From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Final War of the Roman Republic
Final War of the Roman Republic
The Final War of the Roman Republic 260 Roman
warships
Part of Roman Republican civil wars
Casualties and losses
Unknown Unknown
All of Antony’s Roman troops either
changed loyalty to Octavian or were taken
hostage with most of Antony’s fleet
destroyed in battle.
Republic,
The final war of the Roman Republic also known as
Antony’s civil war or the war between Antony and Octa-
vian,
vian was the last of the Roman civil wars of the repub-
lic, fought between Cleopatra (assisted by Mark Antony)
and Octavian. After the Roman Senate declared war on
the Egyptian queen Cleopatra, Antony, her lover and ally,
betrayed the Roman government and joined the war on
Cleopatra’s side. After the decisive victory for Octavian at
the Battle of Actium, Cleopatra and Antony withdrew to
Alexandria, where Octavian besieged the city until both
Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide.
Following the end of the war, Octavian brought peace
After ensuring victory in the civil war, Octavian established to the Roman state that had been plagued by a century
himself as emperor of the new Roman Empire of civil wars. Octavian became the most powerful man
in the Roman world and the Senate bestowed upon him
Date Spring of 32 BC – August (Sextilis) 30 BC the name of Augustus in 27 BC. Octavian, now Augustus,
The Senate’s declaration of war against
Cleopatra VII of Egypt to the naming of
would be the first Roman Emperor and would transform
Octavian as Pharaoh of Egypt. the oligarchic/democratic Republic into the autocratic
Roman Empire.
Location Graecia and Aegyptus
The last Republican Civil War would mark the begin-
Result Decisive victory for Octavian ning of the Pax Romana, which remains the longest peri-
od of peace and stability that Europe has seen in recorded
Territorial The Roman Republic becomes the Roman
changes Empire, annexes Egypt and is united under
history.
Octavian’s rule. Octavian becomes
Augustus.
Political and military buildup
Belligerents The Caesarians Octavian (Caesar’s principal, though not
Roman Ptolemaic Egypt sole, heir), Mark Antony, and Marcus Lepidus under the
Republic Roman supporters of Mark Antony Second Triumvirate had stepped in to fill the power vac-
(supporters uum caused by Julius Caesar’s assassination. After the
of Octavian) Triumvirate had defeated Marcus Junius Brutus and
Commanders and leaders Gaius Cassius Longinus at the Battle of Philippi (42 BC)
and Lepidus was expelled from the Triumvirate (36 BC),
Octavian Mark Antony†
Octavian and Antony were left as the two most powerful
Marcus Cleopatra VII of Egypt†
Agrippa men in the Roman world. Octavian took control of the
west, including Hispania, Gaul, Italia, and Africa. Antony
Strength received control of the east, including Graecia, Asia, Syria
198,000 193,000 mixed Roman and Egyptian soldiers and Aegyptus.
Roman [2] For a time, Rome saw peace. Octavian put down re-
legionaries 300 Roman and Egyptian warships volts in the west while Antony reorganized the east; how-
[1]
ever, the peace was short lived. Antony had been having
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Final War of the Roman Republic
an affair with the queen of Egypt, Cleopatra. Rome, es-
pecially Octavian, took note of Antony’s actions. Since 40
BC, Antony had been married to Octavia Minor, the sis-
ter of Octavian. Octavian seized the opportunity and had
his minister Gaius Maecenas produce a propaganda cam-
paign against Antony.
All of Rome felt astonished when they heard word
of Antony’s Donations of Alexandria. In these donations,
Antony ceded much of Rome’s territory in the east to
Cleopatra. Cleopatra and Caesarion were crowned co-
rulers of Egypt and Cyprus; Alexander Helios was
crowned ruler of Armenia, Media, and Parthia; Cleopatra
Selene II was crowned ruler of Cyrenaica and Libya; and
Ptolemy Philadelphus was crowned ruler of Phoenicia, The Battle of Actium was the decisive battle of the naval the-
Syria, and Cilicia. Cleopatra took the title of Queen of ater.
Kings and Caesarion took the title of King of Kings.
In response, Octavian increased the personal attacks manders. Octavian’s fleet of smaller, more maneuverable
against Antony, but the Senate and people of Rome were vessels was filled with experienced sailors.
not convinced. Octavian’s chance came when Antony Octavian moved his soldiers cross the Adriatic Sea to
married Cleopatra in 32 BC before he divorced Octavia. confront Antony near Actium. Meanwhile, Agrippa dis-
That action combined with information that Antony was rupted Antony’s supply lines with the navy. Gaius Sosius
planning to establish a second Senate in Alexandria cre- commanded a squadron in Mark Anthony’s fleet with
ated the perfect environment for Octavian to strip which he managed to defeat the squadron of Lucius Ar-
Antony of his power. runtius and put it to flight, but when the latter was re-
Octavian summoned the Senate and accused Antony inforced by Marcus Agrippa, Sosius’s ally Tarcondimotus
of anti-Roman sentiments. Octavian had illegally seized - the king of Cilicia - was killed and Sosius himself was
Antony’s will from the Temple of Vesta. In it, Antony rec- forced to flee.
ognized Caesarion as Caesar’s legal heir, left his posses- Octavian decided not to attack and risk unnecessary
sions to his children by Cleopatra, and finally indicated losses. Instead, Octavian wanted to battle Antony by sea
his desire to be buried with Cleopatra in Alexandria in- where his experienced sailors could dominate. In re-
stead of in Rome. The Senators were not moved by Cae- sponse, Antony and Octavian engaged in Fabian strategy
sarion or Antony’s children but Antony’s desire to be until the time was right. As the summer ended and au-
buried outside of Rome invoked the Senate’s rage. Octa- tumn began to set in, both Octavian and Antony settled
vian, the natural politician he was, blamed Cleopatra and for a battle of attrition. The strategy of delay paid div-
not Antony. The Senate declared war on Cleopatra, and idends to Octavian, as morale sank and prominent Ro-
Octavian knew that Antony would come to her aid. mans deserted Antony’s cause.
When Cleopatra received word that Rome had de- The first conflict of the war occurred when Octavian’s
clared war, Antony threw his support to Egypt. Immedi- general Agrippa captured the Greek city and naval port
ately, the Senate stripped Antony of all his official pow- of Methone. The city had previously been loyal to
er and labeled him as an outlaw and a traitor. Octavian Antony. Although Antony was an experienced soldier, he
summoned all of his legions, numbered at almost 200,000 did not understand naval combat, which led to his down-
Roman legionaries. Cleopatra and Antony did the same, fall. Antony moved his fleet to Actium where Octavian’s
assembling roughly the same number in mixed heavy Ro- navy and army had taken camp. In what would become
man and light Egyptian infantry. known as the Battle of Actium, Antony, on September 2,
31 BC, moved his large quinqueremes through the strait
The War and into the open sea. There, Octavian’s light and maneu-
verable Liburnian ships drew in battle formation against
Antony’s warships. Cleopatra stayed behind Antony’s
Naval theater
line on her royal barge.
By mid-summer of 31 BC, Antony maneuvered his army A devastating blow to Antony’s forces came when
into Greece and Octavian soon followed. Octavian one of Antony’s former generals delivered to Octavian
brought with him his chief military advisor and closest Antony’s battle plan. Antony had hoped to use his biggest
friend Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa to command his naval ships to drive back Agrippa’s wing on the north end of
forces. Although the ground forces were comparable, Oc- his line, but Octavian’s entire fleet stayed carefully out
tavian’s fleet was superior. Antony’s fleet was made up of range. Shortly after mid-day, Antony was forced to ex-
of large vessels, but with inexperienced crews and com-
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Final War of the Roman Republic
tend his line out from the protection of the shore, and Meanwhile, Antony attempted to secure an army in
then finally engage the enemy. Octavian’s fleet, armed Cyrenaica from Lucius Pinarius. Unfortunately for
with better trained and fresher crews, made quick work Antony, Pinarius had switched his loyalty to Octavian.
of Antony’s larger and less experienced navy. Octavian’s When Octavian received word of this development, he
soldiers had spent years fighting in Roman naval combat, ordered Pinarius to move his four legions east towards
where one objective was to ram the enemy ship and at Alexandria while Octavian would move west. Trapped in
the same time kill the above deck crew with a shower of Egypt with the remnant of his former army, Antony and
arrows and catapult-launched stones large enough to de- Cleopatra bided their time awaiting Octavian’s arrival.
capitate a man. When Octavian and Pinarius arrived at Alexandria,
As the armies stood on either side of the naval battle, they placed the entire city under siege. Before Octavian
they watched as Antony was being outmatched by Agrip- had arrived, Antony took the roughly 10,000 soldiers he
pa. Seeing that the battle was going against Antony, had left and attacked Pinarius, unaware that he was out-
Cleopatra’s fleet retreated to open sea without firing a numbered 2 to 1. Pinarius destroyed what was left of
shot, leaving Antony to fight for himself. As a gap opened Antony’s army with Antony escaping back to Alexandria
in Agrippa’s blockade, she funneled through, and was before Octavian arrived. As Octavian approached with his
soon closely followed by Antony’s command ships. The legions, what remained of Antony’s cavalry and fleet sur-
commanders of Antony’s land forces, which were sup- rendered to Octavian. Most of Antony’s infantry surren-
posed to follow him to Asia, promptly surrendered their dered without any engagement at this stage of the con-
legions without a fight. Antony retreated to a smaller flict, they were Italian veterans and Antony’s cause was
vessel with his flag and managed to escape to Alexandria. lost.
By the end of the day, Antony’s entire fleet would lie Antony was forced to watch as his army and hopes of
at the bottom of the sea and the Roman world had wit- dominance in Rome were handed to Octavian. In honor-
nessed the largest naval battle in almost 200 years. able Roman tradition, Antony, on August 1, 30 BC, fell on
his sword. According to the ancients accounts however,
Land campaign he was not entirely successful and with an open wound in
With Octavian now in control of nearly 60 legions (ap- his belly, was taken to join Cleopatra, who had fled to her
proximately 360,000 men), he was left as the indisputable mausoleum. Here Antony succumbed to his wound and
master of the Roman world. Although Octavian wanted to supposedly died in his lover’s arms, leaving her alone to
immediately pursue Antony and Cleopatra, many of his face Octavian.
veterans wanted to retire and return to private life. Oc- Cleopatra did not immediately follow Antony in sui-
tavian allowed many of his longest serving veterans (as cide. Instead, in a last ditch effort, Cleopatra opened ne-
many as 10 legions by some accounts) to retire. Many of gotiations with Octavian. Cleopatra begged Octavian to
those legionaries could trace their service to Julius Cae- spare Caesarion’s life in exchange for willing imprison-
sar some 20 years earlier. ment. Octavian refused. Within a week, Octavian in-
After the winter ended, Octavian resumed the hunt. formed Cleopatra that she was to play a role in Octavian’s
In the spring of 30 BC, Octavian rejected the idea of trans- Triumph back in Rome. This role was "carefully ex-
porting his army across the sea and attacking Alexandria plained to her", while Caesarion was "butchered without
directly, and instead traveled by land through Asia. compunction". Octavian supposedly said "two Caesars
Antony had received much of his backing from Rome’s are one too many" as he ordered Caesarion’s death.[3] Ac-
client kingdoms in the east. By marching his army by cording to Strabo who was alive at the time of the event,
land, he ensured Antony could not regroup and cement Cleopatra died from a self-induced bite from a venomous
his authority over the provinces. snake, or from applying a poisonous ointment to her-
self.[4] With Cleopatra’s death, the final war of the Repub-
lic was over.
Aftermath
Within a month, Octavian was named Pharaoh, and Egypt
became his personal possession. With Octavian in control
of all of Rome’s provinces and over 50 legions, he was
now the undisputed master of the Roman world. Through
executing Antony’s supporters, Octavian finally brought
a century of civil war to a close. Within a few years,
Octavian was named Augustus by the Senate and given
unprecedented powers. Octavian, now Augustus, merged
The Death of Cleopatra by Reginald Arthur. the western and eastern halves of the Republic into the
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Final War of the Roman Republic
on, the Roman state would be ruled by a Princeps (first
citizen), in modern terms, Rome would from now on be
ruled by Emperors. The Senate ostensibly still had power
and authority over certain Senatorial provinces, howev-
er, the critical border provinces, like Syria, Egypt, Gaul,
requiring the greatest numbers of legions would be di-
rectly ruled by Augustus and the Emperors who succeed-
ed him.
With the end of the last Republican civil war, the
Republic was replaced by the Empire. Augustus’s reign
would usher in a golden era of Roman culture and pro-
duce a stability that Rome had not seen in over a century.
With Rome in control of the entire Mediterranean world,
a peace that would reign in the Roman world for cen-
turies after Augustus’s death: the Pax Romana (Roman
Peace). The Empire that Augustus established would last
in Western Europe until the fall of Rome in the 5th centu-
ry AD. The Eastern part of the Roman Empire would also
survive as the Byzantine Empire until the fall of Constan-
tinople in 1453 AD.
Notes
[1] Roman Legions
[2] Cleopatra
[3] Green, p. 697
[4] Strabo, Geography, XVII 10
Due to this war, Octavian would become Augustus and the first
Roman Emperor. See also
• Augustus
Roman Empire with Augustus ruling it as the first Roman
• Mark Antony
Emperor.
• Cleopatra
In the ensuing months and years, Augustus passed
• Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa
the series of laws that while outwardly preserving the ap-
• Crisis of the Roman Republic
pearance of the Republic made his position within it of
• Battle of Actium
paramount power and authority. He laid the foundations
for what is now called the Roman Empire. From then
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Final_War_of_the_Roman_Republic&oldid=463166046"
Categories:
• 1st-century BC conflicts
• Roman Republican civil wars
• Augustus
• Julio-Claudian dynasty
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