Key points from last week
Secondary Data
Secondary versus Primary data
Secondary data is data collected for some purpose other than the
present research purpose
– all previously gathered material
Primary data is data collected to address a specific research purpose, ie,
data required that has not previously been gathered
Advantages of secondary data
Access – quick & easy to obtain
Affordable – mostly free; or at minimal cost
Availability – many sources – electronic availability
Retrospective – allows researchers to go back in time; enables prediction or forecasting of future
events
Only available access – tourism data on International visitor arrivals
Quality – data sources produced by Govts meet high research standards; journals – articles reviewed
Ability to enhance primary data – base to study
Disadvantages of secondary data
Relevance & accuracy – as data has been collected for purposes other than the specific research problem,
usefulness may be limited.
Measurement units in secondary data may not match the researcher‟s needs – different income level
groupings or measured in different ways – household or per capita income
Recency of the data – too old to
be of value
Not easy to locate
May be an incomplete data set
Lack of information needed to
assess the credibility of the data
(refer to section on evaluating secondary data)
Evaluation of the data’s validity
Methodology used to collect data – critically examine sample design, response rate,
questionnaire design & admin, field work procedures, data analysis techniques & reporting
Error – accuracy of data – errors in each stage of the research process
Currency – when the data was collected
Objectivity – purpose for which the data was collected
Nature – the content of the data – how key variables are defined; units of measurement;
categories used etc – how consistent are they with researcher‟s needs
Dependability of the data – examine the expertise, credibility, reputation and trustworthiness of
the source.
Note: read further about these areas from the handout - Malhotra
Great site to visit
Commercial Economic Advisory Service of Australia
Also click on “other links”
http://www.hotkey.net.au/~ceasa/ceasa.html
Exploratory Research Techniques
Week 5
Study Materials for Module 5
Study Book Module 5
Cavana: chapters 6 (ch 7 not required)
or
Jennings: chapter 6 pp.162-178
Readings 5.1
Coakes and Steed: chapter 4 AND Cavana Appendix 1 pp 405-13 (Tourism students – have as
a handout)
Lecture overview
Exploratory research design
Understand the difference between qualitative and quantitative
Qualitative Techniques
– - Focus groups - Depth Interviews
– - Projective Techniques - Observations
– - Others –panel, delphi, case studies
Ethics and Report Writing
Summary
Tutorial
Exploratory research design
What is it?
– Type of research design that has as its primary objective the provision of insights
into and comprehension of the problem situation confronting the researcher.
– flexible
– usually unstructured
– usually qualitative
– primary data
Purpose
Diagnosing problems
– little prior knowledge
– insights needed into nature of the problem
– lack of previous research/information
Screening alternatives
Define terms and concepts/constructs
Isolate key variables and relationships
Discovering new ideas
Establishing priorities for further research
To develop hypotheses
Qualitative vs Quantitative Research
Strengths of qualitative research
generate insights
clarifies problems
can be quick
comparatively inexpensive
more depth/richness
small number of respondents
Limitations of qualitative research
tends to be qualitative
not a replacement for “conclusive” research – ie descriptive or causal
interpretation typically subjective
results susceptible to misuse
Common Exploratory Techniques
Focus Groups
Individual (Depth) Interviews
Projective Techniques
Observation
Panel
Delphi
Case Studies
Focus Groups
is an type of interview conducted by a trained moderator (facilitator), in
an unstructured/ semi structured free flowing manner, with a small group
of participants
information is collected through group interaction on a specific topic
IQCA best practice guidelines – participants restricted to once in any 6 month period
Characteristics of Focus Group
Group size 8 (6-10)
group composition homogeneous (but with sufficient variation)
consider objective of focus group
site selection consider group
physical setting relaxed, informal
time/ length 1-2 hours
number of groups at least 2
recording audiocassette/video
sampling similar to population
require a moderator(role) & assistant moderator(role)
payment varies by location
Focus Groups
Common Uses
– background knowledge
– generate new product/service ideas; impressions
– consumer vocabulary
– reveal consumers needs, motives, perceptions, preferences attitudes and behaviours concerning a
product/service
– advertising and communication research –to generate creative concepts & copy material
– price impressions
– reactions to a preliminary marketing program
– to understand findings from quantitative studies
Focus Groups
Advantage
– synergism – group produce a wider range of information, insights & ideas than only one person
– stimulating – group discussion generates ideas & excitement that develops in the discussion –
snowball of ideas
– spontaneity – as participants don‟t answer specific questions, the discussion generates a more
accurate idea of their views
– security – when participants‟ feelings are similar they are more comfortable to express their ideas
& feeling on topic
– observation – allows clients to observe the group
– works well with participants that don‟t respond to structured questions – children; or hard to
interview - professionals
Focus Groups
Disadvantages
– moderation – focus groups are difficult to moderate & quality of results depends heavily on the skills of the
moderator
– domination by individuals with strong personalities
– messy – data unstructured & difficult to interpret
– misjudge – susceptible to moderator & client bias; interpretation is subjective
– misrepresentation – not representative of the population & thus not be used as the sole basis for decision
making
– getting appropriate participants
– cost-per-participant is high – recruitment, incentives, moderator, facilities, time of research team
Planning a Focus Groups
clearly state the research problem
clearly & concisely specify objectives
develop interview questions from objectives - open ended (have sub-questions to probe further)
focus group participants - identify target population; write screening questionnaire to screen potential participants
– product knowledge; demographics; usage behaviour etc
decision on number of focus groups & size of focus groups
recruit participants – phone & follow up letter to confirm
arrange facilities & refreshments
incentives
moderator‟s guide – include ground rules for session & questions; open with a more general question, body ,
ending questions
Planning a Focus Groups cont
Arrive at session – greet participants & make them comfortable; name cards – person & table; on
arrival refreshments & time to socialise, create friendly, warm environment. Moderator should observe
group members interact & identify dominant members etc.
Begin session – ground rules –thank participants for coming; purpose of session; only one person
speak at a time; use of audio/video equipment, one way mirror – explain use etc
Opening part of session is to engage participants – ie get them to introduce themselves & few short
remarks
First main question – more general question that will focus all participants on the research area.
Body - 5-8 questions with probing sub-questions
Conclusion –sum up; ask for further comments; thank participants and let them know how they have
contributed
Planning a Focus Groups cont
Debriefing after session with researcher & client if available – chance to
compare, gain further insights and feed into next focus group
Review tapes, analysis and interpret data – focus on words; frequency of
comments; intensity of comments; context & build the big picture from the
data points.
Formal report & presentation to client
Variations in focus groups
TeleSession – session by phone using the conference call technique
FocusVison – teleconferencing
On-line focus groups – chat room environment
Greenfield Online Home Page
www.greenfieldonline.com
Activity
Video: Walker Information
Trip to focus room
Depth Interviews
When to use
Detailed probing of respondent on a topic
Discussion of confidential, sensitive or embarrassing topics
Strong social norms exist and thus respondent would be swayed by group response
Detailed understanding of complicated behaviour
Interviews with professional people
Interviews with competitors – unlikely to reveal information in a group
Situation where product consumption experience is sensory in nature affecting moods & emotions –
perfumes, bath soap
Depth Interviews cont
purpose of the interview will direct the development of the interview protocol
– a detail guide to the interview
unstructured interview -rough outline of the questions - need to be flexible
structured interview - more structured interview protocol
Advantage : provides „rich‟ data; extensive probing
Disadvantage: same as focus group
Interviewer’s role
Avoid appearing superior & put the interviewee at ease
Be detached & objective, yet personable
Ask questions in an informative manner
Not to accept brief „yes‟ or „no‟ answers
Use probes & prompts to elicit further information
Listening is very important
Types of interviews
Face-to-face
Telephone
Computer assisted interviewing
– CATI – computer assisted telephone interviewing
– CAPI – computer assisted personal interviewing
Indepth Interview Guidelines & Etiquette (similar for focus
group)
Arrange appointment to suit interviewee
Check you have all interview material working & organised
Always arrive on time
Be flexible
Consider your overall appearance – consider the context & dress to suit
Be aware of cultural protocol & codes of conduct
Remember the ethical rights of the interviewee & and check they understand their rights
Introduce yourself on arrival
Describe the purpose of the meeting & say why they were selected
Ask permission to take notes, audiotape, or videotape session
Indepth Interview Guidelines & Etiquette
Use the funnel technique
Don‟t evaluate
Don‟t interrupt
Don‟t bias by introducing your own ideas
Don‟t worry about pauses
Check your understanding
Follow up on areas of interest
Take notes
Don‟t get distracted
Read their body language –comfort level etc
Advise interviewee of midpoint and when reaching the end
Thank the interviewee
Arrange a time to have the interviewee check information / comment on transcript
Projective Techniques
Is an unstructured, indirect form of questioning that encourages respondents to
project their underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes or feelings regarding the issue
of concern.
Respondents are asked to interpret the behaviour of others rather than describe their
own behaviour.
used when respondents unlikely to give a direct answer
Projective Techniques
techniques
– word association
– sentence completion
– picture interpretation
– role play -third person
often used in conjunction with other exploratory techniques
Projective Techniques
Advantages
– sensitive issues canvassed
– uncover information not otherwise available – at unconscious level – motives, beliefs, attitudes
Disadvantages
– expensive (need skilled interpreters)
– sample bias – those who agree to participate may be considered unusual in some way – to role
play
– requires highly trained interviewers
– analysis & interpretation difficult & subjective
Observation
Is the recording of behavioural patterns of people, objects and events in a systematic
manner to obtain information about the phenomenon of interest.
observer does not question
or communicate with the people
being observed
Structure of observation methods
direct versus indirect (observe behaviour as it occurs; observe the effect or result of the behaviour)
disguised versus undisguised (subject is unaware of being observed; subject aware such as in a
lab)
structured versus unstructured (researcher identifies beforehand which behaviours are to be
observed & recorded; no restriction on what will be noted)
human versus mechanical (observer is a person; observing device – traffic counter, optical scanning
devise, UPC coding with optical scanner; peoplemeter, on-site cameras
Observation
Strengths
– subjects unaware – capture natural behaviour
– examine interactions & behaviour in real world setting
– no recall error – observe while engaging in act
– cheap (sometimes)
– may be the only way to obtain accurate info – ie children playing ; „mystery shoppers‟ – competition
(refer to the MRSA site - ESOMAR guidelines for mystery shopping
www.mrsa.com.au about mrsa, mrsa code of professional behaviour
– used to supplement & complement other techniques
– sometimes only possible approach
Observation
Weaknesses
– behaviour only
– cannot determine attitudes, motivations etc
– can be costly and time consuming
– bias – small number of subjects under special circumstances
– subjective interpretation
– slow and expensive
– observer fatigue
– extensive training for observes – time & cost
Other techniques
panels – longitudinal – qualitative data & quanitative data
delphi interviews repeated interviews with experts until consensus
case study
Ethics in data collection
Confidentiality
Researcher must not misrepresent the nature of the study to participants – purpose
explained
Personal information should not be solicited – if needed, collect in highly sensitive
manner
Never violate the self-esteem and self-respect of participants
Informed consent – do not force subject to participate
Nonparticipant observers should be unintrusive
Ethics in data collection cont
Participants should not be exposed to physical or mental harm
Absolutely no misrepresentation or distortion in reporting of data
collected during study
Participant once agreeing should cooperate fully
Participant has an obligation to be truthful & honest in the responses
Reporting exploratory research
Techniques used should be described & justified
– Any deviations; how techniques will assist providing information to meet research problem
Selection of participants described & profile of participants ( reader can assess
representativeness)
Report - based on objectives; focus on common themes & use direct quotes from
participants to justify judgements made
Next week
Descriptive research techniques
– Surveys
Summary
Exploratory research design & the techniques appropriate for collecting data
Focus groups – assessed the strengths & weaknesses; when to use; how to plan a
focus group; important role of moderator
Indepth interviews, when to use, role of interviewer; guidelines & etiquette
Other techniques - observation; projective; panel; delphi & case study
Ethics in data collection
Reporting exploratory research
Tutorial
Presentation
Projective techniques – exercise by Hoda
Focus group role play
– To develop prior to the tutorial a moderator‟s guide for a focus group based on the principles outlined in the
lecture
– To determine how many focus groups (why?) and selection criteria for participants for each focus group
– In class to role play a focus group – moderator; participants & observers
SPSS – complete work from last week – pie chart & describe graph for a report ;
– Introduction to univariate, bivariate & multivariate analysis;
– Univariate analysis – descriptive statistics – Ch 4 Coakes & Steed & read Cavana pp. 405-13
Focus group exercise
Management problem
– How effective are the changes made to the USQ Refectory service?
Research problem
– What are the current customer perceptions and satisfaction level of the new USQ Refectory service?
Research objective for Focus group
Qbj 1 To determine the most important factors (attributes) when selecting a food service provider at USQ for
lunch time meal
Obj 2 To determine current users perceptions on the Refectory in terms of food quality; food price; food
variety; speed of service; service layout; service providers (add other from Obj 1 to list)
Obj 3 To determine the level of satisfaction by main attributes
Note: Other objectives would be set but for the purpose of this short exercise you are required to deal with the
above 3 objectives.