antibiotic

antibiotic A. Penicillins - The first antibiotic to be used in medicine, penicillin G, is still one of the most useful and important antibiotics. It is considered to be the safest drug available. However, penicillin G suffers from certain shortcomings. For example, when taken orally, it is not very reliable because it is destroyed in the stomach. It is also easily destroyed by certain microorganisms, making it ineffective. In addition, it is effective against only a very small group of bacteria. In order to overcome some of these shortcomings, a number of penicillin derivatives were prepared by slight modification of the chemical structure of penicillin G. These newer penicillin antibiotics (semisynthetics) differ slightly from penicillin G in their chemical structures, their stability, and their range of antibiotic activity. There are now about twenty penicillin antibiotics which are used clinically. Some examples of penicillin antibiotics include penicillin V (PENVEE K, V-CILLIN) ampicillin (POLYCILLIN, OMNIPEN), and amoxicillin (AMOXIL). They are used to treat such common infections as strep throat, urinary tract infections, boils and carbuncles, as well as some very serious infections such as meningitis, pneumonia, and typhoid fever. While the penicillin antibiotics are generally very safe, about 15% of the population is allergic (usually a rash) to this class of antibiotics. B. Cephalosporin - Cephalosporin are very similar to penicillin in their chemical structures. They are usually effective against a broader range of bacteria than the penicillin. However, most clinicians agree that the cephalosporin should be saved for cases in which the penicillin cannot be used or are not effective. Cephalosporins are also effective in infections such as respiratory tract infections and urinary tract infections. C. Tetracycline - The tetracycline antibiotics, like the penicillin, are among the most useful and important antibiotics. They are effective against a wide variety of bacteria and rickettsia. For this reason, they are called "broad spectrum" antibiotics. The tetracycline should not be taken by pregnant women or by children less than 8 years old because they will discolor (darken) the developing teeth of the infants and children. Most tetracycline should not be taken with food or milk because their effectiveness will be greatly diminished. Also, people taking some tetracycline (especially demeclocycline, Ò Declomycin) should avoid sunlight (natural or artificial) since it makes the skin more sensitive, causing a very severe sunburn. Tetracyclines are used to treat a variety of sexually transmitted diseases (STD) and are often used in rape victims to prevent the development of STDís. In addition, the tetracyclines are used to treat Rocky Mountain spotted fever, acne, and the plague. Examples of tetracycline, in addition to tetracycline itself, include doxycycline (VIBRAMYCIN), minocycline (MINOCIN), and demeclocycline (DECLOMYCIN).D. Erythromycin Erythromycin is probably the second safest antibiotic after penicillin G. In fact, it is used much like penicillin G and is a good alternative for people who are allergic to penicillins. Erythromycin (E-MYCIN, ILOTYCIN) is used for infections such as diphtheria, pneumonia, strep throat, Legionnaire's disease, and whooping cough. E. Aminoglycosides and Polypeptides - The aminoglycoside antibiotics are used almost exclusively in hospitalized patients for serious life threatening infections. Polypeptide antibiotics are too toxic to be used generally in the body. However, they are not toxic if used topically, or on the surface of the body. There are a few of each of these types of antibiotics that are incorporated into creams and ointments for the treatment of skin infections that usually result from relatively minor cuts and abrasions. Examples of preparations that include combinations of aminoglycoside and polypeptide antibiotics include NEOSPORIN and POLYSPORIN. The photo (courtesy of Merck & Co., Inc.) shows how the growth of bacteria on the agar in a culture dish has been inhibited by the three circular colonies of the fungus Penicillium notatum. The antibiotic penicillin, diffusing outward from the colonies, is responsible for this effect. Today, penicillin is made from cultures of Penicillium chrysogenum that has been specially adapted for high yields. Kinds of Antimicrobial Agents and their Primary Modes of Action 1. Cell wall synthesis inhibitors Cell wall synthesis inhibitors generally inhibit some step in the synthesis of bacterial peptidoglycan. Generally they exert their selective toxicity against eubacteria because human cells lack cell walls. Beta lactam antibiotics Chemically, these antibiotics contain a 4-membered beta lactam ring. They are the products of two groups of fungi, Penicillium and Cephalosporium molds, and are correspondingly represented by the penicillins and cephalosporins. The beta lactam antibiotics inhibit the last step in peptidoglycan synthesis, the final cross-linking between between peptide side chains, mediated by bacterial



carboxypeptidase and transpeptidase enzymes . Beta lactam antibiotics are normally bactericidal and require that cells be actively growing in order to exert their toxicity. Natural penicillins, such as Penicillin G or Penicillin V, are produced by fermentation of Penicillium chrysogenum. They are effective against streptococcus, gonococcus and staphylococcus, except where resistance has developed. They are considered narrow spectrum since they are not effective against Gram-negative rods. Semisynthetic penicillins first appeared in 1959. A mold produces the main part oif the molecule (6-aminopenicillanic acid) which can be modified chemically by the addition of side shains. Many of these compounds have been developed to have distinct benefits or advantages over penicillin G, such as increased spectrum of activity (effectiveness against Gram-negative rods), resistance to penicillinase, effectiveness when administered orally, etc. Amoxycillin and Ampicillin have broadened spectra against Gram-negatives and are effective orally; Methicillin is penicillinase-resistant.Clavulanic acid is a chemical sometimes added to a semisynthetic penicillin preparation. Thus, amoxycillin plus clavulanate is clavamox or augmentin. The clavulanate is not an antimicrobial agent. It inhibits beta lactamase enzymes and has given extended life to penicillinase-sensitive beta lactams.Although nontoxic, penicillins occasionally cause death when administered to persons who are allergic to them. In the U.S. there are 300 - 500 deaths annually due to penicillin allergy. In allergic individuals the beta lactam molecule attaches to a serum protein which initiates an IgE-mediated inflammatory response. Cephalolsporins are beta lactam antibiotics with a similar mode of action to penicillins that are produced by species of Cephalosporium. The have a low toxicity and a somewhat broader spectrum than natural penicillins. They are often used as penicillin substitutes, against Gram-negative bacteria, and in surgical prophylaxis. They are subject to degradation by some bacterial beta-lactamases, but they tend to be resistant to beta-lactamases from S. aureus . Bacitracin is a polypeptide antibiotic produced by Bacillus species. It prevents cell wall growth by inhibiting the release of the muropeptide subunits of peptidoglycan from the lipid carrier molecule that carries the subunit to the outside of the membrane Teichoic acid synthesis, which requires the same carrier, is also inhibited. Bacitracin has a high toxicity which precludes its systemic use. It is present in many topical antibiotic preparations, and since it is not absorbed by the gut, it is given to "sterilize" the bowel prior to surgery. 2. Cell membrane inhibitors disorganize the structure or inhibit the function of bacterial membranes. The integrity of the cytoplasmic and outer membranes is vital to bacteria, and compounds that disorganize the membranes rapidly kill the cells. However, due to the similarities in phospholipids in eubacterial and eukaryotic membranes, this action is rarely specific enough to permit these compounds to be used systemically. The only antibacterial antibiotic of clinical importance that acts by this mechanism is Polymyxin, produced by Bacillus polymyxis. Polymyxin is effective mainly against Gram-negative bacteria and is usually limited to topical usage. Polymyxins bind to membrane phospholipids and thereby interfere with membrane function. Polymyxin is occasionally given for urinary tract infections caused by Pseudomonas that are gentamicin, carbenicillin and tobramycin resistant. The balance between effectiveness and damage to the kidney and other organs is dangerously close, and the drug should only be given under close supervision in the hospital. 3. Protein synthesis inhibitors Many therapeutically useful antibiotics owe their action to inhibition of some step in the complex process of translation. Their attack is always at one of the events occurring on the ribosome and rather than the stage of amino acid activation or attachment to a particular tRNA. Most have an affinity or specificity for 70S (as opposed to 80S) ribosomes, and they achieve their selective toxicity in this manner. The most important antibiotics with this mode of action are the tetracyclines, chloramphenicol, the macrolides (e.g. erythromycin) and the aminoglycosides (e.g. streptomycin). The aminoglycosides are products of Streptomyces species and are represented by streptomycin, kanamycin, tobramycin and gentamicin. These antibiotics exert their activity by binding to bacterial ribosomes and preventing the initiation of protein synthesis. Aminoglycosides have been used against a wide variety of bacterial infections caused by Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Streptomycin has been used extensively as a primary drug in the treatment of tuberculosis. Gentamicin is active against many strains of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including some strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Kanamycin (a complex of three antibiotics, A, B and C) is active at low concentrations against many Gram-positive bacteria, including penicillin-resistant staphylococci.



Gentamicin and Tobramycin are mainstays for treatment of Pseudomonas infections. An unfortunate side effect of aminoglycosides has tended to restrict their usage: prolonged use is known to impair kidney function and cause damage to the auditory nerves leading to deafness. The tetracyclines consist of eight related antibiotics which are all natural products of Streptomyces, although some can now be produced semisynthetically. Tetracycline, chlortetracycline and doxycycline are the best known. The tetracyclines are broad-spectrum antibiotics with a wide range of activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The tetracyclines act by blocking the binding of aminoacyl tRNA to the A site on the ribosome. Tetracyclines inhibit protein synthesis on isolated 70S or 80S (eukaryotic) ribosomes, and in both cases, their effect is on the small ribosomal subunit. However, most bacteria possess an active transport system for tetracycline that will allow intracellular accumulation of the antibiotic at concentrations 50 times as great as that in the medium. This greatly enhances its antibacterial effectiveness and accounts for its specificity of action, since an effective concentration cannot be accumulated in animal cells. Thus a blood level of tetracycline which is harmless to animal tissues can halt protein synthesis in invading bacteria.The tetracyclines have a remarkably low toxicity and minimal side effects when taken by animals. The combination of their broad spectrum and low toxicity has led to their overuse and misuse by the medical community and the wide-spread development of resistance has reduced their effectiveness. Nonetheless, tetracyclines still have some important uses, such as in the treatment of Lyme disease. Chloramphenicol has a broad spectrum of activity but it exerts a bacteriostatic effect. It is effective against intracellular parasites such as the rickettsiae. Unfortunately, aplastic anemia, which is dose related develops in a small proportion (1/50,000) of patients. Chloramphenicol was originally discovered and purified from the fermentation of a Streptomyces, but currently it is produced entirely by chemical synthesis. Chloramphenicol inhibits the bacterial enzyme peptidyl transferase thereby preventing the growth of the polypeptide chain during protein synthesis.Chloramphenicol is entirely selective for 70S ribosomes and does not affect 80S ribosomes. Its unfortunate toxicity towards the small proportion of patients who receive it is in no way related to its effect on bacterial protein synthesis. However, since mitochondria probably originated from procaryotic cells and have 70S ribosomes, they are subject to inhibition by some of the protein synthesis inhibitors including chloroamphenicol. This likely explains the toxicity of chloramphenicol. The eukaryotic cells most likely to be inhibited by chloramphenicol are those undergoing rapid multiplication, thereby rapidly synthesizing mitochondria. Such cells include the blood forming cells of the bone marrow, the inhibition of which could present as aplastic anemia. Chloramphenicol was once a highly prescribed antibiotic and a number of deaths from anemia occurred before its use was curtailed. Now it is seldom used in human medicine except in life-threatening situations (e.g. typhoid fever). The Macrolides are a family of antibiotics whose structures contain large lactone rings linked through glycoside bonds with amino sugars. The most important members of the group are erythromycin and oleandomycin. Erythromycin is active against most Gram-positive bacteria, Neisseria, Legionella and Haemophilus, but not against the Enterobacteriaceae. Macrolides inhibit bacterial protein synthesis by binding to the 50S ribosomal subunit. Binding inhibits elongation of the protein by peptidyl transferase or prevents translocation of the ribosome or both. Macrolides are bacteriostatic for most bacteria but are cidal for a few Gram-positive bacteria. 4. Effects on Nucleic Acids Some chemotherapeutic agents affect the synthesis of DNA or RNA, or can bind to DNA or RNA so that their messages cannot be read. Either case, of course, can block the growth of cells. The majority of these drugs are unselective, however, and affect animal cells and bacterial cells alike and therefore have no therapeutic application. Two nucleic acid synthesis inhibitors which have selective activity against procaryotes and some medical utility are nalidixic acid and rifamycins. Nalidixic acid is a synthetic chemotherapeutic agent which has activity mainly against Gram-negative bacteria. Nalidixic acid belongs to a group of compounds called quinolones. Nalidixic acid is a bactericidal agent that binds to the DNA gyrase enzyme (topoisomerase) which is essential for DNA replication and allows supercoils to be relaxed and reformed. Binding of the drug inhibits DNA gyrase activity.Some quinolones penetrate macrophages and neutrophils better than most antibiotics and are thus useful in treatment of infections caused by intracellular parasites. However, the main use of nalidixic acid is in treatment of lower urinary tract infections (UTI). The compound is unusual in that it is effective against several types of Gram-negative bacteria such as E. coli,



5.



Enterobacter aerogenes, K. pneumoniae and Proteus species which are common causes of UTI. It is not usually effective against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Gram-positive bacteria are resistant. The rifamycins are also the products of Streptomyces. Rifampicin is a semisynthetic derivative of rifamycin that is active against Gram-positive bacteria (including Mycobacterium tuberculosis) and some Gram-negative bacteria. Rifampicin acts quite specifically on eubacterial RNA polymerase and is inactive towards RNA polymerase from animal cells or towards DNA polymerase. The antibiotic binds to the beta subunit of the polymerase and apparently blocks the entry of the first nucleotide which is necessary to activate the polymerase, thereby blocking mRNA synthesis. It has been found to have greater bactericidal effect against M .tuberculosis than other anti-tuberculosis drugs, and it has largely replaced isoniazid as one of the front-line drugs used to treat the disease, especially when isoniazid resistance is indicated. It is effective orally and penetrates well into the cerebrospinal fluid and is therefore useful for treatment of tuberculosis meningitis and meningitis caused by Neisseria meningitidis. Competitive Inhibitors The competitive inhibitors are mostly all synthetic chemotherapeutic agents. Most are "growth factor analogs" which are structurally similar to a bacterial growth factor but which do not fulfill its metabolic function in the cell. Some are bacteriostatic and some are bactericidal. Sulfonamides were introduced as chemotherapeutic agents by Domagk in 1935, who showed that one of these compounds (prontosil) had the effect of curing mice with infections caused by beta-hemolytic streptococci. Chemical modifications of the compound sulfanilamide gave compounds with even higher and broader antibacterial activity. The resulting sulfonamides have broadly similar antibacterial activity, but differ widely in their pharmacological actions. Bacteria which are almost always sensitive to the sulfonamides include Streptococcus pneumoniae, betahemolytic streptococci and E. coli. The sulfonamides have been extremely useful in the treatment of uncomplicated UTI caused by E. coli, and in the treatment of meningococcal meningitis (because they cross the blood-brain barrier).The sulfonamides (e.g. Gantrisin) and Trimethoprim are inhibitors of the bacterial enzymes required for the synthesis of tetrahydofolic acid (THF), the vitamin form of folic acid essential for 1-carbon transfer reactions. Sulfonamides are structurally similar to para aminobenzoic acid (PABA), the substrate for the first enzyme in the THF pathway, and they competitively inhibit that step . Trimethoprim is structurally similar to dihydrofolate (DHF) and competitively inhibits the second step in THF synthesis mediated by the DHF reductase. Animal cells do not synthesize their own folic acid but obtain it in a preformed fashion as a vitamin. Since animals do not make folic acid, they are not affected by these drugs, which achieve their selective toxicity for bacteria on this basis. antifungal Medical=Natamycin is used to treat fungal infections, including Candida, Aspergillus, Cephalosporium, Fusarium and Penicillium. It is applied as a cream, in eyedrops, or (for oral infections) in a lozenge. Natamycin shows negligible absorption into the body when administered in these ways. When taken orally, little or none is absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, making it inappropriate for systemic infections nystatin binds to ergosterol, a major component of the fungal cell membrane. When present in sufficient concentrations, it forms pores in the membrane that lead to K+ leakage and death of the fungus. Ergosterol is fairly unique to fungi, so the drug does not have such catastrophic effects on animals. Ketoconazole is a synthetic antifungal drug used to prevent and treat skin and fungal infections, especially in immunocompromised patients such as those with AIDS. Ketoconazole is sold commercially as an anti-dandruff shampoo, under brand names Perkhotal by Gepach International, and Nizoral, by Johnson & Johnson.



antiparasitic Mebendazole or MBZ, marketed as Ovex, Vermox, Antiox, Pripsen, is a benzimidazole drug that is used to treat infestations by worms including pinworms, roundworms, tapeworms, hookworms, and whipworms.



Mebendazole causes slow immobilization and death of the worms by Tiabendazole (INN, other names include TBZ, thiabendazole and the trade names Mintezol, Tresaderm, and Arbotect) is a fungicide and parasiticide. Parasiticide-As an antiparasitic, it is able to control roundworms (such as Strongyloidiasis)[2], hookworms, and other helminth species which attack wild animals, livestock and humans. [3] antiviral-Neuraminidase inhibitors are a class of antiviral drugs targeted at the influenza viruses whose mode of action consists of blocking the function of the viral neuraminidase protein, thus preventing the virus from budding from the host cell (reproducing).Unlike the M2 inhibitors, which work only against the influenza A, neuraminidase inhibitors act against both influenza A and influenza B.Common side effects include nausea and vomiting. Abacavir (ABC) is a nucleoside analog reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI) used to treat HIV and AIDS. It is available under the trade name Ziagen (GlaxoSmithKline) and in the combination formulations Trizivir (abacavir, zidovudine and lamivudine) and Kivexa/Epzicom(abacavir and lamivudine) . It has been well tolerated: the main side effect is hypersensitivity, which can be severe, and in rare cases, fatal. Genetic testing can indicate whether an individual will be hypersensitive; over 90% of patients can safely take abacavir. However, in a separate study, the risk of heart attack increased by nearly 90%.[1] Aciclovir is active against most species in the herpesvirus family. In descending order of activity:[2]Herpes simplex virus type I (HSV-1),Herpes simplex virus type II (HSV-2),Varicella zoster virus (VZV),Epstein-Barr virus (EBV),Cytomegalovirus (CMV) -- least activity Activity is predominantly against HSV, and to a lesser extent VZV. It is only of limited efficacy against EBV and CMV. It is inactive against latent viruses in nerve ganglia.To date, resistance to aciclovir has not been clinically significant. Mechanisms of resistance in HSV include deficient viral thymidine kinase; and mutations to viral thymidine kinase and/or DNA polymerase, altering substrate sensitivity.[3] typically don‟t touch with the left hand. To do so is a social insult. Left hand is for toilet functions. Mannerly in India to break your bread only with your right hand (sometimes difficult for non-Indians) Islamic cultures generally don‟t approve of any touching between genders (even handshakes). But consider such touching (including hand holding, hugs) between same-sex to be appropriate. ouch puts it in jeopardy). Asian cultures (Filipino, Malay, Indonesian, Thai, Indian) stress frequent bathing — and often criticize USA of not bathing often enough! Malaysia nvb Etiquette and Customs in Malaysia Meeting and Greeting Greetings in a social context will depend upon the ethnicity of the person you are meeting. In general, most Malays are aware of Western ways so the handshake is normal. There may be slight differences though and a few things to bear in mind include: Malay women may not shake hands with men. Women can of course shake hands with women. Men may also not shake hands with women and may bow instead while placing their hand on their heart. Among all cultures, there is a general tendency to introduce: the most important person to the lower ranking person. the older person to the younger person., women to men. Names The way names are used also varies between ethnicities: Malays Many Malays do not have surnames. Instead, men add their father's name to their own name with the term "bin" (meaning „son of‟). So Rosli bin Suleiman, would be Rosli the son of Suleiman. • Women use the term "binti", so Aysha bint Suleiman is Aysha the daughter of Suleiman. Gift Giving Etiquette Gift giving to Malays:



• If invited to someone's home for dinner, bring the hostess pastries or good quality chocolates. • Never give alcohol. • Do not give toy dogs or pigs to children. • Do not give anything made of pigskin. • Avoid white wrapping paper as it symbolizes death and mourning. • Avoid yellow wrapping paper, as it is the color of royalty. • If you give food, it must be “halal” (meaning permissible for Muslims). • Offer gifts with the right hand only or both hands if the item is large. • Gifts are generally not opened when received. Business Etiquette and Protocol in Malaysia Meeting and Greeting Within the business context most Malaysian businesspeople are culturallysavvy and internationally exposes. Your experience may very well depend upon the ethnicity, age, sex and status of the person you are meeting. The best approach is always friendly yet formal. A few tips include: • Initial greetings should be formal and denote proper respect. • If in a team, introduce the most important person first. • Many Malays and Indians are uncomfortable shaking hands with a member of the opposite sex. • Foreign men should always wait for a Malaysian woman to extend her hand. Foreign women should also wait for a Malaysian man to extend his hand. • To demonstrate respect Chinese may look downwards rather than at the person they are meeting. • It is important that professional titles (professor, doctor, engineer) and honorific titles are used in business. Malays and Indians use titles with their first name while Chinese use titles with their surname. Business Card Etiquette• Business cards are exchanged after the initial introductions. • If you will be meeting Chinese, have one side of your card translated into Chinese, with the Chinese characters printed in gold. • If you will be meeting government officials, have one side of your card translated into Bahasa Malaysia. • Use two hands or the right hand only to exchange business cards. • Examine any business card you receive before putting it in your business card case. • The respect you show someone's business card is indicative of the respect you will show the individual in business. Act accordingly. • Never write on someone's card in their presence. Communication As an extension to the need to maintain harmonious relations, Malaysians rely on non-verbal communication (i.e. facial expressions, tone of voice, body language, etc). Such a communication style tends to be subtle, indirect and. Malays may hint at a point rather than making a direct statement, since that might cause the other person to lose face. Rather than say "no", they might say, "I will try", or "I‟ll see what I can do". This allows the person making the request and the person turning it down to save face and maintains harmony in their relationship. If you are unsure about the affirmative response you received, you may want to continue the discussion, re-phrasing the question in several different ways so that you may compare responses. If the response was given because the Malaysian did not know how to respond in the negative without causing offense, this may come out. Alternatively, they may have someone else give you the bad news. Silence is an important element of Malaysian communication. Pausing before responding to a question indicates that they have given the question appropriate thought and considered their response carefully. Many Malaysians do not understand the Western propensity to respond to a question hastily and can consider such behavior thoughtless and rude. Malaysians may laugh at what may appear to outsiders as inappropriate moments. This device is used to conceal uneasiness. Do not show anger in public as it makes Malaysians uncomfortable and creates a feeling of powerlessness. There is a greater chance of achieving a good outcome id you are calm, whereas little is resolved by shouting. Business Meetings • It is a good idea for the most senior person on your team to enter first so that he or she is the first to greet the most senior Malaysian. • This gives face to both parties as it demonstrates respect towards the Malaysian and shows that you respect hierarchy within your company. • It is customary for leaders to sit opposite each other around the table. • Many companies will have their team seated in descending rank, although this is not always the case.



• Expect the most senior Malaysian to give a brief welcoming speech. You need not reciprocate. • There will be a period of small talk, which will end when the most senior Malaysian is comfortable moving to the business discussion. • Meetings may be conducted or continue over lunch and dinner. • Meetings, especially initial ones, are generally somewhat formal. Treat all Malaysian participants with respect and be cautious not to lose your temper or appear irritated. • At the first meeting between two companies, Malaysians will generally not get into in-depth discussions. They prefer to use the first meeting as an opportunity to get to know the other side and build a rapport, which is essential in this consensus-driven culture. Indonesia nvb 1. Beckon with index finger. This means “Come here” in the U.S. To motion with the index finger to call someone is insulting, or even obscene, in many cultures. Expect a reaction when you beckon to a student from the Middle or Far East; Portugal, Spain, Latin America, Japan, Indonesia and Hong Kong. It is more acceptable to beckon with the palm down, with fingers or whole hand waving. 2. Point at something in the room using index finger. It is impolite to point with the index finger in the Middle and Far East. Use an open hand or your thumb (in Indonesia) 3. Make a "V" sign. This means "Victory" in most of Europe when you make this sign with your palm facing away from you. If you face your palm in, the same gesture means "Shove it." 4. Smile. This gesture is universally understood. However, it various cultures there are different reasons for smiling. The Japanese may smile when they are confused or angry. In other parts of Asia, people may smile when they are embarrassed. People in other cultures may not smile at everyone to indicate a friendly greeting as we do in the United States. A smile may be reserved for friends. It is important not to judge students or their parents because they do not smile, or smile at what we would consider "inappropriate" times. In Indonesia, wai like gestures are in use in various parts of the country, including Java (called susunan, Lombok and Bali, where Hinduism and Buddhism had been or still is practiced. Historically in Malaysia and Brunei, it was used to convey thanks or salutations to a patron or higher personage, with the level of the hands raised in accordance with the rank or caste of the individual to whom it was used for. Although not used as a greeting gesture, similar motions (the clasping of hands in prayer-like motion towards stomach, chest or below chin) are known in the Philippines to convey heartfelt gratitude, and is used by someone towards their benefactor or helper. The strong presence of Hindu-Buddhist cultural influence in the country before the Spanish colonisation links aspects of everyday Filipino culture to those of other Southeast Asian countries, particularly Indonesia, Malaysia, Cambodia and Thailand, where the wai / svasti has also been used either historically or presently, as a greeting or thanking gesture. The movements of Silek Gelombang are based on silek. When welcoming guests, the dancers make a series of sideways approaches to an offering placed in front of the visitors. If the visitors are dancers of Minangkabau origin, they too might join in the dance and respond with corresponding movements. Both parties of dancers approach one another with slow diagonal steps, their moves precise yet hesitating, their postures defensive and prepared. They eventually meet at the offering plate and find peace in a mutually negotiated space. Both dancers, along with the crowd, start to jump around and dance in jubilation. The dance becomes a sign of consensus, with the offering serving as a meeting point arrived at after diversity is expressed through movement. The diverse ethnic population of the nation is reflected in the rich variety of its traditional dance forms. These range from the stylized refinement of Javanese court dances to animal- and nature-inspired rituals. The best-known dance traditions originate from Bali and Central Java, and reflect Hindu/Buddhist influences from India. In Balinese dance forms, both theatrical and ceremonial, the dancer's stylized facial expressions and articulate gestures are reminiscent of Indian dance, although they adopt a more fixed posture of the body. In the many dance theatre forms, like topéng and barong, masks are a dominant feature. Literary sources for Balinese dance theatre draw on many aspects of S. and SE Asian tradition.



In Javanese court dances hand movements are unusually harmonious and delicate and the dancers' phrasing is extremely smooth, lacking stamping or percussive rhythms. Javanese dance theatre embraces many different genres, including wayang Wong, which features the use of puppets, wayang topéng which uses masks, and langendria which is a form of dance opera For as many similarities that exist across the islands, there are just as many regional differences. Bali, the most widely recognized Indonesian island, is home to cooked duck and babi guling (pig). Minahasa enjoys mice and dog, and the Sundanese of West Java prefer their meat or fish cooked in the blood of buffalo or pig. Most Indonesians also enjoy durian, an oval, football-sized fruit, although many Westerners consider its smell to be foul and unappetizing. Islam, Catholicism, Protestantism, Buddhism, and Hinduism are the five religions officially recognized by the Indonesian government. The vast majority (approximately 87 percent) adheres to Islam, giving Indonesia one of the largest percentages of Muslims in the world. Islam is the predominant religion throughout the country, maintaining five of the twelve national holidays. Puasa (Ramadan), a month-long observance of fasting and celebration, is the most important time of the year for Muslims. During Puasa, families rise as early as 3 A.M. to consume as much food as possible before dawn. The fast is broken every day after sunset, when groups come together for a large feast. Lebaran (also called Hari Raya or Eid al-Fitr) marks the end of Puasa, as well as the return of regular eating habits. Among family and friends, Muslims often prepare ketupat, blocks of rice cooked in coconut or palm leaves. Cake and cookies are served with a seemingly bottomless pot of tea. Selamatan is a uniquely Indonesian tradition. The custom of praying to a God before a significant event (such as marriage or building a new house) is still practiced by most. Following the prayer (and at the kickoff of most major events throughout the country), tumpeng, a cone-shaped mountain of steamed yellow rice, is sliced at the top and served. Hari Raya Nyepi, the Hindu New Year (also known as the Hindu Day of Silence), is most elaborately celebrated on Bali, home to the greatest Indonesian Hindu population. On New Year's Eve, food is prepared for the following day (particularly homemade pastries and sweetmeats) when Hindus refrain from all activities, including food preparation. Streets are deserted and tourists are often not allowed to leave their hotel. Mealtime is typically a casual and solitary affair for Indonesians, who often choose to snack on a variety of small dishes throughout the day, rather than three larger meals. Indonesian women gather needed provisions early in the day, including picking fresh fruits and vegetables from their own gardens or purchasing ingredients from the local market. Once the meals are prepared, they are usually left, at room temperature, on the kitchen table for family members to nibble on whenever they are hungry. When separate larger meals are consumed, makan pagi (breakfast) is normally a bowl of fried rice, noodles, or soto (soup), accompanied by Java coffee (which has become world famous) or tea. Makan siang (lunch) is often the main meal of the day, followed by makan malam (dinner) after the workday has ended. The base of most meals is nasi (rice). When a meal is enjoyed together, the prepared dishes are usually placed in the middle of a table or a floor mat so everyone may share. Rijstafel (meaning "rice table"), an idea brought to the islands by the Dutch, almost always includes nasi, accompanied by a variety of meats and vegetables for the purpose of contrasting flavors and textures. Hot and spicy dishes will often be served with a distinct texture, such as crunchy peanuts or krupuk (crispy crackers), or a contrasting flavor, such as a creamy gravy, palm sugar, or kecap manis, a sweet soy sauce. The following are the examples of non-verbal gestures which have the same and different meaning in the United States and Indonesia (Pease:1990, and Adelman:1993)



a. When we are happy, we usually smile. In other words, smiling is typically an expression of pleasure. It can also show affection, convey politeness or even disguise true feelings. But, it depends on the situations and relationships. A woman‟s smile at a police officer does not carry the same meaning when she smiles to a young child. In Asian cultures including Indonesia, smiling is also used to cover emotional pain or embarrassment. When the students are late to come to the class or they can‟t answer the questions from the teacher, they are possible to smile to cover their embarrassment.b. When we are sad or angry, we can frown, scowl, or even cry. In Arab and Iranian cultures, people express grief openly. They mourn out loud, while people from China, Japan, and Indonesia are more subdued.c. When we indicate “no” or negation, we usually shake our head from side to side. Shaking head from side to side is also used to show disagreement or have negative attitude. If we have a friend who is arrested by the police officer for the third time because of his crime, we may shake our head from side to side to show the disagreement or negative attitude towards his crime.d. When we do not know or understand what people are talking about, we usually shrug our shoulders.e. The “Ring” or “OK” gesture has different meaning in different countries. In the USA and in English speaking countries, the ring or OK gesture means “Everything is OK”. In France it can also mean zero or nothing. In Japan it can mean „money, in some Mediterranean countries, it is used to infer that a man is homosexual. In Indonesia, the ring gesture means zero.f. The thumb-up gesture has three meanings in Britain, Australia, and New Zealand. It is commonly used by hitchhikers who are thumbing a lift, it is an OK signal, it is probably an insult signal meaning “up yours” or “sit on this” when the thumb is jerked sharply upwards. In Greece, its main meaning is “get stuffed”. In Italy, when people count from one to five, they use the thumb to mean “one” and the index finger becomes “two”. In Australia, America, England and Indonesia, people count “one” on the index finger and two on the middle finger, hence, the thumb will be number five. In Indonesia, the thumb gesture means good job or response to someone who has completed an excellent job. It also means “delicious” when we taste delicious food. In Indonesia, if we want to stop the public transportation to take us to a certain place, we use the index finger to stop it, not the thumb.g. The V sign has an “up yours” interpretation in Australia, New Zealand, and Great Britain. The palm faces towards the speaker for the insult version. In USA, the V sign means victory but the two fingers and the palm face out. In Indonesia, whether the palm faces towards the speaker or the palm faces out, the V sign means number two.h. Scratching the head can mean a number of things-dandruff, fleas, sweating, uncertainty, forgetfulness or lying. It depends on the other gestures or the situations that happen at the same time. If the student scratches his head when he answers the question given by the teacher, scratching the head can mean that he forgets or he is not sure about the answer. i. Someone is sitting at a bus terminal with arms and legs tightly crossed and chin down and it is raining, it may mean that he feels cold, not defensive. If the person uses the same gesture while we are sitting across a table from him trying to sell him an idea or product, it can mean that he is negative or defensive about the situation. j. If a boy is introduced to a pretty and charming girl and he winks one of his eyes, it can be interpreted that the boy likes her or the boy is interested in further relationship with her. k. If we feel disappointed, we usually put our fist under our chin. l. If we want to get the attention of a pretty or charming girl who passes in front of us (a group of boys), we can whistle. m. In USA, beckoning people to come with the palm up is common or acceptable, however, in the Philiphines, Korea, and parts of Latin America as well as other countries the same gesture is considered rude. In some countries, only an animal which can be beckoned with the palm up. In Indonesia, when we want to beckon someone we extend one arm in front of us and, with the palm down, wave to the person to come. n. Eye contact is important because it shows intimacy, attention, and influence. In general, Indonesian makes less eye contact with strangers in big cities than in small towns. In Indonesian small town, it usual for two strangers walking each other to make eye contact, smile and perhaps say “Hi !”, “Good Morning” or even “Where are you going”.



You Know I still Love You Baby. And it will never change. (saranghae) I want nobody nobody But You, I want nobody nobody But You How can I be with another, I don‟t want any other I want nobody nobody, nobody nobody Why are you trying to, to make me leave ya I know what you‟re thinking Baby why aren‟t you listening How can I just Just love someone else and Forget you completely When I know you still love me Telling me you‟re not good enough My life with you is just too tough You know it‟s not right so Just stop and come back boy How can this be When we were meant to be I want nobody nobody but you I want nobody nobody but you How can I be with another, I don‟t want any other I want nobody nobody nobody nobody I want nobody nobody but you I want nobody nobody but you How can I be with another, I don‟t want any other I want nobody nobody nobody nobody Why can‟t we just, just be like this Cause it‟s you that i need and nothing else until the end Who else can ever make me feel the way I I feel when I‟m with you, no one will ever do Telling me you‟re not good enough My life with you is just too tough You know me enough so you know what I need boy Right next to you is where I need to be I want nobody nobody but you I want nobody nobody but you How can I be with another, I don‟t want any other I want nobody nobody nobody nobody I want nobody nobody but you I want nobody nobody but you How can I be with another, I don‟t want any other I want nobody nobody nobody nobody I don‟t want no body, body I don‟t want no body, body Honey you know it‟s you that I want, It‟s you that I need Why can‟t you see~ I want nobody nobody but you I want nobody nobody but you How can I be with another, I don‟t want any other I want nobody nobody nobody nobody I want nobody nobody but you I want nobody nobody but you How can I be with another, I don‟t want any other I want nobody nobody nobody nobody Back to the days when we were so young and wild and free Nothing else matters other than you and me So tell me why can‟t it be please let me live my life my way why do you push me away I don‟t want nobody nobody nobody nobody but you



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