PART II: Planning
Chapter 3
Foundations of Planning
規畫的基礎
Learning Objectives
1. Define planning.
2. Benefits vs. drawbacks of planning.
3. Types of Planning
4. Management by Objectives (MBO)
5. Strategic management process.
6. Four grand strategies.
7. SWOT analysis.
8. Competitive advantage
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–2
Planning Defined
• Defining the organization’s objectives or
goals定義組織之目標或目的
• Establishing an overall strategy for
achieving those goals建立整體策略
• Developing a comprehensive hierarchy of
plans to integrate and coordinate activities
發展全面性的計畫以整合及協調活動
• Planning is concerned with ends (what is to
be done) as well as with means (how it is to
be done).
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–3
Reasons for Planning
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–4
Criticisms Of Formal Planning
• Planning may create rigidity.
• Plans can’t be developed for a dynamic
environment.
• Formal plans can’t replace intuition and
creativity.
• Planning focuses managers’ attention on
today’s competition, not on tomorrow’s
survival.
• Formal planning reinforces success, which
may lead to failure.Planning 吳明泉博士 2008
Management─ Foundations of 3–5
對於正式計畫的批評
• 計畫會造成僵化。
• 在動態的環境下無法發展計畫。
• 正式計畫無法替代直覺與創造力。
• 計畫使管理者注意於今日的競爭，而非明
日的生存。
• 正式的計畫增強成功，也可能導致失敗。
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–6
Planning and Performance
• Formal planning generally means higher profits,
higher return on assets, and other positive financial
results.正式規劃一般與高利潤、高資產報酬率及好
的財務結果一起出現。
• Planning process quality and implementation
probably contribute more to high performance than
does the extent of planning.規劃程序的品質與執行
較規劃範圍對高績效貢獻較大。
• When external environment restrictions allowed
managers few viable alternatives, planning did not
lead to higher performance.在那些正式規劃未能導
致高績效的研究中，環境因素是典型的癥結所在。
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–7
Types of Plans
BREADTH TIME SPECIFICITY FREQUENCY
OF USE FRAME OF USE
Strategic Long term Directional Single use
Tactical Short term Specific Standing
使用廣度 時間幅度 明確度 使用頻率
‧策略性 • 長期 • 方向性 ‧單次使用
‧作業性 • 短期 • 特定性 ‧常設計畫
Exhibit 3.2
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–8
Planning: Focus and Time
• Strategic plans
Plans that are organization-wide, establish overall
objectives, and position an organization in terms
of its environment應用於整體組織，建立組織整
體目標，探尋組織在所處環境中之定位的計畫
• Tactical plans
Plans that specify the details of how an
organization’s overall objectives are to be
achieved對於所有整體目標如何達成的細節計畫
• Short-term plans＜1yr
• Long-term plans＞5yrs
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–9
Strategic Planning
• Strategic plans
Apply broadly to the entire organization.
Establish the organization’s overall objectives.
Seek to position the organization in terms of
its environment.
Provide direction to drive an organization’s
efforts to achieve its goals.
Serve as the basis for the tactical plans.
Cover extended periods of time.
Are less specific in their details.
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–10
Tactical Planning
• Tactical plans (operational plans)
Apply to specific parts of the organization.
Are derived from strategic objectives.
Specify the details of how the overall
objectives are to be achieved.
Cover shorter periods of time.
Must be updated continuously to meet current
challenges.
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–11
Directional versus Specific Plans
Exhibit 3.3
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–12
Specific and Directional Plans
• Specific plans
Plans that have clearly defined objectives and
leave no room for misinterpretation.
“What, when, where, how much, and by whom”
(process-focus)
• Directional plans
Flexible plans that set out general guidelines.
“Go from here to there” (outcome-focus)
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–13
Single-Use and Standing Plans
• Single-use plans單一用途計畫
A plan that is used to meet the needs of a
particular or unique situation
Single-day sales advertisement
• Standing plan經常性計畫
A plan that is ongoing and provides guidance
for repeatedly performed actions in an
organization
Customer satisfaction policy
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–14
Management by Objectives (MBO)目
標管理
Specific performance objectives are jointly
determined by subordinates and their
supervisors, progress is periodically reviewed,
and rewards are allocated on the basis of that
progress.
Cascading of Objectives
Focuses operational efforts on organizationally
important results.
Motivates rather than controls.
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–15
Cascading of Objectives階層化目標
Exhibit 3.4
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–16
Elements of MBO
• Goal specificity
• Participative decision making
• Explicit time period for performance
• Performance feedback
• 目標詳盡
• 參與性決策
• 明確期限
• 績效回饋
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–17
Setting Employee Objectives
• Identify an employee’s key job tasks.
• Establish specific and challenging goals
for each key task.
• Allow the employee to actively participate.
• Prioritize goals.
• Build in feedback mechanisms to assess
goal progress.
• Link rewards to goal attainment.
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–18
如何設定員工的目標？
• 定義員工主要工作任務。
• 針對每項主要任務建立詳盡且具挑戰性的
目標。
• 讓員工主動參與。
• 排定目標優先順序。
• 建立評估目標進度的回饋機制。
• 目標達成與獎勵關聯。
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–19
目標設定原則─SMART
Specific明確
Measurable可衡量
Achievable可達成
Result-oriented成果導向
Timely期限
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–20
Goal Goal
Difficulty Specificity
Is There a Downside to MBO?
Top
Participation
Management
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–21
Strategic Management Process
策略管理程序
A nine-step process that involves strategic
planning, implementation (執行）, and
evaluation（評估）
Exhibit 3.5
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–22
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–23
The Organization’s Current Identity
• Mission任務statement
Defines the present purpose of the
organization.
• Objectives
Specific measures (milestones) for
achievement, progress, and performance.
• Strategic plan
A document that explains the business
founders’ vision and describes the strategy
and operations of that business.
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–24
Analyze the Environment
• Environmental scanning環境審視
Screening large amounts of information to
detect emerging trends and create a set of
scenarios
• Competitive intelligence競爭情報
Accurate information about competitors that
allows managers to anticipate competitors’
actions rather than merely react to them
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–25
SWOT: Identifying Organizational Opportunities
Analysis of an
organization’s strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities,
and threats in order to
identify a strategic niche
that the organization can
exploit.
分析將組織之強勢、弱勢、
機會及威脅等綜合在一起，
以期找出組織可以發展的
利基。
Exhibit 3.6
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–26
SWOT Analysis
• Strengths (strategic)
Internal resources that are available or things that an
organization does well.
Corecompetency: a unique skill or resource that
represents a competitive edge.核心能力
• Weaknesses
Resources that an organization lacks or activities that
it does not do well.
• Opportunities (strategic)
Positive external environmental factors.
• Threats
Negative external environmental factors.
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–27
如何分析威脅Threats
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–28
Grand Strategies
• Growth成長 strategy
A strategy in which an organization attempts to
increase the level of its operations.
• Stability 穩定strategy
A strategy that is characterized by an absence of
significant change.
• Retrenchment 縮減strategy
A strategy characteristic of a company that is
reducing its size, usually in an environment of decline.
• Combination 組合strategy
The simultaneous pursuit by an organization of two or
more of growth, stability, and retrenchment strategies.
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–29
Growth Strategies
• Direct Expansion擴張
Involves increasing a company’s size, revenues,
operation, or workforce.
• Merger合併
Occurs when two companies, usually of similar
size, combine their resources to form a new
company.
• Acquisition併購
Occurs when a larger company buys a smaller
one and incorporates the acquired company’s
operations into its own.
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–30
Competitive Strategies競爭策略
• Strategies that position an organization in
such a way that it will have a distinct
advantage over its competition:
Cost-leadership strategy成本導向
Becoming the lowest-cost producer in an industry.
Differentiation strategy差異化
to be unique in an industry within a
Attempting
broad market.
Focus strategy聚焦
Attempting to establish an advantage (such as cost
or differentiation) in a narrow market segment.
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–31
Sustaining延續a Competitive Advantage
• Competitive advantage counts for little if it
cannot be sustained over the long-term.
Factors reducing competitive advantage
Evolutionary changes in the industry
Technological changes
Customer preferences
Imitation by competitors
Defending competitive advantage
Patents, copyrights, trademarks, regulations, and
tariffs
Competing on price
Long-term contracts with suppliers (and customers)
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–32
Evaluating Strategy
Strategy Implementation
Formulation and Execution
Evaluation
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–33
Quality as a Strategic Weapon
• Benchmarking標竿管理
The search for the best practices among
competitors or noncompetitors that lead to
their superior performance.
• ISO 9000 series
Standards designed by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) that
reflect a process whereby independent
auditors attest that a company’s factory,
laboratory, or office has met quality
management requirements.
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–34
Six Sigma 六個標準差
• A philosophy and measurement process
developed in the 1980s at Motorola.
• To design, measure, analyze, and control
the input side of a production process to
achieve the goal of no more than 3.4
defects per million parts or procedures.
• A philosophy and measurement process
that attempts to design in quality as a
product is being made.
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–35
Identifying A Competitive Advantage
• Environmental sources of entrepreneurial
opportunity
The unexpected
The incongruous
The process need
Industry and market structures
Demographics
Changes in perception
New knowledge
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–36
Homework 2: SWOT分析與策略規畫
• 選擇一組織作為個案研究之對象。
• 簡介該組織，並指出該組織之任務
（Mission Statement)、目標及策略。
• 為該組織完成一SWOT分析。
• 根據該分析，提出（或修正）該組織的
競爭策略為何？
• 討論這些策略與教科書所提的策略有那
些異同？
Management─ Foundations of Planning 吳明泉博士 2008 3–37