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Basic Model of Communication
Communication: the process of transferring
information, meaning, and understanding
from sender to receiver
• Encoding - the act of constructing a message
• Medium - the mode or form of transmission of a
message
• Decoding - the act of interpreting a message
• Noise - potential interference with the
transmission or decoding of a message
Basic Model of Communication
Sender
Receiver
• Encodes message Noise: • Receives message
• chooses a medium
Can interfere • Decodes message
(channel)
at any point • May send feedback
• Sends the
for clarification
message
Modes of Communication
VERBAL MODE NONVERBAL MODE
(Language used to convey meaning)
ORAL WRITTEN NONVERBAL
Examples • Conversation • Letters • Dress
• Speeches • Memos • Speech intonation
• Telephone calls • Reports • Gestures
• Videoconferences • E-mail • Facial expressions
• Fax
Advantages • Vivid • Decreased • Effectiveness of
• Stimulating misinterpretation communication
• Commands • Precise increases with
attention congruence to oral
• Difficult to ignore presentation
• Flexible • Emphasize meaning
• Adaptive
Disadvantages • Transitory • Precision • Meanings of
• Subject to translation loss nonverbal
misinterpretation • Inflexible communication not
Adapted from Exhibit 12.2
• Easier to ignore universal
Communication Media
• How information is transmitted from sender to
receiver
• Different media have different characteristics
(media richness)
– Personal-impersonal nature
– Speed in sending and receiving
– Availability of multiple cues
– Opportunity to receive immediate and continuing
feedback from the receiver
• Message should be matched to best medium
Factors in Media Richness
Rich Media Lean Media
• Personal • Impersonal
• Multiple cues to • Few cues to aid
aid in decoding in decoding
• Immediate • Delayed
feedback feedback
Examples:
Rich Lean
Face to face Telephone E-mails, memos
Adapted from Exhibit 12.3
Organizational Context of
Communication
Organizational context affects communication
• Directions
– Downward, upward, lateral
• Channels
– Formal, informal
• Patterns
– Communication networks
Directions of Communication
LATERAL COMMUNICATION
Supervisor Supervisor
UPWARD COMMUNICATION
Information, questions,
DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION
suggestions, problems,
Goals, objectives, directions,
requests for
decisions, feedback
clarification
Subordinate Subordinate
LATERAL COMMUNICATION
Information, (formal or informal)
for joint problem solving
Adapted from Exhibit 12.4
Channels of Communication
FORMAL CHANNELS INFORMAL CHANNELS
• Specify individuals • Tend to operate
responsible for tasks laterally more than
• Specify individuals vertically
responsible for
communicating • Move information
information above and quite rapidly
below them • Carry both work-
• Indicate persons to related and nonwork
whom work-related information
messages should be
sent
Channels of Communication
FORMAL channels of
communication
INFORMAL channels of CEO
communication
Vice Manager
President of Toy
Marketing Manufacturing
Supervisor
Supervisor
Advertising Promotions Electronic
Board Games
Manager Manager Games
Testing
Testing
Example of Communication
Networks
Salt New
San Lake York
Diego City Boss
New York
Managers
Denver
Divisional
Marketing Manager,
Los Angeles Chicago,
Seattle Retired former
colleague
Marketing
Irvine
Researchers
Los Angeles
Portland San
Network 1 Subordinates
Francisco
Network 2
Barriers to Communication
Level Origin of barrier Affects communication between:
Inter- • Selective perception • Individuals or groups
personal • Frame of reference
• Individual differences
• Emotion
• Language
• Nonverbal cues
Organi- • Hierarchical (barriers • Individuals and/or groups within an
zational from structure) organization
• Functional (barriers • Individuals and/or groups in different
between functions) organizations
Cultural • Language • Individuals or groups in different
• High/low-context organizations with different national
culture cultures
• Stereotyping • Individuals or groups from different
• Ethnocentrism organizational cultures
• Cultural distance • Individuals or groups form diverse cultural
backgrounds
Adapted from Exhibit 12.7
Improving Communication:
Individual Level
Improving Your Listening Skills
– Listen rather than talking yourself
– Be more open-minded
– Develop empathy
– Listen actively
– Observe nonverbal cues
Improving Your Sending Skills
– Simplify the language
– Organize your writing
– Understand the audience
Improving Communication:
Organizational Level
Gatekeepers are at the communication
interface between separate organizations
or different units. They:
• Increase formal communication
• Replace face-to-face communication with
electronic communication
• Develop networks
• Create centralized office to manage
communication activities
Communication and Negotiation
Negotiation
• Process of conferring to arrive at an agreement
between different parties, each with their own
interests and preferences
• Why negotiation skills are important for
managers:
– Can be used to solve disagreements in day-to-day
activities of the managers organizational unit
– May be part of a formally appointed negotiating team
representing their unit or organization
Achieving Effective/Successful
Negotiations
Less effective More effective
Positions Interests
People Involved Problem/Issue
Maintaining/ Decreasing/
Increasing Lessening
Competition Competition
(Win/Lose Focus) (Collaborative
Focus)
Key Factors in Negotiations
The People
– Listening skills
– Orientation toward people
– High self-esteem
– Influence in the home organization
The Situation
– Location
– Physical arrangements
– Emphasis on speed and time
– Composition of the negotiating teams
The Negotiation Process Itself
Stages in the Negotiation
Process
Planning and preparation
• Advance planning and
analysis
• Background research
• Gathering of relevant
information
• Planning of strategies
and tactics
• Setting objectives
• Predetermining possible
concessions
STAGE 1
Planning and Preparation
Adapted from Exhibit 12.13
Stages in the Negotiation
Process
Relationship building
between negotiation
parties
• Developing trust
• Developing personal
rapport
STAGE 2 • Establishing long-
Relationship Building term association
Between Negotiating Parties
STAGE 1
Planning and Preparation
Adapted from Exhibit 12.13
Stages in the Negotiation
Process
Information exchange
• Learning about the
needs and demands
of the other set of
negotiators
STAGE 3
Information Exchange • Acquiring and
STAGE 2
exchanging other
Relationship Building information
Between Negotiating Parties
STAGE 1
Planning and Preparation
Adapted from Exhibit 12.13
Stages in the Negotiation
Process
Persuasion attempts
• American managers
STAGE 4 treat as the most
Persuasion Attempts important stage
STAGE 3
• Mixture of
Information Exchange approaches
STAGE 2 – Assertive and
Relationship Building straightforward
Between Negotiating Parties
– Warnings or threats
STAGE 1 – Calculated delays
Planning and Preparation
Adapted from Exhibit 12.13
Stages in the Negotiation
Process
STAGE 5 Concessions/Agreement
Concessions and Agreement
• Permit each party to take
away something of value
STAGE 4
Persuasion Attempts • American managers tend
to have less leeway for
STAGE 3 concessions
Information Exchange • Some use normative
STAGE 2
appeals such as “it’s your
Relationship Building obligation”
Between Negotiating Parties
STAGE 1
Planning and Preparation
Adapted from Exhibit 12.13
