Tips For Teachers

							                       INTRODUCTION
      The Boy Scout oath began, “On my honor I will do my best, to
do my duty, to God and my country …”. With the exception of the
day that I exclaimed “Help me Lord, I am a sinner”, which of course
underlies my sincerity in keeping the oath, these have been the
most life-changing words I have ever spoken. “I will do my best”.
You see, for me, I am not really doing the good job of a “do-gooder”,
if I am not doing my best. Due to trying to do a good deed daily, the
Boy Scouts wore the (sometimes maligning) nickname “do-gooder”.
Well, so it is for me with teaching. Teachers are “do-gooders”.

      This is only my second year as a High School Math/Science
teacher, and it is also my second year in the Education Technology
Masters in Education Program at Florida Gulf Coast University.
Last year, for one who was laden with substance but totally lacking
in form, I did quite a few things well. I taught from my heart, and
from the desire for my students to learn the subject matter.   And,
I was well received by the students, their parents, the
administration, and I would even dare to say by the constructivists,
who would have viewed my learning by doing approach to teaching
in the same way that they propose that I put knowledge before my
students. But, as I have come to learn, through my studies of
education theories and the findings of learning research, I also did
quite a few things that my students might have been benefited more
had I avoided doing them.

     However, I am determined to do my best. Accordingly, I will
learn from my mistakes (rather, my experiences). Additionally, as a
result of a final exam requirement for a Learning Principles class,
and as a practical matter as well, I am laying out in this document
the gleanings of the several major education/learning theories, in
the form of “Tips for Teachers”. I have included the FINAL EXAM
(as issued) in the appendix, but hopefully my presentation will
make the requirements self-evident. Putting theory into practice
was one of the objectives of the course text, and certainly of my
instructor. My training has been undertaken for the purpose of
making me a better teacher, and therefore a better “do-gooder”.
Well, it is my good deed for today to share some of that training,
with you – fellow “do-gooder”.
                    TIPS FOR TEACHERS
1.   The goal of teaching is problem-solving skills
2.   Establish a physical environment conducive to learning
3.   Establish a mental environment conducive to learning
4.   Learning takes place within the individual
5.   Subjects should be presented to children in the manner that
     they view the world
6.   Different skills require differences in instruction
7.   Teach to the Zone of Proximal Development
8.   Preparation for learning must preceed instruction
9.   Develop cues and concepts to facilitate encoding and retrieval
10. Build student understanding of Cultural-Historical signs
11. Provide and Identify positive models of Academic and Social
    Behaviors
12. Avoid conditions which necessitate punishment
13. Reinforce behavior incompatible with undesirable behavior
14. Frustrate any student's learning of Helplessness
15. Allow intelligence to construct the structures it needs for
    growth
16. Never pass on the opportunity to teach a new word
17. Use mnemonics and other manipulatives to teach meta-
    cognitive strategies
18. Promote self-efficacy as motivation to overcome novel or
    ambiguous tasks
19. Teaching Cognitive Strategies enhances self-directed learning

20. Exhibit confidence in your calling to teach your students
                              “Train up a child in the way he should go:
                          and when he is old, he will not depart from it.”
                                                         (Proverbs 22:6 KJV)


Remember, what I said of my first year, “I taught from my heart,
and from the desire for my students to learn the subject matter.”
Yes, that sounds admirable, and undoubtedly should remain true.
But as goals go it was inadequate, if I really desired to do my
students good. Jerome Bruner, noted for taking a cognitive (or
intellectual) development approach to curriculum, expressed that
the goal of education should be intellectual and the curriculum
should foster the development of problem-solving skills through the
processes of inquiry and discovery. If I teach you the facts of a
lesson you may pass the test on the subject, but if I teach you to
determine the principles that underlie the facts, you will not
necessarily need my help with the next lesson.

      The constructivist seems to suggest that ‘the way a child
should go’ is most comprehended by the child, when the child
makes a contribution to the determination of that way. I have
peculiar agreement with many suggestions that arise from that
position, though I would hardly say that I hold that position. What
I begin by suggesting is that the ultimate goal of teaching should be
what guides the efforts in the classroom.
                                “And he will shew you a large upper room
                        furnished and prepared: there make ready for us.”
                                                          (Mark 14:15 KJV)


       The first thing that I observed about my math room, was the
two blackboards that met near the corner where the desk was. The
first thing that I did was to move the desk diagonally to the opposite
corner and angle the desk rows facing the corner with the boards. I
figured that the focus in math is indisputably the chalkboard, and
there would be rare occasions when I would be seated at the desk,
so its corner effectively became the back of the room. This was a
change that in no wise went unnoticed by the students. The
obvious emphasis in the math room was math.
       In the Science room I built a 4 by 5 foot Periodic Chart of the
Elements that has revolving plates for each element. The objective
is to place all graduating students on the back of an element until
the elements are exhausted. Our school has but seven students in
its first three graduations. The Pastor was placed on the back of
Hydrogen, and the five who had already graduated at the time were
assigned the Noble gases, with myself on the back of Helium. The
message to the students was the significance of the noble gases, as
well as the need to determine to which element they would like to
be identified as alumni. It would be folly to be identified with that
which you did not know.
     Robert Gagne concluded that since children’s experience plays
such an important role in their development, environmental forces
are instrumental to learning. In his system design approach to
curriculum, the instructional goals are met by procedures and
instructional events not to the exclusion of media, displays and
classroom setting. Even though I am somewhat macho in my
neglect of bulletin board potential, I am fully aware of the benefit to
be gained by a physical environment that projects student
inclusion. My tip here is that though your classroom should
portray something of your teaching expectation, let it also express
ownership by your students.
                           “And when the day of Pentecost was fully come,
                              they were all with one accord in one place.”
                                                              (Acts 2:1 KJV)


      Gagne‘s system appropriately valued the physical environment
and by its full objective approach sought to stabilize the mental
environment as well.      Piaget injected the importance of peer
interaction in the development of learning, but noted that the onus
was on the teacher to conduct “decentering” the coordination of
various points of views. I am personally not a centrist, but I
appreciate the need for insuring that ideas are allowed to flourish. Of
a certainty, no idea should need to shrink back from potential
ridicule. Albeit, my personal style is to move the adolescents that I
teach away from being too thin-skinned, so the line between
middle/high school amusement and mock or ridicule must be
carefully guarded.
      Lev S. Vygotsky, in describing his Social Context for Learning
stressed the need for the teacher to foster a collaborative
relationship with the students. Though peer interaction gives the
students collectively a sense of ownership of their education, the
collaboration with the teacher allows each student individually to
feel an assent to their contribution to their educational
development. I will leave to later tips my more specific thoughts in
this area.
      Bernard Weiner’s Attribution Theory, in an effort to suppress
the “ability game”, which pits the achievers against the strugglers
and slackers, put forward the significance of Goal Structures. Here
he cautioned the need to establish achievable criteria. In this manner
self-worth need not be equated with success.             I particularly
appreciate the suggestion to avoid public assessments. Though this
also has its contra-positions in the area of motivation. Dealing with
the work avoidance and the failure avoidance mindset is also
effected by a mental environment that projects inclusiveness.
              “[The Bereans] were more noble than those in Thessalonica,
                 in that they received the word with all readiness of mind,
          and searched the scriptures daily, whether those things were so.”
                                                             (Acts 17:11 KJV)


      From Robert Gagne’s discussions of the contribution of
learning to the individual’s development we learned that complex
skills build on prior learning. His “capabilities are acquired [not
only] from environmental stimuli [but also from] the cognitive
processes undertaken by the learner. In other words the learner is
not passive.” Even though students are often grouped, individual
differences of the learner play a significant role in learning.
“Effectiveness of instruction is influenced by differences in cognitive
strategies, learning rates … and student entry capabilities [or
readiness].”
      Frederick Bartlett, one of the cognitive theorists, described the
importance of learner knowledge. This knowledge falls into the
categories of domain (tacit or content) and discourse (conceptual or
verbal). Not only is the inference made against new data predicated
upon this knowledge base, but the ability to encode and thereby
retain new data is a direct result. In Bartlett’s “active organization
of past reactions” the unmistakeble implication is that mental
schemas are individually devised.
      Constructivists recall Jean Piaget’s “Never without the shock
of contact with the thought of others and the effort of reflection
which this shock entails would thought as such come to
consciousness.” However, for new forms of thinking, Piaget relies
upon his idea of equilibration.        Equilibration maintains the
functioning of intelligence within an individual by regulating
his/her interactions with the environment. Also, peer collaboration,
attributed to Vygotsky, can be discerned as a misapplication of his
discussions of student teacher collaboration.               Vygotsky’s
acceptance of the Piagetian notion of argumentation is as a
stimulus for student self-questioning.     Ultimately it is the history
and motivation of individuals which determines learning.
                                 “When I was a child, I spake as a child,
                          I understood as a child, I thought as a child...”
                                                           (1 Cor 13:11 KJV)


       Understanding the goal of teaching, and taking steps to
provide the best physical and mental environment for learning is a
good beginning. Acknowledging from the start that as a teacher you
must reach individuals, even within a group setting, will go a long
way towards achieving your goal. But, the approach to instruction
(i.e. curriculum) must be comprehended for its merit and purpose.
      Returning to Jerome Bruner’s curriculum-development model
we should be aware of three stages of cognitive development. The
first stage, enactive, is the representation of knowledge in actions.
Here, a child learns by doing, shifting his weight on a balance
beam; scootching up on a see-saw. In the next stage, iconic, a child
can visually summarize the balance beam or see-saw experience
with images. Finally, in the symbolic stage, words and other
symbols are used to describe the experience. By comprehending
the curriculum effort as one towards the mastery of skills, leading
to mastery of still more powerful ones, we are able to appropriately
value the sometimes seemingly trivial as an important cog in a
dynamically significant wheel of learning.
      In the presentation of concepts, which have been thoughtfully
included in the curriculum, it cannot be overly stressed, i.e. the
importance of organized achievement. This is especially true, as it
relates to the readiness of a child, which comes from laying a solid
foundation, via experience and attempts at visual representation.
Thereafter, the greater skill of symbolic communication can be
honed. We will have more to say about this in our discussions (at
tips 6 & 16) related to verbal skills.
                              “For as we have many members in one body,
                               and all members have not the same office:”
                                                            (Rom 12:4 KJV)


      I have struck-through the word “and” in the above scripture,
to place the verse in the context of the present discussion. “All
members have not the same office.” Or to paraphrase, á la Gagne,
all capabilities have not the same performance. And, all capabilities
are not trained in the same way. Different performances have
different requirements for learning. Gagne devised five categories of
learning: Verbal – communicative; Intellectual – representative;
Motor – interactive; Attitude – determinative; Cognitive – dispositive.
“Each category represents a unique class of performance that is
learned, is independent of individual characteristics, generalizes
across situations, and requires different instructional treatments.”
      Tip 09, on encoding cues speaks to the development of both
verbal and intellectual capabilities. However, Tip 16 emphasizes
the need for vocabulary building for the furtherance of verbal and
all other capabilities.     Tip 10 illustrates the significance of
signification, or the use of signs and symbols to enhance and
demonstrate intellectual capabilities and performance. I am a little
embarrassed that I have no later discussion on improving motor
skills. There, the teaching need is to convey the sequence, provide
for practice, and to encourage the need to continue in practice until
timing and smoothness have been attained. Attitudes are addressed
in Tip 11 on modeling the good and Tip 14 frustrating the bad.
And, to stress the importance of the control center, problem-solving
capabilities represented in the cognitive, Tips 15, 17, 18 & 19 are all
on point.
      The performance abilities achieved in each of these categories
“cut across school subjects, age of learners, and grade levels”. And
even though making effective use of an awareness of the
distinctions is deemed easier for a curriculum team than classroom
teachers, my tip is to remember that, “all capabilities are not trained
in the same way.”
                                         “To every thing there is a season,
                           and a time to every purpose under the heaven”
                                                              (Eccl 3:1 KJV)


      The one rule that is unbendable in my household, which
tolerates my every absence for service in the ministry, is that when
Ayelle comes into my office for my attention I must stop what I am
doing. My wife is remarkable at distracting her, when I really need
to get something accomplished. Invariably, when it is time for her
book, she shows up with a book, and of necessity, by choice and in
wisdom I stop, shut down my computer, and read to her.
      Piaget stated that “Formal operations are not attained by all
individuals, nor are they acquired in all areas of expertise.”    He
also speaks of “logical constructions not occurring until the subject
experiences cognitive conflict and seeks to resolve it on a higher
plane. Readiness is therefore the acknowledgement of conflicting
statements coupled with the felt need to resolve the two
subsystems.” To what extent Ayelle might attain to Piaget’s level of
formal operations would therefore depend upon to what extent
cognitive conflicts are ascertained and resolved.       Exposure is
therefore key to these deliberations.
      Vygotsky came along stating that the key to instruction that
is effective in influencing development is that it “awakens and
rouses to life functions which are in a stage of maturing, which
lie in the Zone of Proximal Development”. Ayelle declares for herself
her desire to develop her attention span with each book reading
that she requests. Her appetite for learning is fed in many ways in
each session. Our class had an in-depth discussion of the efficacy
of the teachable moment, in review of Gestalt theory practices.
Reflectively, I see how Vygotsky’s zone is essentially a teachable
period, and in fact the optimum teachable period. As we next
discuss, attention is key to memory encoding, so the most certainty
in learning attention occurs when the student is mentally ready.
                               “In my Father's house are many mansions:
                                   if it were not so, I would have told you.
                                           I go to prepare a place for you.”
                                                             (John 14:2 KJV)


     With the exception of His sermon on the Mount teaching, the
four chapters of Jesus’ discourse at the last supper represent the
longest contiguous stream of His words and teaching in the Bible.
As a perfect example of the point of this particular tip, the
importance of the farewell message and instructions necessitated
complete focus and grasp of His intended lesson. What Robert
Gagne outlined as the Preparation for Learning stage consisted of
three phases which set the stage for learning. Interestingly, Jesus
used these exact three elements (Attending, Expectancy & Retrieval)
in presenting this, His most important lessons to His disciples.
      Attending relates to gaining the attention of the learners
through an unusual event, question or stimulus. Jesus did the job
of a slave (John 13) and washed the disciples feet. He caught their
attention so much so that Peter tried to rebuke Him for His
example.     Expectancy speaks of informing the learners of the
performance objectives the task seeks to enable. Jesus said to them
“I have given you an example, that ye should do as I have done to
you.” (John 13:15) And, as an introduction to each specific point of
instruction Jesus utilizes the Retrieval phase to stimulate recall of
prior learning. To wit, “whither I go ye know, and the way ye know.”
(John 14:4); “ye should have known my Father also: and from
henceforth ye know Him and have seen Him.” (John 14:7)
      So what we witness during these ninety-some verses is only
five brief interjections by the disciples: three times to ask questions
of Jesus, once to ask questions of each other, and finally to
effectively exclaim, “Now we know.” (John 16:30)
                                   “Wherefore I put thee in remembrance
                                         that thou stir up the gift of God,
                         which is in thee by the putting on of my hands.”
                                                             (2 Tim 1:6 KJV)



     Just as the disciples would never be able to see a servant
without thinking specifically of what Jesus had done and the things
which He spoke that day, the Apostle Paul encouraged Timothy to
use the memory of the laying on of hands to remind him of the work
which God had done in him. Vygotsky suggests that humans
construct memorization by forcing external associations. Most
theorists agree that verbal and visual cues are the means of
encoding data for retrieval.
      A demonstrative example would be the use of Australian
“messenger’s wands”, large sticks or rectangular slabs marked by a
series of cuts. The sticks or slabs were given to messengers as they
were sent out to deliver communications to distant tribes. The
notches were not arbitrary symbols or syllables or words, however.
Instead they were memory aids designed for the messengers. The
notches designated certain persons and objects and their number
and localities to the extent that they occurred in a given message.
With the aid of this simple device, the messenger reconstructed the
message at the time of delivery. These wands represented the use
of an external reminder and the returning to the ideas they
represent.
       In Tip 17 mnemonics (acronyms) and other manipulatives are
discussed towards the development of meta-cognitive strategies.
However, here we’d like to emphasize physical and mental
associations which assist in the memory process. For example, I can
teach that the speed of light is twice as many thousands of miles
per second as the millions of miles that the earth is from the sun
(i.e. 186 thousand : 93 million). This is not only applicable to the
memory of facts, but also to behaviors. Alfred Bandura’s models
are an example of external reminders which tend to retrieve specific
behavioral responses.
                                                 “And hallow my sabbaths
                             and they shall be a sign between me and you,
                          that ye may know that I am the Lord your God.”
                                                         (Ezekiel 20:20 KJV)


     A step further (or, a higher mental form) than making
associations with verbal and visual cues is the comprehension and
use of the symbol systems that have developed by and within a
culture.   The understanding of the importance of signs, and
learning to attach meaning to symbols, can lead to the development
of rudimentary thinking skills. This enhancement of the cognitive
process is what Vygotsky refers to as signification. “Humans,
through active adaptation of the environment to fit their goals and
the need to communicate with and regulate human groups,
developed complex symbol systems. Included are speech, written
language, mathematical systems, musical notation, and others.
Through the creation and use of these arbitrary stimuli, humans
create new ways of thinking.”
     The impact of a proliferation of signs and symbols is
particularly evident in the driving and parking skills necessitated by
New York City. I’ve always characterized the requirement for city
drivers as “Literacy or Perish”. With as many as fifty signs posted
on some blocks, the need to comprehend the symbols and
configuration associated with different signs is necessary to reduce
the incidents of turning, stopping or parking in prohibited areas,
any of which (depending on day of the week, or time of day) could
result in a fine.
      Of no less importance, in this age of the graphical user
interface computer, is the ability to recognize and identify the
functionality of common icons. Though Microsoft has not fully
monopolized the computer industry, the impact upon word and
data processing standards makes familiarity with the most used
icons in the MS Office toolbox a valuable asset in this era of student
access to computers.
                              “Those things, which ye have both learned,
                                and received, and heard, and seen in me,
                           do: and the God of peace shall be with you.”
                                                      (Philippians 4:9 KJV)

      Though understanding of cultural-historical signs and
symbols are vital for communication in the learning arena,
academic attitudes and social behaviors are more meaningfully
communicated by human models, and by teacher reaction to, and
cultivation of, human models.
      Despite Charles (of the NBA) Barkley’s statement of a few years
back, “I am not a role model”, far too many of our students are
adopting attitudes and behaviors which they perceive of our sports
and entertainment figures. From Wheaties and Ball Park Franks to
Nikes and Haynes Boxer Shorts, people continue to actualize the
sentiment of Mr. Jordan’s PR phrase, “I wanna be like Mike.” I’ve
used the incident which made me a Michael Jordan fan to illustrate
to my students his most noteworthy characteristic despite the hype.
When the Chicago Bulls won their first championship nine years
into his career, a very emotional MJ brought the team to the center
of the court, and on National TV led them in the Lord’s prayer, to
thank the Lord before the world.
      President Bush quoted a Psalm shortly after the 9/11th
terrorist attack. But what won me as his supporter a few days later
was when he quoted the New Testament (i.e. Jesus Christ), an act
that certainly had to have been discouraged by his spin folk as a
provocation of the Jewish media. Integrity is a commendable
character trait.
      Albert Bandura’s “Bobo” experiments did much in showing
how impressionability fills the behavior void.      Absent specific
instruction to the contrary, students will model what they believe
they have seen. This lends support for the instructor to “talk aloud”
the cues being modeled. Students are as capable of being models
for other students as the teacher is. Bernard Weiner’s Attribution
Theory can be helpful in nurturing such examples. The student,
who believes he can, offers a contagious spirit to the learning
environment.
    “Fathers, provoke not your children to anger, lest they be discouraged.”
                                                                (Col 3:21 KJV)


     One of the more memorable discussions of learning theories
this past semester was about B. F. Skinner’s operant conditioning;
specifically his remarks as they pertained to punishment. As
opposed to temporarily suppressing the aversive stimuli of bad
behavior, negative reinforcement strengthens an escape behavior.
In other words rather than assign a detention for disrupting my
lecture, I can withhold homework on any day that I can teach the
class smoothly without discipline distractions. By the students
opting for behavior that avoids homework, operant conditioning
occurs in the learning of good behaviors.
      Punishment, on the other hand, is ineffectual for four reasons.
First, it is only temporary. Second, the emotional reactions which
result (e.g. frustration, anger, guilt, resentment) are equally
undesirable. Third, some attending positive behaviors are also
inadvertently punished. And finally, positive behaviors are not
generated as a result of punishment. It’s like a debt paid for which
there is little motivation to avoid as long as the price is affordable.
Detentions, seem only to work as a deterrent for our active athletes.
     Our text gives the example that punishing students who shout
out in class can be avoided by eliminating events that ask for call-
out behavior like, “Who has their homework?” This one bit of
advice is my most applied lesson in classroom control. Another
example is to teach deliberately. When the classroom lecture moves
at a brisk pace with clear signals, there is little room for
misbehavior and disruptions. Admittedly, the diversity of student
aptitudes is the most defeating factor in this regard. But, curiously,
my most homogenous class (the 11th grade) is the most difficult to
keep on task. When one or more of these students goes slack, it
seems that the discussion has simply been sabotaged. My most
often applied remedy is to assign them deskwork. They accomplish
the subject matter, but rarely with the same level of comprehension
as when there are discussions.
                 “But continue thou in the things which thou hast learned
       and hast been assured of, knowing of whom thou hast learned them;
               And that from a child thou hast known the holy scriptures,
                          which are able to make thee wise unto salvation
                                   through faith which is in Christ Jesus.”
                                                          (2 Tim 3:14-15 KJV)


      When my seniors were juniors, they were the class that I could
leave in the room taking a test, go across the street to the bank,
make a deposit, and return to find them grading the exam and
accurately recording the errors.           By acknowledging their
trustworthiness and holding them up as the class that I could feel
totally at ease with in such a case, they represent an example to the
underclassmen.
      The current sophomores, who last year were the impetus for
me beginning work on my test generation software, required
distribution of three quizzes (alternated by desk columns) to
restrain their wandering eyes. They did not attempt cheating out of
inadequacy but solely for the challenge of getting away with it.
Presently, though they are the largest class, there is not even the
need to separate their desks during a quiz. Of a certainty, they’ve
matured some just by time. However, reinforcing trustworthiness
has taught trustworthiness to the exclusion of even the discussion
of cheating.
     Bandura’s “talk aloud” of modeling cues is an excellent way of
providing reinforcement. So would be Weiner’s attributions as they
impact achievement and self-esteem. The goal is to identify the
good and make a mental connection that encourages its pursuit,
not only from the perspective of ‘for goodness sake’, but also
because of the reward inherent in its attainment. The emphasis
here being that there is no such reward associated with that
behavior which is undesirable.        In this way the behavior
determinant is left with the student, and thereby provides for
learning which can only result from an ability to identify
consequences that directly spring from student choices.
            “… we have access by faith into this grace wherein we stand...”
                                                               (Rom 5:2 KJV)


      The advantages of steering clear of behavior issues are usually
reaped in more productive classroom hours. Avoiding the bad and
accentuating the good are excellent strategies for dealing with
behavior. However, the more subtle behavior disorder is the
maladaptive response. The maladaptive response is a concept
coined by Seligman (1975) termed “learned helplessness”. The
spiritual remedy to this condition is given in the admonition to
“deny himself, and take up his cross daily” (Luke 9:23) In other words,
do daily what you have to do.
     Weiner’s Attribution theory would require that we head off the
maladaptive at every turn. A good preemptive would be to model
the phraseology of the mastery-oriented child (e.g. the little engine
that could: to wit, “I think I can, I think I can, I know I can.”) The
“helpless” child tends to believe that his efforts are inconsequential
to the outcomes he experiences. Placing the mastery-oriented child
before him as a model is not so much to illustrate the achievement,
but to give examples of the connection between effort and outcome.
      We must also be careful in this situation to “Neither give place
to the devil” (Eph 4:27). Both your non-verbal facial expressions and
your verbal comments have a substantial impact on all of your
students, and especially on the student seeking to give up.
Whether your response is praise, blame, sympathy, anger or an
offer of help, there are ramifications. Praise allows for you to later
exercise the option to encourage more challenging work, whereas
sympathy carries the inference that the child is lacking ability for
even this task. The expectation of continued task involvement is
transmitted to the student by his perception of your response. The
need to perpetuate a child’s sense of inclusion in the learning
process is vital to the attention level required for gaining knowledge.
Conveying the idea that success is in the diligent attempt more so
than the immediate outcome will not only make a major difference
in the life of the late-bloomer, but also of the child who may never
fully comprehend what you are teaching.
                     “Verily, verily, I say unto you, Except a corn of wheat
                            fall into the ground and die, it abideth alone:
                                 but if it die, it bringeth forth much fruit.”
                                                              (John 12:24 KJV)


      The early progressive ideas of Dewey called on experimentation
as a necessary learning element. Gagne emphasized that children’s
experiences played an important role in their development, thus
dictating a heavy dependence on environmental circumstances.
Piaget also promoted student interaction with the environment and
construction of learning.      Recognizing the diverse nature of
individual accomplishment in learning, I have heartily embraced
constructivist methods as additional practical offerings in a field
that demands varied methods to reach all whom it seeks to address.
      In another of my Learning Principles’ projects one writer wrote,
of becoming a constructivist, “Just as students do not easily let go
of their ideas, neither do school boards, principals, parents, or, for
that matter, teachers. Ideas like student autonomy and learner-
driven inquiry are not easily accepted.” From that same project I
wrote, “I think that what most troubles me about constructivism
is the arrogance of a theory that has no substantive foundation, yet
blasphemes the whole of God’s creation and the intelligence therein
by proclaiming that there is no knowledge but what is constructed
by the learner.”
      Irrespective of the underlying theory, the constructivist terms
(e.g. assimilation; accommodation ideational confrontation;
disequilibrium; equilibration; maturation; and peer collaboration)
bring much insight to the understanding of students and learning.
The technical notion of motivation, which springs from providing
cognitive conflict and the instructor’s comprehension of the impact
of reflex attraction are also welcome ideas for the discussion of
developing mental and physical learning environments. Training up
students has stopped at all theories along the course of learning.
What I’ve observed is that none of these theories has been fully
played out, and each has its shortcoming. So the best may come
only from a hybrid, which utilizes the proven of each theory.
                                  “But he answered and said, It is written,
                                        Man shall not live by bread alone,
               but by every word that proceedeth out of the mouth of God.”
                                                           (Matthew 4:4 KJV)


     Lev S. Vygotsky was not at all far from an absolute truth when
he said, “the basic psychological cell is word meaning.” Scripture
says, “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God,
and the Word was God.” (John 1:1) Even before the intensity of the
Greek connotations for logos, God had elected to reveal Himself
through an array of words or names. Not only is the Who reflected,
but the What, When, Where, How and Why. Take, for example,
God’s reply when asked about His name, “And God said unto Moses,
I AM THAT I AM.” (Exod 3:14) The tetragrammatron (YHVH) was so
holy in its significance that the Jewish writers would not dare
include the vowels, out of reverence for the Name of God.
     “A word has the potential to evoke an entire system of
associations.” My hands down favorite High School class, for
having actually taught me something, was Miss Jordan’s History of
Language and Semantics. Roots, prefixes, suffixes and the whole
concept of etymology just thrilled me. My forté was mathematics,
but language gave me the opportunity to overcome my greatest
perceived shortcoming: the ability to fit in. Where other students in
the sixties were talking about cultural bias and teachers who would
talk over their heads, I found that as my vocabulary increased my
comprehension never allowed me to feel left out.
      I was not just learning words but their appropriate use and
meaning within our language. Vygotsky spoke of disintegration and
reintegration, as it relates to the development of speech. I would
consider the same progression of importance when it comes to a
student acquiring the verbal tools necessary to comprehend the
major concepts of a knowledge discussion. It is therefore in the
best interest of all involved for teachers to frequently introduce new
words and their semantic distinctions. Quite frankly, in my limited
experience, one of my more endearing characteristics to my
students seems to be my continual attempts to draw stronger
vocabulary use out of them.
                                                “But in those sacrifices
                                         there is a remembrance again
                                              made of sins every year.”
                                                           (Heb 10:3 KJV)


     Just as words give students an ability to characterize and
organize ideas about our world, mnemonics and other
manipulatives give them the opportunity to insure recall of groups
and sequences of words. It is not only important that we teach our
student mnemonics (like the familiar Roy G. Biv, which maps the
colors of the rainbow) but also how to develop and use them.
Though ‘Every Good Boy Deserves Fudge’ may clearly remind many
people of the lines on the treble music staff, it is not nearly as
functional for me as the fact that ‘FACE’ represents the spaces on
the staff.
      One of the most promising outgrowths of the cognitive
perspectives (of the 1980s) is the idea of teaching students to think
about learning and how they learn. By educating on the nature of
how to learn, and on how to think about thinking, real-world
difficulties are brought to the fore. In teaching a student to
summarize and apply self-questioning techniques to their listening,
reading and studying, the student is challenged to incorporate
teaching principles into his learning. The ability to identify or
develop meaningful insight into the problems of retention and
transfer moves the student into the realm of constructively
responsive reading.
     The idea that formulas can be devised that will assist with
memory, and therefore learned characteristics and attributes,
places the ability to fashion schemes and schema within the grasp
of the individual. No longer must a student attempt irrelevant
associations once device flexibility is recognized. Each student can
devise his own methods of organizing data, and confidence will
attach to his ability to appropriately recall the information.
                                “For I say, through the grace given unto me,
                                             to every man that is among you,
                not to think of himself more highly than he ought to think;
                                      but to think soberly, according as God
                             hath dealt to every man the measure of faith.”
                                                              (Rom 12:3 KJV)


     My pastor, in ministering the above passage, describes the
measure of faith as “just enough” faith. God has equipped every
man (, woman, boy and girl) with just enough faith and just enough
talent as is necessary for his success. Teachers help in the
development and utilization of those talents by introducing
cognitive concepts and tools. Cognitive tools equip a student to
achieve, but it is also important for teacher to promote within the
student the concept of self-motivation.
     Bernard Weiner’s attribution theory, posits motivation as a
necessary result of a desire for self-actualization and the fulfillment
of purpose in life.     In other words, because of the person
constituted by the results desired, the student is motivated not to
be otherwise. Scripture seemingly supports such a position; “For as
[a man] thinketh in his heart, so is he…” (Prov 23:7 KJV). Attributing
results to the person involved is decisive in assuring their
achievement.
      Albert Bandura, on the other hand, suggests self-regulation is
a vital component in student success, and therefore implies pro-
active student efforts. Accordingly, he advocates self-efficacy as the
only certain motivator for student effort. “Self-efficacy refers to
beliefs about one’s capabilities and these beliefs also motivate
believers in particular ways.” As the Bible says, we are not to think
more highly of ourselves than we ought, but if we remember that
God has given us enough talent to accomplish the tasks that He
sets before us, we can be motivated to never shrink back from what
is before us. Not because we should, or because we would not dare
do otherwise, but because we are able to do that which we put our
hands to.
                                       “But let a man examine himself, …
                For if we would judge ourselves, we should not be judged.”
                                                         (1 Cor 11:28,31 KJV)


     Remembering that the goal of education should be to foster
development of problem-solving skills, meta-cognition becomes our
process of inquiry review and discovery that actually extends our
cognitive or comprehension strategies to self-perpetuation.    In
meta-cognition the objective is to fine-tune our thinking about
thinking to the point of spontaneous strategy production, or
acquisition of new cognitive functionality.
     In a matchstick configuration problem solving experiment,
George Katona attempted to direct this meta-cognitive process with
a method he called, “guided discovery”. Here, the student was given
solution cues to prompt or spark recognition of various solution
paths. The learner’s ability to adapt to new problem solving
situations had been the focus of investigation over the next half-
century. Problem recognition skills were diverse enough to be
classified as either master or novice.
     Two common pitfalls that hinder problem solving are worthy of
a teacher’s notice. The first, functional fixedness, occurs when a
student is unable to perceive the elements of a situation in new
ways. The X-ray example illustrates: concentrated x-rays would kill
healthy tissue, yet by varying the angle of the x-rays one could
thereby reduce concentration against the healthy cells. The second,
problem set, refers to rigidity that latches onto a solution approach
and fails to seek alternatives when the initial conditions are
incompatible with the solution template.
      Our goal is to provoke our students to self-directed search for
solutions. Whether teacher collaboration or peer challenge is
utilized to encourage student resolve, we must reinforce the idea
that self-efficacy demands resolution, or at the very minimum a
legitimately determined effort at problem solving if we are to learn
anything.
                          “Let us hear the conclusion of the whole matter:
                                  Fear God, and keep his commandments:
                                        for this is the whole duty of man.”
                                                            (Eccl 12:13 (KJV)


      Piaget, Vygotsky and the other constructivists take very strong
positions on increasing the give and take which occurs in a learning
situation. When applied to education research it is translated as
qualitative instead of simply quantitative evaluations. In all cases
the cry is against boxing in the mysteries of psychological
expression. I am in full agreement that to limit our conception of
the psychology of man would be tragic. However, contrary to their
foundational belief that there is no objective reality, I am fully
persuaded in the tenets of Christianity that “the unknown … whom
they ignorantly worship” (Acts 17:23 KJV) is indeed knowable, and
indeed God.      You see the limitless nature, of evaluating the
psychology of man, springs directly from the infinitely matchless
nature of God and the diversity and uniqueness that his image has
thereby imprinted upon every individual.
      “Consider the lilies how they grow: they toil not, they spin not;
and yet I say unto you, that Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed
like one of these.” (Luke 12:27 KJV) Solomon, who (before Jesus) was
deemed the wisest man to ever have lived, was not at a loss for glory
as a result of the reality of the lily. In fact, the conclusion of
Solomon’s knowledge construction is the scripture for this tip.
Solomon, who also erroneously began constructing his conclusion
by thinking “All is vanity!” – emptiness;
      All is not vanity, and all is not emptiness. Reality does not get
constructed from a void. “The fear of the LORD is the beginning of
knowledge: but fools despise wisdom and instruction.” (Proverbs 1:7 KJV)
“The fear of the LORD is the beginning of wisdom: and the knowledge
of the holy is understanding.” (Proverbs 9:10 KJV) Students know the
difference in the unseen that precipitates theory and the unseen
that results in faith. “Walk worthy of the vocation wherewith ye are
called.” (Ephesians 4:1 KJV) The best that I can do is to serve God, and
to bring glory unto Him by believing that He Is.
                                       APPENDIX

FINAL EXAM (30 points possible)
Learning Principles, Fall 2001

As a graduate student of educational psychology,
       you now understand the theory of teaching and learning,
       but can you give tips to teachers?
       Notice that the title of Gredler’s text contains the promise: “Theory Into Practice.”

Write a well-organized and practical handbook for teachers
       (or write a plan for a workshop-consultancy as an in-service teacher-trainer).

You will revisit chapter 4 – 12 of your text to extract
      “Tips for Teachers” (in other words, tell WHAT).

In doing so, you will identify key researchers so that you might field
       questions concerning researchers’ theoretical justifications
       for the tips you are providing (in other words, tell WHY).

Moreover, increase the effectiveness of your training by giving examples
      showing application to teaching/learning
      that will be clearly understood by a classroom teacher (in other words, tell HOW).

Finally, explain what the teacher and/or the students will get
        from following each one of your tips (classroom OUTCOMES).

You might want to begin with Jerome Bruner (in chapter 4)
      and include at least five other researchers from the remaining chapters.