Virtue Ethics
Dr. Corrigan
A2
Learning Objectives
We will learn about the following:
The Aristotelian principles of virtue ethics.
The ‘agent-centred’ nature of virtue ethics.
The concepts of eudomonia and the ‘Golden
Rule’.
Importance of acting virtuously and following
virtuous example.
Modern approaches to virtue ethics.
Critical strengths and weaknesses of the theory.
Introduction
Virtue ethics suggests that we should not
exclusively focus on what types of things
are right and wrong, and what we should
and should not do. Instead we should aim
to become better people by developing our
positive character traits called virtues.
Activity
Write down what you desire most as a
person.
Does being best or excelling in some area
come into your desires?
Write down what you think are your
biggest character flaws and why.
If you could change these would you?
Development
We become better people by developing
and using our virtues.
This is an alternative type of morality that
stresses our potentiality as human beings,
rather than proscribing particular rules.
Rather than following rules, we should
pursue just actions, which develops our
character, helping to make us just people.
Debate
“Some people suggest that you should just
be yourself and not try to better yourself.”
Aristotle
Goals
Every action is focused on an aim or
outcome – he is a teleological ethicist –
each action has an end in mind.
All series of actions are aimed towards an
ultimate end – happiness.
Fulfilment is the goal/purpose of life.
Activity
List what you personally believe brings
happiness.
Aristotelian Happiness
For Aristotle ‘happiness’ can be
understood in three different ways:
1. Happiness as a life of enjoyment or
pleasure.
2. Happiness as a free member of society.
3. Happiness as a philosopher.
Living pleasurably is not enough, we
have a responsibility to live a good life!
Eudaimonia
This is the idea of justified and deserved
‘happiness’.
To have eudaimonia we must practice skills
and virtues to achieve good lives.
Morality is based on good and positive
character traits.
If you have these virtues you are moral – if
you lack them (vices) you are immoral.
Activity
Do you agree with
Aristotle that
eudaimonia is the
greatest happiness?
Should it be the goal
of life?
Write down and
discuss your ideas.
The Virtues
Distinction:
1. Intellectual virtues: developed by training and
education.
2. Moral virtues: developed through practice and
habit.
Friendship based on good character, is an
essential social virtue – leads to personal and
societal altruistic flourishing.
Activity
Write down a list (in order of importance)
of the virtues that you think we should aim
to develop and practice.
Share ideas and make an overall class list.
Four Cardinal Virtues
Temperance/Moderation: the avoidance
of extremes.
Justice: equality and fairness.
Courage: confront one’s fears.
Prudence: practical wisdom.
By encouraging and adopting these virtues
one comes closer to eudaimonia – leads
to a fulfilled and ‘happy’ life.
Think About It
If people who were following the virtues
were to focus on them rather than, as
Aristotle intended, on the actions and their
consequences, how would this affect
society if everyone was to do the same?
Virtue Ethics as Agent-Centred
Agents and Actions
This approach focuses on the person performing
morally significant actions, rather than on the
actions themselves.
The actions and their consequences may be
right or wrong in themselves.
However, it is the moral development of the
person performing them that is central.
This makes the theory ‘agent-centred’.
Activity
Think back over the past week and list the
things that you have done that might have
helped you to develop virtues.
Write down why this approach, and your
actions over the past week would be
opposed to Kantian ethics.
Purpose of Moral Action
The purpose of doing moral actions is to
become a better person by developing the
virtues (moral action leads to greater virtue).
As we develop virtues we will do morally correct
actions, which will benefit society.
In order for virtue to develop, just acts must be
performed.
Debate
Is virtue ethics being ‘agent-centred’ not
an excuse for being selfish and
subjective?
A Selfish Theory?
Some people criticise virtue ethics as
being subjective and selfish.
However, the goal of developing
eudaimonia has a knock-on effect of
benefiting society – after all, we cannot be
good persons without doing good actions!
Importance of
Practicing
Virtue
Virtues must be:
1. Achieved through practice, perseverance and
dedication.
2. Practised to maintain proficiency in them.
After all ‘Practice makes perfect’!
Practicing also has a positive impact on
society.
Debate
Is saying that developing and practicing
virtues is a better approach to ethics than
following traditional ethical theories not a
recipe for disaster?
Would this new system of morality not
send society spiralling into subjective
moral chaos?
Eudaimonia
Vice
Central to virtue ethics are not only the
virtues that we should develop, but also
the vices to be avoided.
Two vices accompany every virtue:
1. Deficiency: Distinct lack of a virtue
(deficient vice of modest is
shamelessness)
2. Excess: Entirely too much of a virtue (the
excess vice of modesty is shyness).
The Golden Mean
At some point between vice and virtue is the
middle-point – this is what Aristotle referred to as
the ‘Golden Mean’.
Between the vices of deficiency and excess lies
the virtue which is the balance. This is ‘pure’ and
devoid of flaw.
This is not an mathematical calculation – e.g.
sometimes the brave thing to do is run away.
Some actions to do not have a mean – e.g. rape.
Activity
Using the below virtues and their
corresponding vices, give an example for
each:
Cowardice - Courage - Rashness
Shamelessness - Modesty - Bashfulness
Pettiness - Magnificence - Vulgarity
Challenge
How can the true mid-point of the vices be
definitively known? At what point to vices
become virtues and vice versa? Is it
intuition or some definite point? Clearly lay
out your thoughts.
Virtuous People
Modelling Behaviour
We should aim to imitate and model our
behaviour on those people whom we
consider virtuous.
The example of virtuous people can
provide inspiration and guidance in
situations where difficult moral decisions
need to be made.
Activity
Use the principles of virtue
ethics to examine the life
and work of someone that
you consider virtuous and
who is worthy of imitating.
List the ways in which they
show and model examples
of virtues.
Debate
If virtue theory encourages people to use
virtuous people as role-models, what if our
role-model is not really virtuous in the eyes
of others.
Adolf Hitler inspired thousands of people
to imitate him and his beliefs, yet the
consequences were horrendous.
Imperfect Role Models
The example of virtuous
people should not be expected
to be the activity of perfect
people!
They are merely a challenge
for us to aspire to greater
virtuous heights.
We should focus on the
inspirational parts of their lives
and activities and view them in
isolation from their limitations.
Jesus as an Exemplar of Virtue
Jesus encouraged his
followers to follow his
example and to go on to do
even greater things with their
lives.
For Christians, his life is a
perfect example of virtue in
action – something to be
praised and imitated.
Challenge
In some ways it could be
argued that Jesus was
not a virtuous role-
model. His actions and
teaching supposedly
caused wars, death and
persecution. Is it possible
that we have got it wrong
about such supposedly
virtuous people?
Debate
“Everyone, regardless of their religion,
should aim to develop the virtues of
Jesus’.
Modern Perspectives
17th and 18th C virtue ethics was criticised for
being too imprecise, and not applying the
absolutes of wrong and right (deontology).
Early 20th C the deontology of Kant, and
teleological utilitarian theories were strongly
supported.
Late 20th C there was a revival of virtue ethics,
due to declining belief that morality could be
found in religious teaching.
Elizabeth Anscombe
(1919-2001)
Believed that theories that were act or consequence
based did not provide an adequate foundation for moral
guidelines.
They relied on the idea of punishment and reward, either
by divine law-giver, or by their consequence.
She believed what was required was a return to
eudaimonia.
She also believed that other theories were too focussed
on autonomous actions, whilst disregarding the social
aspect of morality, which unites communities.
Philippa Foot (1920-)
Attempts to update virtue ethics whilst still maintaining its
roots in Aristotle.
Virtues are a way for people to flourish by correcting
natural tendencies towards vice.
There is a human inclination to self-interest, which out to
be corrected by becoming more compassionate and
benevolent.
Virtues do not necessarily lead to happiness – but do
move us towards it.
Virtues are only virtuous as long as they are correctly used
to bring a good outcome.
Alasdair MacIntyre
(1929-)
Modern ethical morality is lost – ethical terminology is
meaningless – disagreement as to whether ethics should be
teleological or deontological.
Morality should be aimed at developing your telos (end).
Virtues are judged by society.
Return to Aristotle’s understanding of virtue by encouraging
society to assist in the development of virtues that are
relevant to the modern world.
The ancient virtues are therefore not necessarily the virtues
that will assist us in the 21st century.
Richard Taylor (1919-
2003)
Against religion’s influence on morality.
Humans should flourish and achieve eudaimonia, but
religious teachings undermine this.
If the meek inherit the earth, then what is the point of striving
to be a good person and attempting to achieve moral
excellence – after all, all you have to do is lie back and wait
for your inheritance?
Christianity emphasises a self-negating equality and status-
quo, rather than encouraging people to strive to become
greater and better people.
Rosalind Hursthouse
(1943-)
Tackles the criticism that virtue ethics does not provide moral
guidance in dilemmas.
It may not explain exactly how a person would or should act,
but it does explain how a virtuous person would think about
the moral dilemma.
Virtues are virtuous because they encourage people to
flourish and achieve eudaimonia (Aristotelian view).
Virtues assist practical reasoning, enabling us to become
better and, hence, respond to moral dilemmas in a virtuous
way.
If we use the virtues, our reasoning will enable us to be
virtuous people.
Strengths of Virtue
Ethics
Appeals to both secular and religious morality.
The principles of virtue ethics are compatible with
religious beliefs.
Does not have a set of rules that must be followed.
Focuses on becoming better people and on humans
becoming the type of people that they ought to be.
Avoids the inequalities that absolutist ethics cause, and
the dubious morality of relativism.
It is a logical theory – it focuses on our practical
reasoning and the traits that will help society prosper.
Encourages us to become better people and improve
ourselves by aspiring to be like other virtuous people.
Weaknesses of Virtue
Ethics
If everyone were virtuous then there would be no variety or
excitement in the world.
How can we decide what types of virtues are most
important to develop or what kinds of things are virtuous
(MacIntyre)?
Virtues may clash – which is most important?
Virtues can be incorrectly used to perform immoral actions.
At what point does a virtue become a vice?
May be seen as encouraging subjective moral action
through personal moral development.
Aristotle’s virtues are mostly ‘masculine’.
Difficult to apply to actual situations – we know we should
be virtuous – but exactly how?