MIT ASSOCIATION OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
AND MODEL UNITED NATIONS
2012
UNEP2012@MITMUNC.ORG
2
to hearing your wonderful ideas and
reading your position papers.
Hey delegates,
Happy researching!
Welcome to MITMUNC 2012! We are
really excited to have you guys enrolled
and if you all are not excited, be excited
now because you have an amazing
Muneeza Patel
weekend ahead of you!
My name is Muneeza Patel, and I am a
Daniel Stallworth
first-year student pursuing Biological
Chairs,
Engineering here at MIT. I have attended
several Model UN conferences as a high- United Nations Environmental Program,
MITMUNC IV
school student, including some
unep2012@mitmunc.org
international conferences, and I have
chaired for my high school in the past, as
well. Additionally, please welcome my co-
chair, Daniel Stallworth, a pre-Law student
in MIT’s Class of 2012. This will be his
first chairing experience, but he is as
excited as I am to be working with you
over the duration of the conference.
This year, UNEP is going to discuss two
very important issues at hand. Firstly, the
issue of biodiversity which has yet not
been accepted as a global crisis, but is
going to become one soon, if not
addressed in the international forums.
Secondly, we will model the ongoing
debate about the Kyoto Protocol and
increasing the efficiency of energy
projects. So be prepared to indulge
yourselves in thinking about these issues
and working your way through them.
Do read the background guides
thoroughly and feel free to contact us via
e-mail with any questions you might have
prior to the conference. We look forward
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Topic 1: Development, and is the focus for
UNEP’s biodiversity-related activities.
Biodiversity refers to the uncounted
variety of living things on the planet.
These living organisms, interacting among
themselves and with the non-living
environment, comprise the ecosystems of
the world. They supply food, medicines,
timber and fuel, and play a fundamental
role in providing breathable air,
conserving soils and stabilizing climates.
Is the world facing a biodiversity These benefits, or ‘ecosystem services’,
crisis? which are ultimately essential for human
life on earth, are the basis of a range of
89 mammalian species have gone extinct industries, from agriculture and
in the last 400 years, which is almost 45 biotechnology to fisheries and ecotourism.
times what would have been predicted The value of ecosystem services was the
from past extinction patterns (Public subject of the five-year Millennium
Broadcasting Service 2001). This increase Ecosystem Assessment (MA), in which
in extinction rate can be attributed to a UNEP was a partner. The MA concluded
variety of factors, including increased in 2005, and its synthesis reports reveal
pollution levels, habitat destruction, that ecosystem services are habitually
climate change, and increased resource undervalued, at an uncountable cost to
consumption. These problems are society, especially the poor who rely most
exacerbated by a lack of awareness heavily on the planet’s natural capital for
regarding the biodiversity crisis and by a health and livelihoods.
global failure to properly implement and
enforce necessary regulations.
Ways in which biodiversity is
UNEP & Biodiversity important to us.
In April 2002, governments at the sixth Provisioning services
meeting of the Conference of the Parties
to the Convention on Biological Diversity, These are services important to humans
which is administered under UNEP’s for example food, water and
aegis, agreed “to achieve by 2010 a pharmaceutical products.
significant reduction of the current rate of
biodiversity loss at the global, regional and Regulating Services
national levels as a contribution to poverty
alleviation and to the benefit of all life on Services that work to maintain a natural
earth”. This target was endorsed by the balance. Regulating services include the
World Summit on Sustainable filtration of pollutants in wetlands, climate
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regulation through the carbon cycle, have symbiotic relationships with animals
protection from disasters. and plants and provide their hosts with
nutrients including carbon, nitrogen, and
Cultural services phosphorus. Studies have shown that a
reduction in soil microbial diversity
Services provided by biodiversity that have reduces plant growth in that soil. For
some form of social value. These include example, one study found that “in soils
but are not limited to recreation, aesthetic with experimentally simplified microbial
beauty, and education. Hence, Biodiversity communities, plants were smaller, had
is invaluable, both qualitatively and reduced chlorophyll content, produced
quantitatively. Qualitatively, when fewer flowers, and were less fecund than
biodiversity is lost, a part of an intricate plant populations grown in association
and ancient system is also lost. The loss of with more complex soil microbial
biodiversity also corresponds to the loss of communities” (Lau and Lennon, 2011).
the very things that allow human life to Another study estimates that there are
thrive on Earth. Quantitatively, over 20,000 species of plants that would
biodiversity is correlated to a loss of not even be able to exist without microbial
fiscally valuable ecosystem services. assistance. Because microbes support
Ecosystem services give society so-called global ecosystems in so many ways, loss of
"dividends" from natural capital. But, to microbial diversity reduces the overall
allow for the continued production of ability of ecosystems to function (Van der
these crucial dividends, natural capital (i.e., Heijden et. al., 2007).
biodiversity) must be preserved. In a 2008
report, the European Commission Now that we have established that all
estimated that biodiversity provides forms of biodiversity are important to us,
"ecosystem services worth 50 billion in order to come up with an effective set
Euros per year", or about 68 billion US of solutions we need to investigate all the
dollars (USD). They also estimated that, factors that lead to the decline of
by 2050, economic loss due to loss of biodiversity.
ecosystem services would amount to
almost 14 trillion Euros (or 19 trillion What causes the loss of
USD). This would be equivalent to biodiversity?
approximately 7 percent of the world's
GDP in 2050. Climate Change
Biodiversity also includes microbes which Climate change is the permanent change in
are extremely important to sustaining life weather patterns and temperature
on Earth. Many varieties of microbes fluctuations. It can affect everything from
function in the nitrogen cycle and/or as a single ecosystem to the biosphere in its
decomposers. Decomposers create and entirety. Today, the public generally
store nutrients necessary for plant growth. associates climate change with global
Some microbes generate oxygen; others warming, otherwise known as
5
anthropogenic climate change. This is the environment, and/or alter habitats by
rise in atmospheric temperatures caused changing the natural controls of that
by the release of excessive amounts of distinct ecosystem (US Department of
carbon dioxide and other greenhouse Agriculture).
gases. In the last century, the average These species are organisms that have the
global temperature has risen ability to adapt easily to new environments
approximately 1.6 degrees F; and often reproduce at high rates, allowing
disconcertingly, most scientists agree that them to establish themselves in an
the point of no return is a rise 2 degrees F. ecosystem in large quantities in a short
Beyond these levels (approximated to be period of time. In the new environment,
450 ppm carbon dioxide), the planet will the invasive species often does not have a
experience unprecedented changes in the natural predator to stabilize its population,
global climate and a significant increase in so it expands without limit. With its
the severity of natural disasters (Dresner, overwhelming numbers, the species can
2008). Species thrive in certain areas out-compete native species for nutrients,
because they have adapted so that they can and cause extinctions. These extinctions
use the resources offered by their cause further repercussions in the food
environment. Though it may seem slight, a chain that disrupt the whole ecosystem
2 degrees F increase in temperature is (Convention of Biological Diversity).
significant enough to alter seasonal
weather patterns so that ecosystems Urban Sprawl
cannot provide the habitats their species
depend on. Because anthropogenic climate In October of the year 2011, the world
change is occurring at such an accelerated population of human beings reached 7
rate, some estimate that the loss of species billion, and the population is expected to
is currently happening at 1000 times the pass 10 billion by the end of the 21st
natural rate of extinction (Esterman, century (USA Today). Between 50 percent
2010). Species simply do not have enough and 90 percent of these humans live in
time to adapt to altered habitats or migrate cities, with the variation depending on
to better suited ecosystems. geographical area. In addition, the rate of
increase of city population is increasing in
Invasive species the vast majority of countries. This
generally leads to the expansion of city
The world consists of a large finite boundaries, which in turn has a direct
number of ecosystems that coexist, but impact on biodiversity. Expanding city
often face trouble when their distinct boundaries can lead to habitat loss and
habitats are altered in the slightest. Often interfere with the natural life cycles of
times the cause of this problem is the animals living near cities. One study, by
introduction of invasive species that grow Pillsbury and Miller, on frogs in the state
quickly and manifest themselves in the of Iowa in the United States showed that
ecosystem. Invasive species are flora or the number of frogs was directly related to
fauna that are non-native to an the distance of their habitat to an urban
6
area. They found that as the urban density content and hence, the habitat of aquatic
increased, the number of frogs in that area animals.
decreased proportionally (Pillsbury &
Miller, 2008). Other studies have shown Lack of awareness about biodiversity
declines in bird populations linked to
urbanization. species affected by There is a general lack of awareness about
urbanization into three categories: urban the biodiversity crisis. Man is naturally
avoiders, urban adapters, and urban inclined to disregard issues that are not
exploiters (McKinney, 2002). Urban directly present in his life. There are
avoiders are species that are sensitive to people that are largely unaware of the
human activity. These are animals, such as biodiversity crisis. This is often due to lack
large predators, that cannot survive once of education. In children, it may also be
humans have displaced their food sources. caused by a removal from nature that has
Urban adapters are species that are quick accompanied the shift to a technology-
to utilize changes to the environment due dependent world. This removal may result
to humans. Finally, those species that are from the emergence of a technology-
totally dependent on the presence of dependent lifestyle. However, this issue
humans are classified as urban exploiters. extends beyond children. According to the
Secretariat of the Convention of Biological
Pollution Diversity (2011), only 35 percent of
European Union citizens said that they
Biodiversity loss due to air pollution is actually knew what “biodiversity” meant.
mainly attributed to three distinct There are also those who understand the
categories: greenhouse gases, chemical effects that biodiversity loss has on
imbalances, and aerosols. Today, societies everyday life, but do not know what they
demand more and more resources, can do to remedy the problem. Many
services, and products that are readily met members of society manage to convince
by companies and businesses all around themselves that they cannot make real
the world. However, this competitive changes. But, the issue of biodiversity loss
global market forces companies to make is such that collections of small-scale
decisions based on cost effectiveness. In efforts can have a real effect on mitigating
many cases, this leads to pollution or eco- the problem.
unfriendly products. The sectors that
contribute most to air pollution are Short-coming of present policies
transportation, energy production,
agriculture, and industry. The other types One key issue is that while some
of pollution that directly affects governments did pass laws to help halt the
biodiversity are aquatic pollution and loss of biodiversity, they only did so
nutrient run off. The high toxic level sporadically. Furthermore, they only tried
chemicals, fertilizers and pesticides from to solve a small issue instead of integrating
agriculture and industries run off in to the all sectors of the economy to make global
rivers and oceans and disrupt the water and all-inclusive policies. Biodiversity is a
7
large problem that needs to be dealt with
in an integrated fashion. Some sectors that Some policies have technical problems as
should be included are agriculture, well and need to be re-evaluated
fisheries, water usage and energy (Council altogether. Some fire laws in forest regions
of the European Union, 2011). are inefficient and the fires provoked,
Even when the policies were actually well whether or not they were intentional, can
written and had the potential to be be damaging to entire ecosystems and may
effective, there was often a lack of even kill entire species. For example,
regulation and enforcement, rendering Phillip Island, in Australia, has hot, dry,
them essentially ineffective. There is no and dusty weather and the current
over-arching body to regulate breeches in changing climate in this location has taken
policies and impose sanctions on violators. its toll on the Eudyptula minor penguin.
As such, countries have not had any Many of these rare creatures have been
incentives to put their policies into effect. found dead, either near on in their
And, since there were no consequences, burrows, killed by small forest fires, which
policies were not implemented to the they were unable to retreat from. This has
extent were meant to. Furthermore, most altered their breeding cycles as variations
countries put very little funding into in the numbers of birthing creatures can
environmental issues so resources are drastically change the entire ecosystem. In
scarce. For example, in the European 2005, lightning started a very large fire that
Union (EU), the budget for all nature caused the death of many penguins and
conservation projects is 1 700 million €, almost permanently destroyed the island's
which is less than 1 percent of the EU's ecosystem (Australian Government,
annual budget (Spyropoulou et al., 2010). 2011a).
Lastly, it is hard to come to an Another recurring problem is a lack of
international agreement because each indicators to measure success. It is very
country is afraid of losing its sovereignty. hard to tell how efficient a policy is. This
Countries also often go into summits with is even more problematic on the large
completely different approaches to solving scale where there is no common baseline
the problem. At the Nagoya Conference, or standardized indicators. Even in the
for instance, wealthier countries were European Union – which is designed for
reticent to give financial aid to poorer international cooperation and is relatively
countries to help them preserve valuable uniform in many ways – not all
hotspots. Developing countries, on the measurements are standardized. This
other hand, demanded compensation from results in useless data (Streamlining
developed countries that made a profit European Biodiversity Indicators, 2011).
from the biodiversity they are trying to Additionally, in order for future
preserve (e.g., by selling pharmaceuticals) assessments to be successful, it is
(Watts, 2010; Black, 2010). necessary to set a quantitative goal upon
defining a policy. This will let future policy
8
makers know how efficient an original • Should biodiversity be considered a
policy was, so that they can make changes global crisis
to make it more efficient.
• To create a short term plan and/ or
Important things to keep in mind long term plan for the conservation of
while doing research biodiversity by keeping in mind the factors
that contribute to the biodiversity loss.
Coming up with a plan for international
• What does the government in your cooperation that mitigates the effects of
country feel about biodiversity as a crisis climate change, reduces pollution, creation
that needs to be addressed as soon as of hot spots, and creating awareness about
possible? biodiversity issues.
• What is your country doing to • To think about factors that relate to
contribute to biodiversity loss? loss of biodiversity such as excessive
hunting, monoculture agriculture,
• What common practices in your genetically modified crops, deforestation,
country are factors for the loss of mining and logging and coming up with
biodiversity? policies of making these practices feasible.
• Is your country trying in any way to • To think about ways of measuring
put those practices to an end? biodiversity so as to measure the
effectiveness of the short term and/or
• If yes, in what ways is your country long term plan.
trying to mitigate those adverse effects?
• To think about the existing regulation
• Has your country succeeded in bodies, think about their effectiveness and
mitigating the above mentioned effects? whether more committees should be
formed to address the issue of biodiversity
• If it has, can those policies be
implemented on an international level? • To think about ways of international
collaboration specifically between the
• What are the recent developments in developed and developing world to
your country about the issue at hand? address the issue at hand.
Committee Goals • To think about the funding, how much
funds are required and where these funds
will come from.
• To conclude whether the conservation
of biodiversity is worth the attention and
• To think about the formation of
capital.
accountability systems that will ensure
proper implementation of the policies.
9
Bloc Positions Helpful Links
North & South America • Some general information on
biodiversity
For more information, please refer to the http://www.esa.org/education_diversity/pdfDocs
Ecological Society of America: /biodiversity.pdf
http://www.esa.org/
• UNEP- Biodiversity
European Union http://www.unep.org/themes/biodiversity/
European Commission on Biodiversity & • Connecting the dots; biodiversity,
nature. adaptation, food security and livelihoods
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/index_ http://unep.org/delc/PDF/publicationconnectin
en.htm gdots.pdf
Arab League • Technology Transfer and cooperation
under the convention on biological
The Arab League is still new to accepting diversity
the issue of biodiversity as a serious http://www.unep.org/dec/PDF/TechnicalTrans
problem. However, there have been recent ferCBD.pdf
efforts in trying to make the environment
more sustainable. For more, information, • Convention on Biological Diversity
check, http://www.cbd.int/
http://biodiversity-l.iisd.org/news/arab-league-
meeting-focuses-on-biodiversity-and-desertification- • History of previous resolutions relating
meas/ biodiversity in the UN General Assembly
http://unbisnet.un.org:8080/ipac20/ipac.jsp?ses
African Union sion=L3222D116P824.50962&menu=search
&aspect=subtab124&npp=50&ipp=20&spp
For more information, please refer to =20&profile=bib&ri=&index=.SW&term=
“Africa Biodiversity Collaborative Biodiversity&matchopt=0%7C0&oper=AND
Group”. &x=11&y=12&aspect=subtab124&index=.
http://abcg.org/ TW&term=&matchopt=0%7C0&oper=AN
D&index=.TN&term=&matchopt=0%7C0
Asia &oper=AND&index=.AW&term=&match
opt=0%7C0&ultype=&uloper=%3D&ullimit
For more information, please refer to the =&ultype=&uloper=%3D&ullimit=&sort=
ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity.
http://www.aseanbiodiversity.org/ • Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-
2020
http://www.cbd.int/decision/cop/?id=12268
10
References
• Biodiversity in Africa
http://frameweb.org/CommunityBrowser.aspx?i Dresner, S. (2008). The principles of
d=114&lang=en-US sustainability, 62-64. Retrieved 19 November
2011, from http://books.google.com.
• Climate Change and animal adaptation
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/09 Esterman, S. (2010). Extinction Record
/110929074203.htm Fastest on Record, Conservationists Warn.
Retrieved 20 November 2011, from
http://www.wendmag.com/greenery/2010/0
3/extinction-rate-fastest-on-record-
conservationists-warn/
McKinney, M. L. (2002). Urbanization,
biodiversity, and conservation. BioScience,
52(10), 883-884-890. doi:10.1641/0006-
3568(2002)052[0883:UBAC]2.0.CO;2
Pillsbury, F. C., & Miller, J. R. (2008).
HABITAT AND LANDSCAPE
CHARACTERISTICS UNDERLYING
ANURAN COMMUNITY STRUCTURE
ALONG AN URBAN–RURAL
GRADIENT. Ecological Applications, 18(5),
1107-1108-1118. doi:10.1890/07-1899.1
Spyropoulou, Rania et al. (2010). The
European environment state and outlook -
biodiversity. Copenhagen: European
Environment Agency. doi:10.2800/58023
Watts, J. (2010, 25 October). Nagoya
biodiversity summit is showing depressing
parallels with Copenhagen. The Guardian,
Australian Government. (2011a). Department
of climate change and energy efficiency.
Retrieved 11/16, 2011, from
http://www.climatechange.gov.au/
"CBD Home." CBD Home. N.p., n.d. Web.
28 Nov. 2011. .
production in developing nations and
sustainability management for future
emission targets.
Key points to think about
The review the status of the current
energy projects and
adherence/ability to accurately
measure emission levels
Should there be a larger focus on
sustainability projects in the future?
How largely is your country
committed to renewable initiatives?
Have they changed their stance on
Introduction the Kyoto Protocol since the
Copenhagen conference?
The Kyoto Protocol is generally seen as an Reviewing of the quotas of
important first step towards a truly global greenhouse emissions, and
emission reduction regime that will possibilities of a carbon tax for
stabilize GHG emissions, and provide the large emissions or other adherence
essential architecture for any future incentives
international agreement on climate change. Assessment of previous
accountability methods
By the end of the first commitment period Small scale energy projects within
of the Kyoto Protocol in 2012, a new national legislation
international framework needs to have Large scale projects
been negotiated and ratified that can implementation (international
deliver the stringent emission reductions cooperation) and history of
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate importance between sustainability
Change (IPCC) has clearly indicated are and economic means
needed.
Background
A consensus must be developed on the
new and improved methods for the Almost two decades ago, countries joined
reduction of greenhouse gases with special an international treaty, the United Nations
reference to how current and future Framework Convention on Climate
energy projects align with the previous Change, to cooperatively consider what
protocol's goals. This is to occur on both they could do to limit average global
small scale within national communities temperature increases and the resulting
and large scale in international structures, climate change, and to cope with whatever
taking into account the current impacts were, by then, inevitable. This was
international economic status and in 1992.
especially the accelerating need for energy
12
Recognizing that developed countries are
By 1995, countries realized that emission principally responsible for the current high
reductions provisions in the Convention levels of GHG emissions in the
were inadequate. They launched atmosphere as a result of more than 150
negotiations to strengthen the global years of industrial activity, the Protocol
response to climate change, and, two years places a heavier burden on developed
later, adopted the Kyoto Protocol. The nations under the principle of “common
Kyoto Protocol legally binds developed but differentiated responsibilities.”
countries to emission reduction targets. "The door is closing," said Fatih Birol,
The Protocol’s first commitment period chief economist at the International
started in 2008 and ends in 2012. Energy Agency (IEA). "I am very worried
The UNFCCC Secretariat supports all – if we don't change direction now on
institutions involved in the international how we use energy, we will end up beyond
climate change negotiations, particularly what scientists tell us is the minimum for
the Conference of the Parties (COP), the safety. The door will be closed forever."
subsidiary bodies (which advise the COP),
and the COP Bureau (which deals mainly If current trends continue, and we go on
with procedural and organizational issues building a high-carbon energy
arising from the COP and also has infrastructure, by 2015 at least 90% of the
technical functions). available carbon budget needed to prevent
the temperature from rising above 2°C will
What happens beyond 2012 is one of the be swallowed up. By 2017, there will be no
key issues governments of the 195 Parties more room for maneuver, since the whole
to the Convention are currently carbon budget will be spoken for,
negotiating. Climate change is a complex according to IEA calculations.
problem, which, although environmental
in nature, has consequences for all spheres The United Nations Environment
of existence on our planet. It either Programme is most interested in the
impacts on -- or is impacted by -- global solving the question of the gap between
issues, including poverty, economic the 2020 emission levels expected as a
development, population growth, result of the current pledges and the
sustainable development and resource emission levels that would be consistent
management. It is not surprising, then, with either a 2° C or 1.5° C limit. A
that solutions come from all disciplines UNEP Emissions Gap Report was created
and fields of research and development. last year and the COP 17 UN Climate
Change Conference, the 17th UN
At the very heart of the response to conference of its kind, was held recently to
climate change, however, lies the need to address this.
reduce emissions. In 2010, governments
agreed that emissions need to be reduced
so that global temperature increases are
limited to below 2 degrees Celsius.
13
Mechanisms under Kyoto more expensive emission reductions in
Protocol their own or other industrialized countries.
The most important factor of a carbon
Flexible mechanisms, also sometimes project is that it establishes that it would
knows as Flexibility Mechanisms or Kyoto not have occurred without the additional
Mechanisms, refers to Emissions Trading, incentive provided by emission reductions
the Clean Development Mechanism and credits. The CDM allows net global
Joint Implementation. These are greenhouse gas emissions to be reduced at
mechanisms defined under the Kyoto a much lower global cost by financing
Protocol intended to lower the overall emissions reduction projects in developing
costs of achieving its emissions targets. countries where costs are lower than in
These mechanisms enable parties to industrialized countries.
achieve emission reductions or to remove
carbon from the atmosphere cost- Between 2001, which was the first year
effectively in other countries. While the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
cost of limiting emissions varies projects could be registered, and 2012, the
considerably from region to region, the end of the Kyoto commitment period, the
benefit for the atmosphere is in principle CDM is expected to produce some
the same, wherever the action is taken. 1.5 billion tons of carbon dioxide
equivalent (CO2) in emission
The Emissions Trading-mechanism allows reductions.[17] Most of these reductions
parties to the Kyoto Protocol to buy are through renewable energy, energy
greenhouse gas emission permits from efficiency, and fuel switching. By 2012, the
other countries to help meet their largest potential for production of
domestic emission reduction targets. Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) are
Through the Joint Implementation, estimated in China (52% of total CERs)
industrialized countries with a greenhouse and India (16%). CERs produced in Latin
gas reduction commitment of Annex 1 America and the Caribbean make up 15%
countries may fund emission reducing of the potential total, with Brazil as the
projects in other industrialized countries as largest producer in the region (7%).
an alternative to emission reductions in
their own countries. Typically, these Emission reduction is not only important
projects occur in countries in the former for global environment health, but for
Eastern Europe. improving lives as well. Access to energy is
a problem that affects primarily the poor,
The Clean Development Mechanism usually in developing regions. But
(CDM) is an arrangement under the Kyoto environmental damage also tends to
Protocol allowing industrialized countries disproportionately affect the poor in
with a greenhouse gas reduction society. In industrialized urban areas, the
commitment of Annex 1 countries to poor tend to live closest to pollution-
invest in projects that reduce emissions in producing factories and highways. In rural
developing countries as an alternative to areas, the poor are most likely to be
14
exposed to indoor air pollution from (N2O), and gases containing
traditional fuels such as fuel wood. They fluorine (the F-gases HFCs, PFCs
are also more vulnerable to soil and water and SF6).
pollution because they often depend on These estimates are subject to large
agriculture. uncertainties regarding CO2
emissions from deforestation; and
The Kyoto Protocol, like the Convention, the per country emissions of other
is also designed to assist countries in GHGs (e.g., methane). There are
adapting to the adverse effects of climate also other large uncertainties which
change. It facilitates the development and mean that small differences
deployment of techniques that can help between countries are not
increase resilience to the impacts of significant. CO2 emissions from
climate change. the decay of remaining biomass
after biomass
The Adaptation Fund was established to burning/deforestation are not
finance adaptation projects and programs included.
in developing countries that are Parties to Excludes underground fires.
the Kyoto Protocol. The Fund is financed Includes an estimate of
mainly with a share of proceeds from 2000 million tonnes CO2 from
CDM project activities. peat fires and decomposition of
peat soils after draining. However,
Top-ten Carbon Dioxide Emitters the uncertainty range is very large.
China – 17%, 5.8 Current state
United States – 16%, 24.1
European Union– 11%, 10.6 The Kyoto Protocol is generally seen as an
Indonesia – 6%, 12.9 important first step towards a truly global
India – 5%, 2.1 emission reduction regime that will
Russia – 5%, 14.9 stabilize GHG emissions, and provides the
Brazil – 4%, 10.0 essential architecture for any future
Japan – 3%, 10.6 international agreement on climate change.
Canada – 2%, 23.2 By the end of the first commitment period
Mexico – 2%, 6.4 of the Kyoto Protocol in 2012, a new
international framework needs to have
Notes been negotiated and ratified that can
deliver the stringent emission reductions
These values are for the GHG the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
emissions from fossil fuel use and Change (IPCC) has clearly indicated are
cement production. Calculations needed.
are for carbon dioxide (CO2),
methane (CH4), nitrous oxide
15
Committee Goals Questions to keep in mind while
doing research.
Develop framework to alleviate
that which is not working and plans Is your country considered
for further reduction and developing? Did your country ratify
sustainability mechanisms, in the Kyoto Protocol? Why or why
accordance with the clean not? Have they changed their
development mechanism and position since the Copenhagen
article 2 of the Kyoto Protocol conference?
Determine realistic reduction goals Does the country have measures to
and balancing the contribution of mitigate climate change by
those goals from developed nations addressing anthropogenic
along with commitments of emissions by sources and removals
developing nations by sinks of all greenhouse gases?
Examine effectiveness of the Are there current plans to do so?
Adaptation fund and reduction and What R&D and/or financial
benefits from the Clean incentives are given for promoting
Development Mechanism for energy efficiency, sustainable
energy projects in all nations and projects and fuel switching? What
suggest improvements to the more can be done?
language, enforcement, and What are the reduction
oversight requirements of the country? How
Establish certain energy projects has that country progressed in
and programs that could be reducing emissions by utilizing
implemented drawing from the renewable energy, energy
reduction goals and the Kyoto efficiency, fuel switching, and
Protocol (solar, hydropower, tidal, partnerships or cooperation with
wind power, biomass, nuclear, other nations?
clean tech, energy efficiency
research, etc.) Country and Region Blocs:
Discuss ways to improve
measurement of emissions, European Union
especially from concrete sources
such as energy production and Federal Ministry for the Environment,
energy use in connection with Nature Conservation, and Nuclear Safety
manufacturing http://www.bmu.de/english/aktuell/4152.php
Draft new protocol commitments
and reductions for a period after UN Framework Convention on Climate
2012 Change Europe
http://unfccc.int/essential_background/the_scien
16
ce/climate_change_impacts_map/items/6228.ph
p Australia and New Zealand
Latin America UN Framework Convention on Climate
Change Australia and New Zealand
UN Framework Convention on Climate http://unfccc.int/essential_background/the_scien
Change Latin America ce/climate_change_impacts_map/items/6226.ph
http://unfccc.int/essential_background/the_scien p
ce/climate_change_impacts_map/items/6229.ph
p Helpful Links on Kyoto-protocol
and Energy Policy
North America
United States
UN Framework Convention on Climate http://www.usembassy.at/en/download/pdf/ky
Change North America oto.pdf
http://unfccc.int/essential_background/the_scien
ce/climate_change_impacts_map/items/6230.ph Federal Ministry for the Environment,
p Nature Conservation, and Nuclear Safety
(Energy)
Africa http://www.bmu.de/english/climate_energy/doc
/41327.php
UN Framework Convention on Climate
Change Africa United Nation. (1997). Kyoto Protocol to
http://unfccc.int/essential_background/the_scien the United Nations Framework
ce/climate_change_impacts_map/items/6224.ph Convention on Climate Change
p http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.p
df
Asia
Nuclear energy and the Kyoto-protocol
UN Framework Convention on Climate http://www.oecd-
Change Asia nea.org/ndd/reports/2002/nea3808-kyoto.pdf
http://unfccc.int/essential_background/the_scien
ce/climate_change_impacts_map/items/6225.ph The Kyoto Protocol Summary - A Quick
p Guide To Understanding It
http://www.alternate-energy-sources.com/Kyoto-
Small Islands Protocol-summary.html
UN Framework Convention on Climate Strategy for Post 2012 Kyoto-protocol
Change Small Islands Agreement
http://unfccc.int/essential_background/the_scien http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2009/smsn/ngo
ce/climate_change_impacts_map/items/6232.ph /169.pdf
p
17
Renewable Energy Technologies and Sources
Kyoto Protocol Mechanisms
http://www.eurosfaire.prd.fr/sustdev/documents United Nation. (1997). Kyoto Protocol to
/pdf/Renewable_Energy_kyoto- the United Nations Framework
mechanisms_en.pdf Convention on Climate Change
http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.p
Previous UN resolutions on Kyoto df
Protocol:
http://unbisnet.un.org:8080/ipac20/ipac.jsp?ses UN Framework Convention on Climate
sion=1I22718107VV4.67125&menu=search Change
&aspect=subtab124&npp=50&ipp=20&spp http://unfccc.int/essential_background/items/6
=20&profile=bib&ri=&index=.SW&term= 031.php
kyoto+protocol&matchopt=0%7C0&oper=A
ND&x=14&y=10&aspect=subtab124&ind Kyoto Protocol and government action
ex=.TW&term=&matchopt=0%7C0&oper= http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol_a
AND&index=.TN&term=&matchopt=0%7 nd_government_action
C0&oper=AND&index=.AW&term=&ma
tchopt=0%7C0&ultype=&uloper=%3D&ulli Renewable Energy and Kyoto Protocol:
mit=&ultype=&uloper=%3D&ullimit=&sor Adoption in Malaysia
t= http://publicweb.unimap.edu.my/~ppkas/home
/index.php/news/articles/29-renewable-energy-
Results of COP 17 in Durban, South and-kyoto-protocol-adoption-in-malaysia
Africa November - December 2011
http://unfccc.int/2860.php Kyoto Protocol Adaptation Fund
http://unfccc.int/cooperation_and_support/finan
cial_mechanism/adaptation_fund/items/3659.p
hp
EcoNews, The Dire, Unavoidable Truth
http://www.earthfuture.com/econews/back_issue
s/11-12.asp
UNEP Emissions Gap Report
http://www.unep.org/publications/ebooks/emiss
ionsgapreport/