
knowledge of their production processes to firms in developing [poor] countries,” while “technology importers
[developing and poor countries] are interested in acquiring knowledge at minimal cost [thus having lenient IPRs].” 30
If IPRs are too restrictive, new technology and innovation becomes out of reach of poor countries due to
high costs, as can be evidenced by the high cost of AIDS/HIV drugs. Those in favor of supporting drug patents and
IPR regulation for AIDS/HIV medication contend that exclusive rights to the production, importation, and
marketing of a drug allows pharmaceutical companies to regain some of the costs of research and development,
thereby encouraging them to develop more drugs. Opponents argue that strict regulations create a monopoly on
technology and innovation, inhibiting the transfer of new medicinal knowledge to developing countries. Recently,
some countries heavily afflicted by AIDS, such as South Africa, have begun to pass legislation allowing the
government to override drug patents (a form of IPRs) in the interest of public health, creating further controversy. 31
As these examples suggest, IPRs debate does not solely concern itself with matters of business or trade, but neither
is it limited to drug companies. IPRs issues touch the lives of all people, and fundamentally affect not only the
development of the poorest nations, but also influence the incentive for invention and research in industrialized
nations. While there is a current international agreement on IRPs in the form of TRIPS, countries on both sides are
not yet satisfied, as the debate over AIDS drugs and South Africa’s actions shows.
UNCTAD Work and Relevancy
Currently, UNCTAD and the International Center for Trade and Sustainable Development are conducting a
two-year study on IPRs, with the purposes of “[improving] understanding of the development implications of the
TRIPS Agreement” as well as “[strengthening] the analytical and negotiating capacity of developing countries so
that they are better able to participate in IPR-related negotiations in an informed fashion in furtherance of their
sustainable development objectives.”32 Therefore, not only is the topic of IPRs currently extremely relevant to the
committee, but it is also under the larger auspices of the Committees goals of furthering trade and development.
Currently, UNCTAD recognizes that IPRs and TRIPS mainly benefit developed countries. Those countries that
have an advanced economy and industrial sector require IPRs to protect their investments as they conduct new
research. Poorer countries are hampered by IPRs due to the fact that they often can not afford to conduct research
on their own, and rely on importing new technology from more developed countries. Because of this imbalance,
UNCTAD is seeking to discover a system, through debate and research, which can better work to the benefit of all
nations, irregardless of wealth or their level of technological expertise. UNCTAD wishes to be a forum in which the
mysteries and problems of international trade, which includes IPRs, can be worked out in an effort to create better
policies.
Conclusion
The consideration of IPRs should not be confined to any one area, whether it is enforcement and regulation
against piracy, debate over pharmaceuticals, or assisting international development. It is all those things, and they
all need to be taken into consideration and balanced against the particular needs and desires of any nation to create
an effective policy. As I have stated previously, IPRs govern how technology and knowledge is protected and
transferred, essentially deciding how it will benefit society and the international community. In preparing for this
topic, it is important for the delegate to consider the state and relative wealth of their economy, for this will affect
their outlook on IPRs. Does a particularly rich state have an interest in protecting its highly advanced economy and
industries? Does a poor state need imported technology to further develop and combat a possible AIDS epidemic?
Yet a particular state does not need to fit either profile, for rich countries can be equally concerned with
29
Sanjaya Lall, “Indicators of the Relative Importance of IPRs in Developing Countries,” UNCTAD-ICTSD Issue
Paper #3 [on-line]; Available from http://www.ictsd.org/pubs/ictsd_series/iprs/CS_lall.pdf, accessed Sept. 24, 2005.
30
Keith E. Maskus, “Encouraging International Technology Transfer,” UNCTAD-ICTSD Issue Paper #7 [on-line];
Available from http://www.iprsonline.org/unctadictsd/policyDpaper.htm.
31
“Drugs War,” Managing Intellectual Property 108, (April 2001): p. 14.
32
UNCTAD-ITCSD Capacity Building Project on IPRs [on-line]; Available from
http://www.iprsonline.org/unctadictsd/description.htm, accessed Sept. 24, 2005.
11
development, and poor countries can attempt to restrict the piracy of protected materials. Examining this issue asks
a fundamental question that is important to the development of all nations, for it deals with how new technology and
knowledge will be shared with the rest of the world. Tilting the scale too far towards the regulation or free access of
IP can have dire consequences for not only an individual economy, but for the continuation of international trade
and development. Thus do not look at IPRs as solely impersonal patents or copyrights, but as a method for
humanity to systematically share its knowledge to create further social growth and benefits. The structure of IPRs is
a major factor in the growth and development of all nations, and should be treated as such. As an UNCTAD report
on IPRs proclaims, delegates must consider “what levels of IPR protection bring benefits, to whom and in which
societies.”33
33
Graham Dutfield, et al, “Intellectual Property Rights: Implications for Development,” [on-line] Available from
http://www.iprsonline.org/unctadictsd/policyDpaper.htm, Accessed Sept. 24, 2005.
12
Recommended Resources
Dutfield, Graham et al, Intellectual Property Rights: Implications for Development, [on-line] Available from
http://www.iprsonline.org/unctadictsd/policyDpaper.htm accessed Sept. 24, 2005.
The main policy paper from UNCTAD, it shows what the committee has found about the impact of IPRs to
date, especially how it relates to development of poor countries. Go to this to gain a basic understanding of
the impact and implications of IPRs.
Lall, Sanjaya, Indicators of the Relative Importance of IPRs in Developing Countries, UNCTAD-ICTSD Issue Paper
#3 [on-line]; Available from http://www.ictsd.org/pubs/ictsd_series/iprs/CS_lall.pdf accessed Sept. 24, 2005.
The policy papers put out by the UNCTAD-ICTSD program are all written by well-respected experts in the
field and offer examinations of almost every important issue relating to IPRs. Each usually comes with an
executive summary that is especially helpful in gaining a quick grasp for the topic.
Maskus, Keith E., Encouraging International Technology Transfer, UNCTAD-ICTSD Issue Paper #7 [on-line];
Available from http://www.iprsonline.org/unctadictsd/policyDpaper.htm
Another policy paper from UNCTAD. Visit the main website, www.iprsonline.org, to learn of the current
undertakings of the UN surrounding IPRs. It also has links to a number of press releases and news articles
to get current developments concerning trade and IPRs.
Mananging Intellectual Property. Drugs War. Managing Intellectual Property 108, (April 2001): p. 14. Available
from http://www.managingip.com/, accessed September 24, 2005.
This periodical is for those concerned with protecting IPRs, which would be helpful for delegates from
developed and richer nations.
Rasiah, Rajah, “TRIPS and Capability Building in Developing Economies: Critical Issues,” Journal of
Contemporary Asia 33, no. 3 (2003): p. 339
A region-specific study of the impact of TRIPs, this document is written from the perspective of a
developing country, and therefore would be helpful for those delegates that represent such a nation.
UNCTAD-ITCSD Capacity Building Project on IPRs [on-line]; Available from
http://www.iprsonline.org/unctadictsd/description.htm accessed Sept. 24, 2005.
Again, the UNCTAD-ITCSD website will be extremely helpful in learning what the committee is currently
up to. It explains the reasons for pursuing IPR research, and has all of the current news and reports.
UNCTAD. Intellectual Property Rights: Implications for development: UNCTAD-ICTSD Policy Paper [on-line];
Available from http://www.iprsonline.org/unctadictsd/policyDpaper.htm accessed Sept. 23, 2005.
This is an excellent source from UNCTAD. Their series of policy papers covers a wide and informative
range of topics, I would suggest browsing them to get a feel of what the committee believes.
World Trade Organization. Intellectual Property: protection and enforcement [on-line]; Available from
http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/agrm7_e.htm accessed Sept. 23, 2005
I would recommend visiting the WTO website to get a feel for the TRIPs document and what it entails.
The website is extremely easy to grasp, and lays out the basics of international trade and intellectual
property in a brief, easy to comprehend way. It also defines important terms and trade subjects.
World Trade Orgranization. Overview: The TRIPS Agreement [on-line]; Available from
http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/trips_e/intel2_e.htm accessed Sept. 23, 2005.
Again, visit the WTO website to gain information on the current state of trade and what the current
regulations are.
13
Jim Zadick
CCPCJ Chair
Topic #3 Background
Reviewing and Unifying Foreign Aid Criteria
The debate on foreign aid covers a wide range of topics, and is considered one of the most pressing issues
facing the international community today. There are today over 75 developmental aid agencies dispensing some
form of aid to developing countries, adding a level of complexity to an already contentious political and social
issue.34 Specifically, the issue is a primary concern of such groups as the United Nations, the G8 (a group of the
richest 8 nations), the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (30 of the richest nations), the
International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the World Bank, as well as numerous individual donor nations. Foreign aid
is not restricted to pure economic (monetary) assistance; it can also take the form of debt relief, food aid, and
technical assistance in such areas as medicine, agriculture, and infrastructure. Fundamentally, an attempt to unify
foreign aid criteria is an attempt to reach a global consensus on whether “rich” nations have a duty to help “poor”
nations, asking what level of aid (if any) is adequate, and what form (money, debt relief, etc) this foreign aid should
take.
History
The modern history of foreign aid begins shortly after WWII, when the allied and victorious nations
convened to form what became known as the Bretton Woods institutions (so named because of the location of the
conference). These inter-governmental organizations, the World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF),
became the prime venues for the direction of foreign aid in the middle of the 20 th century. The IMF, headquartered
in Washington DC, was established in part to “help low-income countries with policy advice, technical assistance,
and financial support.”35 By providing long-term loans of cash to those developing countries that request it for
around ten years, the IMF hopes to build economic stability and initiate growth and good governance through its
lending and monitoring services. To achieve this goal, the IMF places large demands on a country in order to
receive the loan, and many low-income countries become imbalanced by the IMF’s stringent demands on
governmental and economic reform as a condition of the loan process, threatening their sovereignty and possibly
further destabilizing the country. Many also become irreversibly straddled with large amounts of debt and interest
that they must pay back, creating a vicious cycle where money meant for their citizenry must instead be used to pay
back the IMF. The IMF has recently started a policy of debt relief (where it allows a country to not pay back a loan)
for the most heavily indebted nations, but this policy is extremely controversial, and many countries still struggle
with IMF ordered reform and loan repayment.
The World Bank is another inter-governmental organization that was established after WWII at the Bretton
Woods conference. The World Bank, also based in Washington DC, operates in a similar fashion as the IMF,
providing low-interest loans to countries “for goods, works and services in support of economic and social
development projects.”36 While the IMF provides loans for unspecific purposes, the World Bank provides both
monetary loans and grants (which are not paid back) for specific projects that must be approved and monitored by
the Bank staff. The Bank faces some of the same criticism leveled at the IMF, for its loans were often just used to
pay back IMF debt by poor countries. 37 Both of the Bretton Woods institutions, the IMF and World Bank, are large
lenders to poor nations, and thus significant players in international foreign aid, yet the debt that nations incur and
reforms they must endure are controversial topics still to be resolved. Furthermore, both organizations are
controlled by those countries that pay the highest membership dues, which are inevitably the richest nations. This
may take the controls of development out of the hands of the developing nations, creating, as some critics assert, a
34
“Revitalizing public interest in aid for global health,” The Lancet 363, no. 9410 (Feb 8, 2004): p. 669.
35
How the IMF Helps Poor Countries [on-line], available from http://www.imf.org/external/np/exr/facts/poor.htm,
accessed Sept. 30, 2005.
36
Operations [on-line]; available from
http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTABOUTUS/0,,contentMDK:20103838~menuPK:1697023~pa
gePK:51123644~piPK:329829~theSitePK:29708,00.html, accessed Sept 30, 2005.
37
“Dithering on Debt,” The Economist 375, no. 8423 (4/23/05): p. 13.
14
type of “market colonialism” where rich nations merely dictate market-friendly policy reform to poor nations that
may not be ready to open their economy, causing upheaval and shaky adjustment in weak economies. 38
The most important recent historical development in foreign aid began in the mid-1990’s, with the adoption
of the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) by the United Nations. These goals, created in 2000 by an
agglomeration of the UN, non-governmental organizations, academics, the private sector, and international financial
institutions (such as the IMF and World Bank) set the tone for development for the next 15 years. Hoping to
achieve its 8 stated goals by 2015, the MDG specially hopes to: 1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger, 2. Achieve
universal primary education, 3. Promote gender equality and empower women, 4. Reduce child mortality, 5.
Improve maternal health, 6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases, 7. Ensure environmental sustainability,
and 8. Develop a global partnership for development. 39 To meet these lofty goals, world leaders have met frequently
to pledge support, but there has been little success in meeting the goals in the past ten years. In 2002 in Monterrey,
Mexico, world leaders committed to donating 0.7 percent of gross national income (GNI) to developmental aid, yet
only five of the 191 pledging countries have so far met this goal (Denmark, Luxemburg, Netherlands, Norway, and
Sweden).40 The United States, the richest nation, donates a mere 0.16 percent of GNI. The Millennium
Development Goals represent a map to the end of many of the world’s maladies, yet they remain largely unmet
while facing considerable political opposition, as evidenced by the global failure to meet even the 0.7 percent
standard. Furthermore, the MDG lack a consensus in how to meet their 8 aims, with world leaders quibbling over
how much or even what to give.
The history of foreign aid is dismal. Many of the policies of the past, such as the efforts of the IMF and
World Bank, have unsettled governments (particularly in Latin America and Africa) and created enormous sums of
debt, which stood at roughly 101 percent of the combined Least Developed Countries’ Gross National Product in
2000.41 More worryingly, after receiving $568 billion dollars in foreign aid in the past 43 years, Africa still remains
desperately poor.42 The poorest nations on Earth are ever faster falling behind, and a global consensus on just what
action to take has still not been developed.
What is happening now?
Currently, international efforts and rhetoric concerning the MDG, as well as debt relief, are dominating the
discussion of foreign aid. As previously stated, the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) have fallen on hard
times, and there is a concerted international effort to get on track to meet the 2015 deadline for the 8 Goals.
Recently, on Sept 14-16, the UN held the 2005 World Summit in New York City, bringing together over 150 world
leaders to kick-start the Goals. Yet, despite the optimistic talk and the biggest proposed reforms to the UN in 60
years, the 2005 Summit was seen as a disappointing failure, producing more speeches than action. Limited progress
was made in the MDG, with the UN agreeing to provide $50 billion in the next five years, and the developing
nations pledging to provide national plans of action by 2006. 43 Furthermore, there has been significant opposition to
the MGD by the US delegation at the UN, which sought to eliminate all reference to the MDG in the UN plan prior
to the Summit, a significant roadblock to meeting the Goals, as US support is seen as crucial. 44 In the latest Human
Development Report, the UN estimated that with current progress and aid, most poor countries will fall short of the
MDG, some by “epic margins.”45 With only 10 years left, little progress has been made on the goals, with political
bickering hampering development. While the MDG represent an important step in the foreign aid debate, they are
far from complete, and not close to being attained, as the current developments can attest. As a document, the UN
Millennium Project stands at 3,751 pages, representing 449 steps to meet 18 goals and sub-goals, a complex and
lofty set plan with little direction.46 To successfully achieve the MDG, there must be concerted international effort
to create a unifying process in which all nations work together to actively achieve the Goals, providing concrete
action instead of more speeches.
38
Jean-Philippe Therien, “Debating Foreign Aid: right versus left,” Third World Quarterly 23, no. 3 (2002): p. 453.
39
What are the Millennium Development Goals? [on-line], available from http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/,
accessed Oct. 1, 2005.
40
“Meeting the Millennium Development Goals”, America 193, no. 6 (Sept. 12, 2005): p. 4.
41
UNCTAD Least Developed Countries Report 2000 [on-line], available from
http://www.unctad.org/en/docs/ldc00ove.en.pdf, accessed Sept. 30, 2005.
42
William Easterly, “The Utopian Nightmare,” Foreign Policy (Sept./Oct. 2005): p. 61.
43
“UN Summit 2005: gridlock at the gabfest,” The Lancet 366 (Sept 24, 2005): p. 1051.
44
Warren Hoge, “U.N. Members Dig in Heels in Aid Dispute with US,” The New York Times (Sept. 3, 2005)
45
“Aspirations and Obligations- The UN’s Millennium Development Goals,” The Economist (Sept. 5, 2005).
46
William Easterly, “The Utopian Nightmare,” Foreign Policy (Sept/Oct 2005): p. 63.
15
Besides the MDG debate, the G8 (a group of the richest 8 nations: the UK, Russia, Germany, Japan, Italy,
Canada, France, and the US) met recently in Scotland to discuss the topic of debt relief. The meeting in Scotland
produced an agreement to cancel the debts of 18 (14 in Africa) of the poorest and most indebted nations, a sum of
$40 billion dollars that the IMF and World Bank will not be paid back.47 Following this lead, the World Bank and
the IMF recently included another 38 countries that are eligible for debt forgiveness. Despite these efforts, there are
still more than 100 nations that would require total debt relief to meet the MDG by 2015. Africa’s debt alone stands
at $295 billion.48 Furthermore, not all heavily indebted nations are poor enough to merit debt relief, and many argue
that debt is a symptom, and not a cause, of poverty. Critics of across-the-board debt relief argue that it would
merely encourage the dictators and inefficient bureaucracies of poor nations to continue to squander their money,
that debt relief lacking any effort at reform promotes bad government by failing to correct corruption. If a country
can simply escape debt, they argue, why would it learn to be fiscally responsible?
Debt forgiveness, the MDG, and foreign aid are inextricably connected. If all aid goes to paying off debt,
what good does it do? And if debt is lowered, but aid is not increased, will any real progress be made? The MDG
represent a current idea of foreign aid, yet they remain unmet and in disarray. A review of foreign aid criteria and a
unification of action are needed if any progress is to be achieved.
Committee Work and Conclusion
The topic is relevant to the committee in that development is largely dependent on foreign aid. UNCATD
realizes that external finance is necessary if some nations are to develop, but the question is in what form, and how
much. Without a sort of international consensus or unified plan, current goals, and thus further development, can
not be met. Therefore it is the duty of the delegates within UNCTAD to attempt to reach a consensus on what
exactly foreign aid should consist of. Would it be efficient to increase aid without foreign (rich country)
supervision, or would this infringe on the sovereignty of the poor countries? Should rich nations dictate policy goals
to poor nations, forcing them to bend to their demands to receive help? Perhaps rich nations are correct in requiring
reform to receive aid, so that they can ensure the money is not wasted. Another pressing issue covers exactly how
much aid should be given. Should the current goal of 0.7 percent of GNI be lowered, recognizing that only five
countries have met it, and can the UN really tell countries how much money to give? Delegates need to consider the
economic costs of increasing monetary aid, for not all nations are willing to give millions of dollars. Also, delegates
should consider the repercussion of a possible dependency on aid by developing nations, instead of implementing
internal reforms. Perhaps money is not the answer, but increased reforms in poor countries’ government and
economy represents the best path towards development. Lastly, and perhaps most importantly, the course of action
concerning the MDG needs to be considered. How can the UN persuade rich nations, such as the US, to buy into the
plan, and how exactly can these goals be met? The subject of foreign aid is an incredibly complex issue, but one
that is immensely important in the global community.
47
“Giving Africa a Hand,” The Nation 281, no. 3 (July 18/25, 2005): p. 3.
48
“Giving Africa a Hand,” The Nation 281, no. 3 (July 18/25, 2005): p. 3.
16
Recommended Resources
Easterly, William. “The Utopian Nightmare,” Foreign Policy (Sept./Oct. 2005): p. 61.
The Economist. “Aspirations and Obligations- The UN’s Millennium Development Goals,” The Economist (Sept. 5,
2005).
The Economist. “Dithering on Debt,” The Economist 375, no. 8423 (4/23/05): p. 13.
The Lancet. “Revitalizing public interest in aid for global health,” The Lancet 363, no. 9410 (Feb 8, 2004): p. 669.
The Lancet. UN Summit 2005: gridlock at the gabfest, The Lancet 366 (Sept 24, 2005): p. 1051.
Hoge, Warren. “U.N. Members Dig in Heels in Aid Dispute with US,” The New York Times (Sept. 3, 2005)
International Monetary Fund. How the IMF Helps Poor Countries [on-line], available from
http://www.imf.org/external/np/exr/facts/poor.htm accessed Sept. 30, 2005.
The Nation. “Giving Africa a Hand,” The Nation 281, no. 3 (July 18/25, 2005): p. 3.
“Meeting the Millennium Development Goals”, America 193, no. 6 (Sept. 12, 2005): p. 4.
Therien, Jean-Philippe. “Debating Foreign Aid: right versus left,” Third World Quarterly 23, no. 3 (2002): p. 453.
United Nations. What are the Millennium Development Goals? [on-line], available from
http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/ accessed Oct. 1, 2005.
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.UNCTAD Least Developed Countries Report 2000 [on-line],
available from http://www.unctad.org/en/docs/ldc00ove.en.pdf accessed Sept. 30, 2005.
17
