Chapter 11:
Resources for Best Practices
Central concepts:
beliefs shape program development
model programs yield conclusions about
effective practice
effective practice increases pupils' science
achievement, skills, and attitudes
supported assumptions shape new
program development
T11.0
Early Efforts in Science Reform
T11.2
The 1957 Soviet launching of the satellite Sputnik
initiated science education reform in the United States.
In the twenty-five years since Sputnik the United States
has spent more than $2 billion in the development of
elementary and secondary mathematics and science
curriculum with the goal of preparing future scientists
and engineers.
Early elementary science curriculum reform was known
as the alphabet soup era named for the three lead
programs SAPA, SCIS, and ESS.
T11.1
The Alphabet Soup
Science A Process Approach, Science Curriculum Improvement
Study, and Elementary Science Study were designed and field-
tested during the 1960’s, revised in the 1970’s, and underwent
changes in the 1980’s and 1990’s. SAPA II materials are still in
use in the 2000’s.
They were successful in that they were developed based on
assumptions about learning drawn from prominent learning
theories.
Each project was developed from teaching strategies consistent
with how children learn best.
The students played and active role each in curricula, with the
teachers serving as facilitator and guide for learning.
T11.2
The Alphabet Soup (cont.)
Specific science processes or content areas were selected for
each project, thus narrowing the field of topics to a specialized
few.
Attention was given to the basic ideas of science, the concepts
and theories.
All equipment for science activities were packaged with the
curriculum materials.
Mathematical skills were emphasized. Science process skills
were embedded within all activities.
The emphasis was placed on doing science, not merely talking
about what scientists do!
T11.3
What Works?
Hands-on, minds-on approaches can be superior
to direct, prescriptive approaches:
produce greatest gains in achievement,
processes, and attitudes (Table 11.1)
benefit disadvantaged learners
improve thinking
provide intrinsic rewards
improve retention
T11.4
Science Program Gains Table 11.1
Percentage Points Gained
Performance Area ESS SCIS SAPA
Achievement 4 34 10
Attitudes 20 3 15
Process skills 18 21 36
Related skills * 8 4
Creativity 26 34 10
Piagetian tasks 2 5 12
T 11.5
Supported Assumptions
Effective science programs:
» Favor a wholistic view of science
» Includes features that aim to improve
student’s science attitudes, skills, and
content knowledge.
» Promote inquiry-based, hands-on
curriculum and teaching approach.
» Attempt to cover less material, but have the
learners do more to learn at a greater depth
T11.6
Selecting and Using Textbooks
Even with the reform of science curriculum from the
1960’s the research shows that 21st century
classrooms still rely on a single textbook as the basis
for science instruction.
Science textbooks still contain some shortcomings in
the areas of gender bias, persons of color, people with
disabilities, and science vocabulary continues to be
emphasized much more than science concepts.
Texas, California, Florida and North Carolina all have
statewide adoption of textbooks.
» Their student population account for 25% of
school students in the United States.
» Textbook selection committees of these states
tremendously influence the content that most
publishers choose to put into their textbooks.
» Thus a few states tend to determine the content
and features offered to the rest of the nation.
T11.7
Enhancing the Textbooks
The teacher can enhance the textbook to include
more effective learning activities and interesting
information.
This can be done by:
Selecting relevant supplements from web-based materials.
Identifying local resources such as school and community
professionals, local businesses, parks and recreation
facilities, libraries, and museums to serve as rich resources
for classroom speakers and field trips.
Selecting evaluation devices that reflect the preferred
outcomes.
T11.8
Changing the Sequence
The textbook’s chapter order and organization may
not be what is best for your students. Resequencing
may bring improvements in achievement, attitudes,
and interest to help your learners make clearer and
stronger conceptual connections. See Table 11.2.
Resequencing material so ideas relate in ways that
make more sense to the learner adds meaning.
Concept mapping is a method of sequencing of ideas
of a lesson, a version of this can be used to
sequence the text effectively.
T11.9
Selecting the Best Textbook
When screening texts one should ask:
What does the book expect my students to do?
What should the students be able to do after they study
the textbook that they could not do before?
Does the text include important content and related
information?
With every activity or student project what kind of thinking
is required? How does this address the National
Standards?
Will this text help my students reach the goals I have set
for them?
See Table 11.3
T11.10
Using Trade Books
Trade books use children’s literature as another way to bring
content-focused science materials to the classroom.
The trade book can provide an aesthetic or emotional dimension
to learning.
Can involve a wider audience and offer an applied setting for
learning science.
Trade books include biographies, reference books on science
phenomena, may use fictional characters to illustrate specific
science concepts.
The annual March issue of the NSTA publication Science and
Children lists the most outstanding science trade books for
children.
T11.11
Using Trade Books (cont.)
Trade books have their limitations.
May be used to introduce or complement a lesson or
to support vocabulary and help develop the concept.
Teachers must carefully scrutinize trade books just
as they would a textbook.
Some researchers have found that many trade books
contain factual errors, or information and illustrations
that encourage the formation of misconceptions.
T11.12
Best Practices
“Best practice” is a term used to convey a clearly
defined basis for making an evaluation about a
resource’s or a practice’s impact on learning.
A “best practice” consists of superior teaching
materials that are used with effective teaching
methods.
Choosing and using a “best practice” should
result in a significant impact on student learning.
T11.13
Identifying Best Practices
A best practice resource will:
» Be aligned with specific content, teaching and
assessment standards.
» Have a research base.
» Have accurate content that is developed in a way
that promotes student understanding.
» Implicitly or explicitly support equity.
» Engage the interests of most students using
methods of inquiry and require active participation
for learning to occur.
T11.14
Identifying Best Practices (cont.)
A best practice resource will:
» Frame the content in a learning context that is meaningful
and significant to the learner.
» Be adaptable to a variety of learning settings and promote
discourse which leads to constructed understanding.
» Use appropriate technology in highly effective ways.
» Include tools to help teachers conduct assessments of
increased student learning.
» Innovate, motivate, and hold high expectations for learners.
A web-based science resource used to identify hundreds of
“best practices” science resources is the Ohio Resource Center
for Mathematics, Science and Reading (ORC) found at
http://www.ohiorc.org
T11.15
Resources for Best Practices
Current resources strive to serve the needs and interests of all
learners, not just the intellectual elite.
New programs emphasize conceptual development through
constructivist techniques, use multiple teaching methods to fill
multiple student interests, and incorporate multiple views on
human diversity. See table 11.5.
Continued classroom testing of materials and lessons and
frequent revision through formative evaluation reduce
conceptual flaws and expand the supported assumptions about
learning.
T 11.16
Resources for Best Practices (cont.)
Numerous small-scale efforts to produce the next
generation of science programs. Some that have
endured rigorous evaluation include:
AIMS – Activities Integrating Mathematics and Science;
Delta Science Modules; Earth Systems Education; Project
Learning Tree; Project WILD and Aquatic Project WILD
The Lawrence Hall of Science in Berkeley, CA has
developed and still distributes the Full Option Science
System (FOSS), Primary Exploration for Adults, Children
and Educators in Science (PEACHES), Science Education
for Public Understanding Program (SEPUP), and Science
Activities for the Visually Impaired/Science Enrichment for
Learners with Physical Handicaps (SAVI/SELPH).
T 11.17
Resources for Best Practices (cont.)
Human Resources
colleagues are readily available and often ignored,
they can expand the teaching experience
community volunteers can provide expertise in a
variety of areas (Table 11.6)
volunteers can help in many capacities; not all will
feel comfortable getting up in front of a group of
students (Table 11.7)
T 11.18