ROMAN EMPIRE
I. FROM REPUBLIC TO EMPIRE: FOUNDATION OF PRINCIPATE BY OCTAVIAN AUGUSTUS A. The problem of the proletariat Last week, we talked about some of the consequences of Roman expansion: how conquering most of the Mediterranean world changed Roman society. The rich got richer; the poor got poorer: Senators like Pliny lived a very comfortable life - supported by their estates (worked by slaves or tenant farmers); the women from such families gained high degree of independence. The poor, however, fell into debt (often while fighting Rome's wars), lost their farms, and migrated by the thousands into Rome. Urban mobs develop - demanding free grain and land, and often violently interfering in Roman politics. New style of Roman politicans arose who became beneficiaries of the "people" (populares) Armies became difficult to recruit - because Romans relied on the small farmers as their main soldiers (required to supply own arms). Generals begin to recruit soldiers from the "proletariat" - a Roman term meaning citizens too poor to provide state with anything except their offspring (proles) These new soldiers saw military service as a profession - rather than a temporary duty. Their loyalties were above all to their generals - who were the ones who got them their retirements (or not) B. Julius Caesar New style of politican and general epitomized by Julius Caesar, in 1st century BC. Julius Caesar was from one of the most aristocratic families of Roman senators (a patrician). He started out as a orator and politician (not a military man); his elaborate public games to the Roman people gained him great popularity. An alliance of convenience with the most famous general of the time (Pompey the Great) got him elected to the highest office (consul) and subsequent command of an army in Gaul. There he made his military reputation - conquering conquering much of north-western Europe - n. Spain, France, Belgium, S. Germany, England (briefly) Civil Wars When Senate tried 50 BC to take away Caesar’s command in Gaul, he led an army against Rome itself. Caesar’s response in 49 BC was to lead a legion across the Rubicon, a small river which separated Cisalpine Gaul and Italy. This began the civil war BETWEEN CAESAR AND SENATE His odds were not good: the senate had a great general - Pompey; and more troops in Greece Nevertheless in 48 BC, at Pharsalus in Greece, Caesar defeated Pompey and the senate - largely because of the loyalty he could command of his troops. Caeasar as dictator It is hard to say whether Caesar would have been able to rule as well as he fought, because after the end of the civil war, he had only a year to live. He offended the Romans by adopting some of the trappings of monarchy. coins - Caesar’s head first image of a living human to appear on a Roman coin 44 BC office of dictator (like Sulla) 49 BC on; by 44 BC, for life. Conspiracy - led by two senators who had gone over to Caesar during the civil wars - Cassius and Marcus Brutus. Caesar aware of conpiracies, but too proud to act against them; renowned for his clementia. He even had disbanded his private body=guard. March 15, 44 BC, ides of March - groups of Roman senators stabbed Caesar in the Senate house; stabbed him. The senators thought that they had restored the Roman Republic They were wrong. Next class we will see how Caesar's heir, Octavian Augustus, founded the Roman empire.
C. Octavian Augustus' founds the Roman Principate In his will, Julius Caesar had adopted a son - Octavian Augustus (Octavian was only 18 years old at the time). He got the loyalty of Caesar's army veterans. Civil war sprang up between Caesar's supporters and the senators who had murdered Caesar After some attempts to share power (the 2nd Triumvirate), Octavian fights a series of civil wars with Mark Antony, one of Caesar's old supporters. The last Hellenistic queen - Cleopatra - fought against Octavian. She became Mark Antony's lover She let him use the wealth of Egypt to attack Octavian. But in 31 BC, Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra. Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide rather than be captured (the Romans considered suicide a noble way to avoid defeat) Octavian had won the civil wars; no one was left to oppose him (he, unlike Caesar, executed his enemies) B. Augustus' foundation of the Principate - a disguised monarchy Actium marks the turning point in Roman history. After this, the Roman Republic is no more, the Roman Empire (or Principate) begins. Instead of Senatorial rule, there is imperial rule. And yet, according to Octavian's own words, he was not the destroyer, but restorer of the Republic. Then in 27 BC Octavian "restores" republic "transferred the Republic from my power into that of the Senate and the Roman People" (RG 34) Senate renames him Augustus in gratitude (after this Octavian called Augustus) What exactly did Octavian mean by restoration of republic? Octavian decided not to call himself dictator or king - but rather princeps and imperator Princeps was his title with respect to the senate - meant "first" of the senators Imperator "emperor" - meant commander of the army; the army gave him this title 1. Republican forms retained - Senate continued to meet, pass laws (senatusconsultum) - Elections returned magistrates like consuls were elected by senate and Assembly again Augustus not even consul after 23 BC, other men were Senate even had say in electing Roman emperors: Senators voted emperors tribunician power (Army voted them imperator) - imperial title not automatically inherited! 2. Powers retained by Augustus: right to veto any legislation; right to convene Senate; right to propose laws
Senate voted him all of these powers - Control of army But real power derived from his control of the army. Imperator "emperor" - meant commander of the army; the army gave him this title Emperor had command of provinces with most legions - Germanies; Syria; Danube; Spain - in emperor's control Changes in army: Army was no long a citizen militia - called up only in times of war - but rather a professional, standing army. 100's of thousands of Roman soldiers were stationed throughout the Roman empire - esp. on the borders. Augustus, as emperor, appointed their commanders, he paid their salaries, he ordered them to fight the wars; the Senate did none of this. So emperor had military control; the power though not title of high magistrates, and enormous revenues Senate still exercised power in form - but in fact the Principate was a little more than a disguised monarchy. II. AGE OF EMPIRES 1ST AND 2ND CENTURIES CE Golden Age of the Roman Empire - but also of the Chinese empire under Han dynasty (206 BC 220 BC) A. Roman Golden Age Pax Romana: shift to a defensive rather than offensive foreign policy Augustus stops the constant wars that had plagued late Republic - both civil wars and overseas expansion Roman territory reached its greatest extent during the reign of Trajan (98-117) (the last conquering emperor) (MAP) During most of the first and the second centuries, the Romans were at peace. Placating the people with bread and circuses Popular unrest quelled by public buildings, grain dole; games (and outlawing of private collegia associations) Emperors established enormous grain distributions - Roman welfare 250,000 citizens in Rome itself got rations of grain from the emperor. (it should be noted that only men got this welfare) Most visible today are the public buildings the emperors built in Rome. Most of the Roman temples, court buildings, bath houses, etc you see in Rome today were built by Augustus and subsequent emperors. Also aqueducts, sewers, and public toilets
And emperors paid for frequent public games Gladiator contests Wild game shows - Romans would watch condemned criminals be torn apart by wild animals imported from their provinces (Romans believed in public rather than secret executions as way to ensure transparency of legal system) (Colosseum)
Economic prosperity Partly as a result of this peace, the Romans enjoyed several centuries of economic prosperity. Evidence for this lies partly in the mount of air pollution they produced: Greek and Roman lead and silver mining and smelting polluted the atmosphere throughout the Northern Hemisphere. Cumulative lead fallout to the Greenland ice sheet from 500 B.C. to 300 A.D. was as high as 15% of that from the use of leaded gasoline since the 1930s. The peak was in the Roman period. (IMAGE OF LEAD POLLUTION IN PEAT BOGS) Romans not the only great empire at the time. B. China: First united 221 BC (about time of Punic Wars for Rome) 202 BC - Han dynasty soon took over Hang dynasty of China: empire comparable to Roman in power and duration (takes over s. Manchuria, n. Korea; Chinese colonists go to these areas as far as n. Vietnam ) The Chinese were known to the Romans (though only barely) Direct sea route to China discovered by Greek captains - ca. 1st c BC - but not fully exploited. Yet political developments in China will end up changing Roman history Comparisons between China and Rome: 1. Peak of their territorial extent at about the same time Hang dynasty of China had an empire comparable to Roman in extent and duration - China took over s. Manchuria, n. Korea (MAP) Roman territory reached its greatest extent during the reign of Trajan (98-117) (the last conquering emperor) (MAP) - Walls on their borders Both empires built major walls to delimitate their territory and protect it from invaders Roman limes: earthen (sometimes stone) walls and forts on border Best known part of it Hadrian's Wall on border between Roman Britian and Pictish Scotland (built 2nd c. AD)
Great Wall of China: Started in the 7th century BC by princes before unification of China Han emperors completed it 3rd c BC (also Chin) - extended 10,000 li or 5,000 kilometers. to protect themselves against Hsiung-no - nomadic peoples on their border B. System of government Ultimate power in both cases in the hands of one man - the emperor Chinese emperors more dynastic (i.e. better chance of emperor's son becoming emperor), partly because Chinese emperors more likely to have sons (the advantage of polygamy). Roman emperors given their power by Senate and (esp.) the army - though typically they chose the man the previous emperor designated as his heir Chinese administration more centralized than Roman Roman empire largely governed through its cities - think of say Chicago having power to collect federal taxes, the Mayor being in charge of all the law courts - and you get some idea. Chinese had a centralized bureaucracy: imperial officials collected the taxes; ran the courts; etc. These bureaucrats that got their office through education- not by birth. young men had to pass state exams in order to be considered for office they were promoted for merit In Roman empire - education was also important - but top offices usually reserved for those of high (i.e. senatorial) birth or military men - even if they were not well educated. Science and technology In part because of emphasis placed on education, Chinese made important scientific and technological advances - esp. in early Han period (3rd c. BC) Discovered sunspots, invented the compass (though used for religious purposes only at this point), first represenation of zero (by space): China 4th c. BC On more practical side: Learned how to use water power to grind grain, and smelt iron. learned how to make iron that resembled steel 3rd c BC (process of annealing) Learned how to make paper from cloth rags - first paper money . Became most scientific farmers in the world: cultivation in rows: 6th c BC (vs. broadcasting used until 18thc in Europe) - much better for irrigation, germination iron plow with curved moldboard: designed to be used with only one ox (not adopted by Europeans until 18th c) the horse collar, which greatly increased the pulling power of horses; The Romans, in contrast, invented almost nothing during the imperial period (Lerner 243 Romans excelled "in drains, not brains") Greeks under Roman rule remained scientifically innovative: Ptolemy Ptolemy lived in Alexandria (in Egypt) from approx. 87 -150 CE.
He was an astronomer, mathemetician and geographer. He believed the planets and sun to orbit the Earth in the order Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn . This system, known as the Ptolemaic System, was not seriously questioned until Copernicus in the 16th century. In addition to his works in astronomy, Ptolemy was very important in the history of geography. Ptolemy invented latitude and longitude - he was the first to place a grid system on a map and use the same grid system for the entire planet. (MAP) We'll see later in the course how the rediscovery of Ptolemy in the late Middle Ages was a factor in leading Columbus to sail to the Americas. C. Acculturation of other civilizations China and Roman Empire were alike in that both acculturated conquered (and sometimes neighboring) peoples - making them Chinese and Romans. This was partly done through colonization: Roman veterans set up as colonists in conquered provinces - like North Africa, Gaul (France), Spain (not so many in the East) Chinese colonists (not veterans, however) settled in much of eastern Asia - as far as n. Vietnam - during Han period. Such colonists helped transmit their culture to other peoples in the area. In both empires - conquered peoples voluntarily adopted Roman or Chinese customs - in order to be upwardly mobile. In Roman empire, this happened especially in Europe and North Africa - where people started to speak Latin, live in Roman-styled cities, worship Graeco-Roman gods; and become citizens. In 212, a Roman emperor (Caracalla) made citizenship universal: every free man in Roman empire was a citizen now. Summary: state of the great empires ca. 200 CE --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------III. THIRD-CENTURY CRISIS AND RECOVERY China falls apart Last Han emperor deposed in 220 by a rebellion (Lerner 307) Chinese empire falls apart, and won't recover for 3 1/2 centuries. (589 Sui Dynasty) Collapse of Chinese empire had repercussions throughout Asia: dynamo effect Peoples in central Asia that had been kept at bay by the Chinese started to move around expand their areas of influence. These central Asians in turned pressed on peoples in western Asia - like the Persians; the Germanic tribes in steppes of Russia and eastern Europe. And the Germans and Persians press on the Romans. Third century crisis Fifteen years after the collapse of Han China, the Roman empire also fell apart: "Third century crisis"
The Roman gov't - unlike the Chinese - will survive this crisis - but it forever changed Roman society. Nature of criss In the second half of the 3rd century, there was a new emperor on average every 11/2 years. Almost all of these emperors died violent deaths – either assassination by their own men, or death in battle. Civil wars arose between armies: the army in Europe would proclaim one emperor; the armies in Syria another. They'd fight to see who got the title. (Motive: The troops would demand higher pay as a reward for supporting a new emperor) Low point: 260 AD The Persian king (Shapur) defeats a Roman army, and captures and kills the Roman emperor (Valerianus) (Shapur then set up an enormous inscription - which survives – bragging about the deed) Afterwards, a rather small Syrian city Palmyra - ends up taking over much of the eastern empire. Ultimate Cause of the Third Century Crisis - Movement of peoples in central Asia - which had pushed peoples like the Goths and Persians against the Roman empire - leading to wars on multiple fronts And as usually happens at times of civil war, the people suffered. To get money to pay off the troops, the emperors minted more debased coins (coins made of cheap metal).. Hyperinflation occurred – the currency became virtually worthless, forcing people to resort to barter (what is in fact happening in Russia today). Cities stopped investing in public works – the Roman aqueducts, temples and so on started to fall apart And people began to doubt their gods Ordinary Romans began to look for new gods The old gods were clearly not doing a good job protecting the empire or people More and more people in the Roman empire turned towards "mystery" religions religions which offered a personal relationship with a god and a hope of life after death (like Cybele, Isis, Jesus) Christianity was a popular choice (more about this on Thursday)