I. Introduction/Background Information
The current problems
The research findings (Hermayawati, 2009) showed that: (1) most students had very low
intakes at English mastery (only 10% students of each understudied class had better English
mastery); (2) most students needs English mastery particularly on productive skills of
speaking and writing. In reference with the findings, she suggested that the demanded
students‟ needs should be fulfilled and accessed for developing ELL syllabus. Besides, there
was also evidence which showed that ELT teachers had less-competencies in developing
learners‟learning materials or tasks for their less-acknowledged on the nature of ELT concepts
such as: Second Language Acquisition/SLA (which commonly bases ELT processes and
researchs, Contextual Teaching and Learning/CTL (learning is considered effective when the
contents are connected with the real-life), Multiculturalism (which aims at realizing „Unity in
Diversity on learners various culture background‟), including Task Based Language Teaching
and Learning/TBLT approach.
Jeon and Hahn (2006) in their research findings (entitled: “Exploring EFL Teachers
Perceptions of TBLT: A Case Study of Korean Secondary School Classroom Practice”) define
that some negative views on implementing TBLT with regard to its classroom practice exist,
eventhough the overall findings show that the majority respondents (ELT teachers) in
Secondary School Classrooms have a higher level of understanding about the concept.
II. A. The Nature of Task-Based Learning
TBLT is a modern language teaching approach for second language learners. It draws on
recent research from language acquisition with methods to get your students reading, writing,
listening and speaking. The term „task-based language teaching‟ (TBLT) was a far less
familiar concept in the late 1980s and is completely absent, for example, from texts such as
Richards and Rodgers' 1986 review of then current language teaching approaches. At that time
tasks were still often considered as no more than the mechanisms through which the
„production‟ phase of the presentation-practice-production (PPP) teaching/learning cycle could
be realized.
The idea of Task-based learning (TBL) was greatly popularised by N Prabhu (1987), who
(working in with schools in Bangalore, southern India), speculated that students were just as
likely to learn language if they were thinking about a non-linguistic problem as when they
were concentrating on particular language forms, instead of a language structure, in other
words, students are presented with a task they have to perform or problem they have to solve
(Harmer, 2001: 86).
Willis (in Harmer, 2001: 87) suggests three basic stages: The Pre-task, the Task-cycle, and
Language focus. In the Pre-task the teacher explores the topic with the class and may
highlight useful words and phrases, helping students to understand the task instructions. The
students may hear a recording of other people doing the same task. During the Task-cycle,
students perform the task in pairs or small groups while the teacher monitors from a distance.
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The students then plan how they will tell the rest of the class what they did and how it went,
and they hen report on the task either orally or in writing,and/or compare notes on what has
happened. In the Language-focus stage the students examine and discuss specific features of
any listening or reading text which they have looked at for the task and/or the teacher may
conduct some form of practice of specific language features which the task has provoked.
Using tasks
Teachers have been using tasks for hundreds of years. Frequently, in the past, the task was a
piece of translation often from a literary source. More recently, tasks have included projects
for producing posters, brochures, pamphlets, oral presentations, radio plays, videos, websites
and dramatic performances. The characteristic of all these tasks is that rather than
concentrating on one particular structure, function or vocabulary group, these tasks exploit a
wider range of language. In many cases, students may also be using a range of different
communicative language skills.
B. Why / What makes 'task-based learning' different?
Originally developed by N Prabhu in Bangalore, southern India, it is based on the belief that
students may learn more effectively when their minds are focused on the task, rather than on
the language they are using. The traditional way that teachers have used tasks is as a follow-up
to a series of structure/function or vocabulary based lessons. Tasks have been 'extension'
activities as part of a graded and structured course. In task-based learning, the tasks are
central to the learning activity.
Goals serve as a guideline in the overall process of task performance and provide a point of
contact between the task and the broader curriculum (Nunan, 1989) involving variety of
perspectives based on communicative, socio-cultural and cognitive awareness. Another point
worth noting is, according to Jeon & Hahn (2006: 1), that goals should properly reflect
learners needs and interests in order to stimulate their potential motivation for language use.
Such learning characteristics as written above are suggested by the current/modern ELT,
which access the learners‟ critical thinking (as suggested by Constructivism view), treat/place
the learners as the subjects of learning by elaborating their previous language acquisitions
/intakes (Humanistic view), and synthesized the natural and nurturant experiences
(Convergence view) to cope with the new knowledge through given the tasks. TBLT is also
appropriate with the aim of ELT, namely to encourage the learners competences in using the
target language and developing their knowledge, affective, and psychomotor aspects/domains
(as suggested by Bloom Taxonomy). Besides, it may also familiarize or habitualize them to
solve any problems they may face during their life-time.
The Three Types of Learning
There is more than one type of learning. A committee of colleges, led by Benjamin Bloom
(1956), identified three domains of educational activities: (1) Cognitive: mental skills
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Knowledge); (2) Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas Attitude; (3) Psychomotor:
manual or physical skills (Skills). Since the work was produced by higher education, the words
tend to be a little bigger than we normally use. Domains can be thought of as categories.
Trainers often refer to these three categories as KSA (Knowledge, Skills, and Attitude). This
taxonomy of learning behaviors can be thought of as “the goals of the learning process.” That
is, after a learning episode, the learner should have acquired new skills, knowledge, and/or
attitudes.
The committee also produced an elaborate compilation for the cognitive and affective
domains, but none for the psychomotor domain. Their explanation for this oversight was that
they have little experience in teaching manual skills within the college level. This compilation
divides the three domains into subdivisions, starting from the simplest behavior to the most
complex. The divisions outlined are not absolutes and there are other systems or hierarchies
that have been devised in the educational and training world. However, Bloom's taxonomy is
easily understood and is probably the most widely applied one in use today.
Cognitive Domain
The cognitive domain (Bloom, 1956) involves knowledge and the development of intellectual
skills. This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and
concepts that serve in the development of intellectual abilities and skills. There are six major
categories, which are listed in order below, starting from the simplest behavior to the most
complex. The categories can be thought of as degrees of difficulties. That is, the first ones
must normally be mastered before the next ones can take place.
1. Knowledge: Recall data or information, for intance, Recite a policy. Quote prices from
memory to a customer. Knows the safety rules. Key Words: defines, describes, identifies,
knows, labels, lists, matches, names, outlines, recalls, recognizes, reproduces, selects,
states.
2. Comprehension:
Understand the meaning, translation, interpolation, and interpretation of instructions and
problems. State a problem in one's own words. Examples: Rewrites the principles of test
writing. Explain in one's own words the steps for performing a complex task. Translates an
equation into a computer spreadsheet.Key Words: comprehends, converts, defends,
distinguishes, estimates, explains, extends, generalizes, gives an example, infers,
interprets, paraphrases, predicts, rewrites, summarizes, translates.
3. Application: Use a concept in a new situation or unprompted use of an abstraction.
Applies what was learned in the classroom into novel situations in the work place.
Examples: Use a manual to calculate an employee's vacation time. Apply laws of statistics
to evaluate the reliability of a written test.Key Words: applies, changes, computes,
constructs, demonstrates, discovers, manipulates, modifies, operates, predicts, prepares,
produces, relates, shows, solves, uses.
4. Analysis: Separates material or concepts into component parts so that its organizational
structure may be understood. Distinguishes between facts and inferences. Examples:
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Troubleshoot a piece of equipment by using logical deduction. Recognize logical fallacies
in reasoning. Gathers information from a department and selects the required tasks for
training.
Key Words: analyzes, breaks down, compares, contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs,
differentiates, discriminates, distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infers, outlines, relates,
selects, separates.
5. Synthesis: Builds a structure or pattern from diverse elements. Put parts together to form a
whole, with emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure. Examples: Write a
company operations or process manual. Design a machine to perform a specific task.
Integrates training from several sources to solve a problem. Revises and process to
improve the outcome. Key Words: categorizes, combines, compiles, composes, creates,
devises, designs, explains, generates, modifies, organizes, plans, rearranges, reconstructs,
relates, reorganizes, revises, rewrites, summarizes, tells, writes.
6. Evaluation: Make judgments about the value of ideas or materials. Examples: Select the
most effective solution. Hire the most qualified candidate. Explain and justify a new
budget. Key Words: appraises, compares, concludes, contrasts, criticizes, critiques,
defends, describes, discriminates, evaluates, explains, interprets, justifies, relates,
summarizes, supports.
Affective Domain
The affective domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as
feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. The five major
categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex as follows: (1) Receiving
Phenomena (awareness, willingness to hear, selected attention); (2) Responding to
Phenomena (active participation on the part of the learners, attends and reacts to a particular
phenomenon, learning outcomes may emphasize compliance in responding, willingness to
respond, or satisfaction in responding (motivation); (3) Valuing (completes, demonstrates,
differentiates, explains, follows, forms, initiates, invites, joins, justifies, proposes, reads,
reports, selects, shares, studies, works); (4) Organization (adheres, alters, arranges, combines,
compares, completes, defends, explains, formulates, generalizes, identifies, integrates,
modifies, orders, organizes, prepares, relates, synthesizes); (5) Internalizing values (acts,
discriminates, displays, influences, listens, modifies, performs, practices, proposes, qualifies,
questions, revises, serves, solves, verifies).
Psychomotor Domain
The psychomotor domain (Simpson, 1972) includes physical movement, coordination, and use
of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in
terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. The seven major
categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex: (1) Perception: The
ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity. This ranges from sensory stimulation,
through cue selection, to translation; (2) Set (Readiness to act. It includes mental, physical,
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and emotional sets - These three sets are dispositions that predetermine a person's response to
different situations which sometimes called mindsets); (3) Guided Response (The early stages
in learning a complex skill that includes imitation and trial and error. Adequacy of
performance is achieved by practicing); (4) Mechanism (This is the intermediate stage in
learning a complex skill. Learned responses have become habitual and the movements can be
performed with some confidence and proficiency; (5) Complex Overt Response, namely the
skillful performance of motor acts that involve complex movement patterns. Proficiency is
indicated by a quick, accurate, and highly coordinated performance, requiring a minimum of
energy. This category includes performing without hesitation, and automatic performance. For
example, players are often utter sounds of satisfaction or expletives as soon as they hit a tennis
ball or throw a football, because they can tell by the feel of the act what the result will
produce; (6) Adaptation - skills are well developed and the individual can modify movement
patterns to fit special requirements; (7) Origination - creating new movement patterns to fit a
particular situation or specific problem. Learning outcomes emphasize creativity based upon
highly developed skills.
Other Psychomotor Domain Taxonomies
As mentioned earlier, the committee did not produce a compilation for the psychomotor
domain model, but others have. The one discussed above is by Simpson (1972). There are two
other popular versions, namely Dave's (1975) and Harrow's (1972). Dave suggests
Psychomotor domain consists of the followings: (1) Imitation, i.e. observing and patterning
behavior after someone else. Performance may be of low quality such as Copying a work of
art; (2) Manipulation, i.e. being able to perform certain actions by following instructions and
practicing such as Creating work on one's own, after taking lessons, or reading about it; (3)
Precision, i.e. refining, becoming more exact - few errors are apparent. Example: Working
and reworking something, so it will be “just right.”; (4) Articulation, i.e. coordinating a series
of actions, achieving harmony and internal consistency, for instance, producing a video that
involves music, drama, color, sound, etc; (5) Naturalization, i.e. having high level
performance become natural, without needing to think much about it, for examples, Michael
Jordan playing basketball, Nancy Lopez hitting a golf ball, etc.
Harrow suggests that Psychomotor domain consists of the followings: (1) Reflex movements
, namely, Reactions that are not learned; (2) Fundamental movements, i.e. basic movements
such as walking, or grasping; (3) Perception, response to stimuli such as visual, auditory,
kinesthetic, or tactile discrimination; (4) Physical abilities, i.e. stamina that must be
developed for further development such as strength and agility; (5) Skilled movements, i.e
Advanced learned movements as one would find in sports or acting; and (6) No discursive
communication, namely, effective body language, such as gestures and facial expressions.
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Bloom's Revised Taxonomy
Picture 1.
Picture 2. Bloom’s Taxonomy Revision
C. How is TBLT conducted?
In the model of task-based learning described by Jane Willis, the traditional PPP (presentation,
practice, production) lesson is reversed. The students start with the task. When they have
completed it, the teacher draws attention to the language used, making corrections and
adjustments to the students' performance. In A Framework for Task-Based Learning, Jane
Willis presents a three stage process: (1) Pre-task - Introduction to the topic and task; (2) Task
cycle - Task planning and report; and (3) Language focus - Analysis and practice.
Does it work?
Task-based learning can be very effective at Intermediate levels and beyond, but many
teachers question its usefulness at lower levels. The methodology requires a change in the
traditional teacher's role. The teacher does not introduce and 'present' language or interfere
('help') during the task cycle. The teacher is an observer during the task phase and becomes a
language informant only during the 'language focus' stage. TBLT may be presented through
WebQuests and Direct-tasks (conventional Worksheets).
In WebQuests, students can actively participate in group discussion when exploring an issue.
They can develop search skills and critical thinking skills when finding information from
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resources on the Internet. They also have a chance to actually use the target language in the
form of reading web pages, writing presentations, listening to peers‟ opinions, and discussing
ideas on critical issues. Evidently, several learning theories and concepts are embedded in
WebQuests. These concepts and ideas relate to critical thinking skills, second language
acquisition, and social constructivism, to name a few. WebQuest, therefore, is an option for
ESL teachers to engage students in authentic and meaningful activities while learning English
language at the same time.
Employing WebQuest to the instruction is novel and intriguing to motivate students‟ learning.
On WebQuest, teachers offer scaffolding for students to construct and explore their own
knowledge. It is like a journey of exploration as well as construction. This journey is funny
and informative. Through WebQuest, students acquire not only language competence but also
content (http://en.wikiversity.org).
A learner should be engaged in communicative learning as he learns a second or foreign
language. The internet has made such communication available to most language learners
today. Learning a language by means of WebQuests is one way of integrating technology into
the ESL/EFL classroom. Students need motivation to learn. Integrating technology into the
classroom by means of WebQuests is a great way for students to get involved in real life
learning (http://www.nelliemuller.com/ESL_WebQuests.htm).
III. Problems/Discussion
A. When is TBLT properly started with overall suggested (psychological/philosophical, and
paedagogical) ELT concepts? It needs to be observed.
B. How to assess/evaluate learners learning achievement in TBLT practice?
Is authentic assessment appropriate to evaluate learners‟learning achievement which bases
TBLT approach? It is suggested for TBLT focus more on the groupwork process rather than
individual learning achievement.
Authentic assessment is used to describe the multi-forms of assessment that reflect student
learning, achievement, motivation and attitudes on instructionally-relevant classroom
activities. Examples of authentic assessment include performance assessment, portfolios, and
student self-assessment. Performance assessment consists of any form of assessment in which
the student constructs response orally or in writing (O‟Malley & Pierce, 1995: 4-5). Some of
the characteristics of performance assessment are the following: (1) Constructed Response
(students construct expanded response); (2) Higher-order Thinking (typically uses higher
levels of thinking); (3) Authenticity (student‟s engaging task with real-world); (4) Integrative
(student‟s ability for integration language skills and knowledge across content area); (5)
Process and Product (procedures and strategies for deriving the correct response, multiple
solutions); and (6) Depth versus Breadth/Width (the depth of student‟s skills mastery).
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C. Other (novel) method that nearly the same as TBLT is The Problem-based Learning Task
(PBL). Interview findings (conducted in an undergraduate school) demonstrate that the
implementation of the PBL in the Technical English course encouraged students to take a
more active role in their learning and made the course content more interesting. The study
offers guidelines for the effective implementation of this novel approach to learning process,
and discusses its wider implications.
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