Cognitive and Humanist: (Psychology )
Cognitive:
Cognitivism emphasizes mental processes
It looks at how we: direct our attention, perceive, think, remember, and
solve problems.
The cognitive approach emphasizes the scientific aspect of psychology
Information processing looks at minds like computers.
Piaget stressed that children do not just passively receive information
from their environment, they actively construct their own cognitive
world.
Organization and adaption underline a child’s mental construction of the
world.
Assimilation is the incorporation of new information into one’s existing
knowledge.
Accommodation is an individual’s adjustment to new information.
Sensori — Motor Thought is the first Piagetian stage of development that
lasts from birth - 2 years of age. In this stage the infant constructs an
understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with
physical actions.
Object Permanence is Piaget’s term for one of the infant’s most
important accomplishments: understanding that objects and events continue
to exist even when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched.
Operations are mental representations that are reversible.
Preoperational Thought is the term Piaget gave to the 2 to 7 year old
child’s understanding of the world. Children at this stage of reasoning
(can/cannot) understand such logical operations as the reversibility of
mental representations.
Conservation is the belief in the permanence of certain attributes of
objects or situations in spite of superficial changes.
The child’s thought in the preoperational stage (is/is not) egocentric.
Egocentrism is the (ability/inability) to distinguish between one’s own
perspective and someone else’s perspective.
Concrete Operational Thought is the term Piaget gave to the 7 to 11 year
old child’s understanding of the world. At this stage of thought children
(can/cannot) use operations. Logical reasoning replaces intuitive thought
as long as the principles are applied to concrete examples.
In this stage thought (is/is not) abstract.
Children (do/do not) have classification skills, which aid in dividing
things into sets and subsets.
Piaget’s methods in classifying these stages were interviews and
observations.
Piaget was come under criticism because of his stages. People feel that
the stages (assume/do not assume) synchrony in development.
Neo-Piagetians are developmentalists who have (elaborated/condensed) on
Piaget’s theory, they believe that children’s development (is more/is
less) specific in many respects than he thought.
Formal Operational Thought is Piaget’s name for the fourth stage of
cognitive development which appears between 11 and 15 years of age. This
stage (is/is not) abstract, idealistic, and logical.
Hypothetical Deductive reasoning is Piaget’s name for adolescents’
ability to develop hypotheses, or best hunches, about ways to solve
problems.
Adolescent egocentrism involves the belief that others are as
preoccupied with the adolescent as she herself is, the belief that one is
unique, and the belief that one (is/is not) indestructible.
Piaget believed that adults and adolescents think in (the
same/different) ways.
Other developmental psychologists (believed/did not believe) the same as
Piaget.
In order for a scheme to develop one must occur disequilibrium where a
contradiction is experienced. assimilation also occurs where children
begin to interpret new experiences. Accomidation is when a child modifies
the existing scheme.
Children (are/are not) taught how to think. They construct their own
world through their interaction with the environment.
Cognitive moral development’s first stage is the pre-moral period
between the ages of pre school to 5 or so. Here there (is/is not) very
little concern or awareness of socially defined rules.
Heteronomous Morality is from 5 1/2 to 10 years of age. Here there
(is/is not) advanced or mature cognitive abilities. Language begins to
develop and memory begins to increase. Authority figures (are/are not)
considered sacred. Rules (are/are not) set in stone. Actions are
perceived by intent not motives. There is a belief in eminent justice.
Autonomous Morality is from the ages of 10 1/2 and up. Here, children
(recognize/do not recognize) that rules are arbitrary and there (are/are
not) exceptions. There (is/is not) recognition of rules sometimes needing
to be broken. They can look at actions and infer motives and intent.
There is a more realistic view of justice.
Bandura says that learning is facilitated by awareness, which therefore
demonstrates forethought.
The environment (is/is not) crucial, but so are the cognitive elements
that allow for cognitive maps.
We (are/are not) robots.
Memory, Language and Thinking are components of cognition.
We (are/are not) rational creatures (with/without) free will.
A cognitive map is an internal representation of an explanation of a
behavior.
Bandura says that there are four key processes to social learning that
behaviorists fail to account for and three key concepts to social
learning. Label either c (concept) or p (process):
P attention C modeling
C symbolic modeling P reinforcement
P motor-reproduction C model
P retention
There is constant interplay between the environment, behavior and
cognitive factors.
Cognitive therapies stress that the individual’s beliefs are the main
source of abnormal behavior. These therapies attempt to change the
individual’s feelings and behaviors by changing beliefs. They adhere to a
conversational format. These therapies are very effective in treating
mood disorders.
Rational-Emotive therapy is based on Albert Ellis’ assertion that
individuals become psychologically disordered because of their beliefs,
especially those that are irrational and self-defeating. This is the A-B-
C-D-E therapy. This therapy says that emotions go from an activating
experience to a belief system. This leads to consequences. Then the
therapist challenges the belief system in disputation. Then outcomes or
effects are reached. In this therapy the problem that is stressed is the
belief system.
In Beck’s Cognitive therapy there are four phases which Beck believes
effectively treats depressed persons. Put them in order:
3 They learn how to substitute appropriate thoughts for inappropriate
ones
4 They are given feed-back and motivating comments from the therapist to
stimulate their use of these techniques.
1 The depressed clients are shown how to identify self-labels, that is,
how they view themselves.
2 They are taught to notice when they are thinking distorted or
irrational thoughts.
The National Mental Health (NMH) institute supports the belief that this
therapy is an effective treatment of depression.
Piaget in 1954 did an experiment mostly on an observational level. He
was trying to substantiate how we establish reality. There (is/is not)
validity to his cognitive stages, according to him. This study validates
that object permanence (is/is not) very important. This study (has/does
not have) an impact on morality.
Bandura in the 80s and 90s looked into personality theories. He was
criticized for his observational studies. He looked at past and present
events to account for behaviors that people have engaged in. He focused
on World War II and Hitler’s Germany. He said that Hitler made what his
followers were doing useful behavior so they would join his army by
telling them that they would otherwise die. Hitler’s Germany
(substantiated/did not substantiate) the social learning theory.
Humanist:
Humanists believe that people (have/do not have) capacity for human
growth.
They believe that people (do/do not) have the freedom to choose their
destiny.
They stress positive qualities in humans.
They believe that people have the ability to improve their lives.
Our personal perception of ourselves is (more/less) important than the
environment.
We have the potential for self-understanding.
We should support others so they can have a positive self image and
self-understanding.
Carl Rogers stressed warm and therapeutic environments.
Abraham Maslow thinks that our potential is virtually limitless.
People stay together because of their positive perception of each other.
Rogers says that due to conditional positive regard, humans do not
believe positive things about themselves and have low self-esteem.
Rogers does not believe in all aspects of the self are conscious but he
did believe that the self was accessible in the consciousness.
Self-Concept is how we perceive our abilities, behavior and personality.
The real self is how we truly are and the ideal self is how we want
ourselves to be.
Unconditional positive regard, genuiness and empathy help improve our
relationship with others.
A fully functioning person is: (open/not open) to experience, (very/not
very) defensive, (aware/not aware) to the external world, has a
(harmonious/ non-harmonious) relationship with others.
Self-Actualization is the motivation to develop one’s full potential as
a human being.
The methodology they believe in the most is clinical interpretation.
They scorn controlled experiments.
One criticism of humanism is that self-actualization is difficult to
test. Also many believe they have too (much/little) optimism of human
nature. Some say humanism encourages narcissism.
Person-Centered therapy was developed by Carl Rogers. This therapy
provides a warm and supportive atmosphere to improve the client’s self
esteem. The therapist has an extremely personal relationship with the
client. The therapy is non-directive and encouraging. This requires
genuiness of the therapist and active empathy and listening.
Gestalt therapy was developed by Fredrick Perls. In this therapy, the
therapist confronts clients in order to help them become (more/less)
aware of their feelings and to face their problems. This therapy pushes
clients to overcome the past. Clients are confronted with their feelings.
The therapist sets an example and encourages verbal and non-verbal
congruence. Role-playing is used to aid the patient in making their
feelings more controlled.
Rosenthall and Jakobsin in 1966 did a study on teachers’ attention and
expectations in regards to their students abilities. This was a test in
self-fulfilling prophecies. The amount of attention given by teachers
(will/will not) determine how well the students do. Unconditional Postive
regard would be necessary in order for the students to move up the
pyramid. This (gave/did not give) validity to the assumption that in
order to move up on the hierarchy people need to feel self-esteem.
Ravizza in 1977 did a study on athletes. He interviewed athletes to see
if there was validity to the concept of peak experiences. The interviews
(did/did not) validate the concept of peak experiences. Later studies
showed that athletes were more likely to have peak experiences.
Wicker et.al. in 1993 questioned Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. They
researched past studies in order to show that the whole concept revolvers
around the lower needs being (not as/more) important than the higher
needs. They believed there (was/was not) a problem with this concept.