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Thinking, Language and
Intelligence
Chapter 10-Chapter 11
1
Exam: Memory, Cognition, and
Language
Chapter 9 and Chapter 10- Friday
Midyear: Chapters 1- Chapter 12
Self-shaping Project: January 14th
2
Do Now: How would you define
“Thinking?” Do animals think? Do
men and women think differently?
AIM: How do we think?
Thinking
Thinking, or cognition: a process that involves
knowing, understanding, remembering, and
communicating.
5
Concept
The mental grouping of similar objects,
events, ideas, or people.
•Schemas
•Example: Chair
6
Prototypes
We may base our concepts on prototypes – the
most typical example of a concept
J. Messerschmidt/ The Picture Cube
Daniel J. Cox/ Getty Images
Triangle definition) Bird (mental image) 8
Categories
Once we place an item in a category, our
memory shifts toward the category prototype.
Courtesy of Oliver Corneille
9
Problem Solving
There are two ways to solve problems:
1)Algorithms: Methodical, logical rules or procedures
that guarantee solving a particular problem.
2) Heuristics
10
Algorithms
SPLOYOCHYG
If we were to unscramble these letters to form a word
using an algorithmic approach, we would face
907,208 possibilities.
11
Heuristics
Heuristics are simple,
thinking strategies
that allow us to make
judgments and solve
problems efficiently.
B2M Productions/Digital Version/Getty Images
Heuristics are less
time consuming, but
more error-prone than
algorithms.
12
Heuristics
Heuristics make it easier for us to use simple
principles to arrive at solutions to problems.
SPLOYOCHYG
PSYCY OLO
S P L O HO C H G Y
Put a Y at the end, and see if the word
begins to make sense.
13
Insight
Insight involves a
sudden novel
realization of a
solution to a problem.
Grande using boxes to
obtain food 14
From Mark Jung-Beekman, Northwestern
University and John Kounios, Drexel University
15
Insight
Insight activates the right
temporal cortex
Insight Problems
• What occurs once in every minute, twice in every
moment, yet never in a thousand years?
• What is so unusual about the sentence below?
(Aside from the fact it does not make a lot of
sense.) “Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.”
Obstacles in Solving Problems
Confirmation Bias: A tendency to search for
information that confirms a personal bias.
Example: Multiple Choice
17
Fixation
Fixation: An inability to see a problem from a
fresh perspective. Two examples of fixation are
mental set and functional fixedness.
18
Mental Set
A tendency to approach a problem in a
particular way, especially if that way was
successful in the past.
The Matchstick
Problem: How would
you arrange six
matches to form four
equilateral triangles?
19
The Matchstick Problem: Solution
20
Functional Fixedness
A tendency to think only of the familiar
functions of an object.
Problem: Tie the two ropes together.
21
Use a screw driver, cotton balls and a matchbox.
Functional Fixedness
Use the screwdriver as a weight, and tie it to the
end of one rope. Swing it toward the other rope
to tie the knot.
The inability to think of the screwdriver as a weight is
functional fixedness. 22
Heuristics
1) representative heuristics
2) availability heuristics
23
Representativeness Heuristic
Judging the likelihood of things or objects in
terms of how well they seem to represent a
particular prototype.
If you meet a slim, short, man who wears glasses
Probability that that do you think his profession
and likes poetry, whatperson is a truck driver is far
greater than an ivy league professor just because
would be?
there are more truck drivers than such professors.
An Ivy league professor or a truck driver?
24
Availability Heuristic
Availability Heuristic: judging a situation based
on examples of similar situations that come to
mind initially
How is retrieval facilitated?
1. How recently we have heard about the event.
2. How distinct it is.
3. How correct it is.
25
Do Now: Distinguish between
AVAILIABILITY HEURISTIC and
REPRESENTATIVE HEURISTIC
The easier it is for people to remember an instance in which they were
betrayed by a friend, the more they expect such an event to recur. This
best illustrates the impact of:
a. framing.
b. the representativeness heuristic.
c. functional fixedness.
d. the availability heuristic.
A defense attorney emphasizes to a jury that her client works full-time,
supports his family, and enjoys leisure-time hobbies. Although none of
this information is relevant to the trial, it is designed to make the
defendant appear to be a typical member of the local community. The
lawyer is most clearly seeking to take advantage of:
a. confirmation bias.
b. functional fixedness.
c. belief perseverance.
d. the representativeness heuristic.
What are some impediments to
problem solving?
Overconfidence
Overconfidence is a tendency to overestimate the
accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.
Example: stock market
30
Exaggerated Fear
Exaggerated fear
irrational
paranoia
AP/ Wide World Photos
31
Framing Decisions
Decisions and judgments may be significantly
affected depending upon how an issue is
framed or worded.
Example: What is the best way to market
ground beef — as 25% fat or 75% lean?
32
Belief Bias
Making illogical conclusions in order to confirm
our preexisting beliefs
Example: Democrats support free speech
Dictators are not democrats
Therefore, Dictators do not support free
speech
33
Belief Perseverance
Belief perseverance is the tendency to cling to
our beliefs in the face of contrary evidence.
Example: Creationism vs Evolutionists
34
1. Brutus believes that men enjoy watching professional football and that
women are categorically distinct from men. His gender stereotypes are
so strong, however, that he mistakenly reasons from these premises the
illogical conclusion that women do not enjoy watching professional
football. His reasoning difficulty best illustrates:
a. the framing effect.
b. the availability heuristic.
c. belief bias.
d. functional fixedness.
2. When her professor failed to recognize that Judy had her hand raised
for a question, Judy began to think her professor was unfriendly.
Although she subsequently learned that the professor’s limited vision
kept him from seeing her raised hand, she continued thinking the
professor was unfriendly. Judy’s reaction best illustrates:
a. the framing effect.
b. belief perseverance.
c. functional fixedness.
d. category hierarchies.
Convergent and Divergent Thinking
• Convergent Thinking- thinking pointed
towards one solution
– Left hemisphere
Example: 4x+2= 8
• Divergent Thinking
-more than one solution
- creative thinking
Example: Literary analysis
How does cognition relate to
language?
Language
Language is the way we communicate
meaning to ourselves and others.
M. & E. Bernheim/ Woodfin Camp & Associates
38
Language transmits culture.
Language Structure
Phonemes: The smallest distinct sound unit
in a spoken language. For example:
bat, has three phonemes b · a · t
chat, has three phonemes ch · a · t
39
Language Structure
Morpheme: The smallest unit that carries a
meaning. For example:
Milk = milk
Pumpkin = pumpkin
Unforgettable = un · for · get · table
Un
Forget
Able 40
How many morpheme and
phonemes are in the following
words:
• Screwdriver
• Chimps
• Psychology (ooo tricky!!!)
Do Now: Review homework
AIM: How do humans develop
language?
Structuring Language
Phonemes Basic sounds (about 40) … ea, sh.
Smallest meaningful units (100,000)
Morphemes … un, for.
Meaningful units (290,500) … meat,
Words pumpkin.
Composed of two or more words
Phrase (326,000) … meat eater.
Composed of many words (infinite)
Sentence … She opened the jewelry box.
44
Grammar
Grammar is the system of rules in a language
Grammar
Semantics Syntax
45
Semantics
Semantics is the set of rules by which
we derive meaning from sentences.
Example: Semantic rule tells us that adding –ed
to the word laugh means that it happened in the
past.
Adding an “S” makes a word plural
46
Syntax
Syntax consists of the rules for ordering words
into grammatical sentences.
In English we say white house. In Spanish, it is
reversed; casa blanca.
“You are welcome to visit the cemetery where
famous composers, artists, and writers are buried
daily except Thursday”
47
Syntax FAIL
How many new words do we learn a
day?
We learn, on average
(after age 1), 3,500 words
a year, amassing 60,000
words by the time we
graduate from high
school.
Time Life Pictures/ Getty Images
49
When do we learn language?
Babbling Stage:
-Beginning at 4 months
-spontaneously uttering
of sounds (ah-goo.)
-not imitation of adult
speech.
50
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RuMdIxKnqz8
When do we learn language?
One-Word Stage: Beginning around his/her first
birthday, a child starts to speak one word at a
time
51
When do we learn language?
Two-Word Stage:
-Starts Before Year Two
-Telegraphic speech (the child speaks
like a telegram)
“Go car,” means I would like to go for a
ride in the car. 52
When do we learn
language?
2 years: Longer phrases with syntactical sense,
and by early elementary school they are
employing humor.
You never starve in the desert because of all the
sand-which-is there.
53
Overgeneralization
After 2 years of age, children may incorrectly
follow the rules of grammar:
Overgeneralization or overregularization
Examples: “I goed to the store”
“I runned outside”
“There were lots of mouses”
When do we learn language?
55
What is the critical period for
language?
Up to 7 years
Two Theories for Language
Development
• Behaviorists
– We develop language by imitating sounds
• Nativists
– Biological Predisposition for Language
Explaining Language
Development: Behaviorism
1. Operant Learning: Skinner (1957, 1985) -
language development may be explained
on the basis of learning principles
A. Imitation
B. Reward/Punishment
58
Explaining Language
Development: Nativist
2. Language Acquisition Device:
A. Linguist Noam Chomsky
B. Children born with innate ability to
gather rules of language
C. Contrary to “blank slate”
D. Critical Period
59
Proof for Language Acquisition
• All languages have grammar rules
• Children overgeneralize use morphemes in
predictable orders: “go-ed,”
• Genes in twin studies
Explaining Language
Development
Statistical Learning and Critical Periods: --
brains statistically analyze which
syllables in go together. Example: hap-py-
ba-by
-Statistical analyses are learned during
critical periods.
61
Language & Age
Learning new languages gets harder with age.
62
Language & Thinking
Language and thinking intricately intertwine.
Rubber Ball/ Almay
Language Influences Thinking
Linguistic Determinism: Whorf (1956) suggested
that language determines the way we think.
Language Influences Thinking
When a language provides words for objects or
events, we can think about these objects more
clearly and remember them
Balanced Bilinguals are superior to
monolinguals in terms of:
• Cognitive flexibility
• Concept formation
• Creativity
• Better ability to learn more languages
Courtesy of Jennifer Byrne, c/o Richard Byrne,
67
Department of Psychology, University of St. Andrews, Scotland
Chimpanzee fishing for ants.
Problem Solving
solving problems.
Apes are famous,
much like us, for
Animal Culture
Animals display customs and culture that are
learned and transmitted over generations.
Michael Nichols/ National Geographic Society
Copyright Amanda K Coakes
Dolphins using sponges as Chimpanzee mother using and
forging tools. teaching a young how to use
a stone hammer. 68
Mental States
Can animals infer mental states in themselves
and others?
To some extent. Chimps and orangutans (and
dolphins) used mirrors to inspect themselves
when a researcher put paint spots on their faces
or bodies.
69
Do Animals Exhibit Language?
There is no doubt that
animals communicate.
Vervet monkeys,
whales and even honey
bees communicate
Copyright Baus/ Kreslowski
with members of their
species and other
species.
Rico (collie) has a
200-word vocabulary
70
The Case of Apes
Chimps do not have a vocal apparatus for
human-like speech (Hayes & Hayes,1951).
Therefore, Gardner and Gardner (1969) used
American Sign Language (ASL) to train
Washoe, a chimp, who learned 182 signs by the
age of 32.
71
Gestured Communication
Animals, like humans, exhibit communication
through gestures. It is possible that vocal speech
developed from gestures during the course of
evolution.
72
Sign Language
American Sign Language (ASL) is
instrumental in teaching chimpanzees a
form of communication.
Paul Fusco/ Magnum Photos
When asked, this chimpanzee uses
a sign to say it is a baby. 73
Computer Assisted Language
Others have shown that bonobo pygmy chimpanzees can
develop even greater vocabularies and perhaps semantic
nuances in learning a language (Savage-Rumbaugh,
1991). Kanzi and Panbanish developed vocabulary for
hundreds of words and phrases.
Copyright of Great Ape Trust of Iowa
74
Conclusions
If we say that animals can use meaningful
sequences of signs to communicate a capability
for language, our understanding would be
naive… Steven Pinker (1995) concludes, “chimps
do not develop language.”
75
Intelligence
Chapter 11
76
What is Intelligence?
Intelligence is the ability to learn from
experience, solve problems, and use our
knowledge to adapt to new situations.
In research studies, intelligence is whatever the
intelligence test measures. This tends to be
“school smarts.”
77
Conceptual Difficulties
Psychologists believe that intelligence is a
concept and not a thing.
When we think of intelligence as a trait (thing)
we make an error called reification — viewing an
abstract immaterial concept as if it were a
concrete thing.
78
Controversies About Intelligence
Despite general agreement among
psychologists about the nature of intelligence,
two controversies remain:
1. Is intelligence a single overall ability or is it
several specific abilities?
2. With modern neuroscience techniques, can
we locate and measure intelligence within
the brain?
79
Intelligence: Ability or Abilities?
Have you ever thought that since people’s
mental abilities are so diverse, it may not be
justifiable to label those abilities with only one
word, intelligence?
You may speculate that diverse abilities
represent different kinds of intelligences. How
can you test this idea?
80
AP Psychology
January 7, 2010
What is intelligence?
81
Homework: 1) Read pages 434-442
2) Complete Psych Sim
Spearman’s Studies
Factor Analysis: cluster of items that measure
a common ability
Example: vocabulary, paragraph comprehension,
Grades in English classes, SAT verbal
83
General Intelligence
General intelligence (g) is a factor that underlies
all intelligence .
BUT…. Spearman’s Theory
of General Intelligence was
controversial.
84
Other Early Theories of Intelligence
as Multiple Abilities
-Intelligence as Seven Clusters of Primary
Mental Abilities- Thurstone
-General Intelligence as an evolutionary
adaptation
85
Contemporary Intelligence Theories
Howard Gardner
-multiple intelligences
-exceptionally intelligent people, such as
savants
People with savant syndrome excel in abilities
86
unrelated to general intelligence.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=dhcQG_KItZM
87
Howard Gardner
Gardner proposes eight types of intelligences (and
speculates about a ninth one — existential
intelligence. )
88
How is Gardner’s theory
problematic?
• Difficult to research
• Talents or intelligences?
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of
Intelligence
Sternberg (1985, 1999, 2003) agrees with Gardner,
but suggests three intelligences rather than eight.
1. Creative Intelligence: Intelligence that
makes us adapt to novel situations, generate
novel ideas
2. Analytical Intelligence: Intelligence that is assessed
by intelligence tests.
3. Practical Intelligence: Intelligence that is required
for everyday tasks (e.g. street smarts).
90
Sternberg and Gardner’s studies are
important in broadening our
definition for intelligence…… in the
workplace, the classroom, on the
athletic field.
Do Now: Compare and contrast
Spearman, Gardner, and Sternberg’s
Theories of Intelligence. Which do
you think is the best theory and
why?
January 8
AIM: How can we assess
intelligence?
Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive,
understand, and manage emotions
-proposed by Daniel Goleman
96
Emotional Intelligence: Components
Component Description
Recognize emotions in faces,
Perceive emotion
music and stories
Predict emotions, how they
Understand emotion
change and blend
Express emotions in different
Manage emotion
situations
Utilize emotions to adapt or be
Use emotion
creative
97
Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence correlates positively with
career, marriage, and parenting success.
proposed by Daniel Goleman
Emotion Recognition Mischel’s Marshmallow98
Emotional Intelligence: Criticism
Should intelligence apply to emotions?
But, studies show general intelligence DOES matter
99
*Crystallized and fluid intelligence
• Crystallized intelligence: accumulated
knowledge
• Fluid intelligence: ability to reason quickly
when solving new problems
• How does each change with age?
Intelligence and Creativity
Creativity is the ability to produce ideas that are
both novel and valuable. It correlates slightly with
intelligence.
1. Expertise: A well-developed knowledge base.
2. Imaginative Thinking: The ability to see things in novel
ways.
3. Adventuresome Personality: A personality that seeks
new experiences rather than following the pack.
4. Intrinsic Motivation: A motivation to be creative from
within.
5. A Creative Environment: A creative and supportive
environment allows creativity to bloom. 101
Is Intelligence Neurologically
Measurable?
Recent Studies indicate some correlation (about
+.40) between brain size and intelligence.
102
Gray matter concentration in people with high intelligence.
Brain Function
Intelligence tests and reaction time
People with higher intelligence respond correctly and quickly to103
the above question.
Assessing Intelligence
Intelligence testing: a method for assessing an
individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them
with others
104
Alfred Binet
Alfred Binet: predictor
intelligence testing
developing questions
that would predict
children’s future
progress
Mental Age: Intelligence
Increases as we age
105
Lewis Terman
Stanford-Binet Test: The
following is the formula
of Intelligence Quotient
(IQ), introduced by
William Stern:
106
