Human Blood
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BLOOD
Human Blood : It is a fluid connective tissue consisting of plasma and blood corpuscles of various types.
An average adult person has about 4 to 6 litres of blood. If forms 6-10% of the body weight and some 30– 35% of the extracellular fluid. The study of blood is called haematology (G. haima = blood, logos = study). A. Physical Appearance. Blood is an opaque, mobile fluid connective tissue, mesodermal in origin. It is somewhat sticky, and slightly heavier than water bulk for bulk (specific gravity 1.06). It has a saltish taste and a mild alkaline reaction (pH 7.4). Its osmotic pressure at 37°C is about 7.6 atmospheres. It is bright red when oxygenated and purple when deoxygenated. B. Composition. Blood consists of a watery fluid called plasma containing certain floating bodies termed formed elements. The latter include blood cells or corpuscles and blood platelets or thrombyocytes . The blood corpuscles are of two types : red corpuscles, or erythrocytes (RBCs) and white corpuscles, or leucocytes (WBCs). None of the corpuscles divides in the blood. The plasma and formed elements form about 55% and 45% of the volume of the blood respectively. Plasma. The plasma is a faint yellow, slightly alkaline, somewhat viscous fluid. It is a complex mixture which is in dynamic equilibrium with the intercellular fluid bathing the cells and the intracellular fluid present within the cells. It constantly takes up and loses materials as it flows through the capillaries, yet it has constant chemical composition. It consists of about 90% water, 1% inorganic salts in true solution, and 7 or 8% proteins in colloidal state. The remaining 1 or 2% of the plasma is formed from food materials, waste products, dissolved gases, regulatory substances, anticoagulant, cholesterol and antibodies. These substances
Human Blood
do not form an integral part of the plasma as they enter and leave at intervals. They are carried by the plasma form one place to another in the body. (i) Proteins. The plasma contains a number of proteins: serum albumen (albumin), serum globulins, properdin, prothrombin and fibrinogen. The plasma proteins serve many functions: (a) They act as a source of proteins for the tissue cell, which may synthesize their own proteins from them. (b) They serve as acid-base buffers, i.e., they maintain pH of the blood by neutralizing acids and base. (c) Albumen and globulins maintain osmotic pressure of the plasma so that the latter may retain water. Fall in the level of plasma proteins causes excessive filtering of water from the blood into the tissues. This may produce oedema (swelling) of hands and feet in persons taking protein-deficient diet. (d) Plasma proteins transport certain materials in combination with them. Thyroxin is bound to albumen or a specific globulin, insulin is combined with globulins, and fatty acids are joined to albumen for transport in the plasma. (e) Some globulins, called immunoglobulins (IG), form protective proteins, termed antibodies, in response to the entry of foreign agents, the antigens, into the body. The antibodies inactivate the antigens (microorganisms or their toxins). (f) Properdin destroys certain bacteria, neutralizes certain viruses and damages foreign red blood corpuscles. (g) Prothrombin and fibrinogen play a role in blood clotting. Inorganic Salts. The inorganic salts occur in the plasma as ions. Sodium and chloride are the principal cation and anion of the plasma. The anions bicarbonate and phosphate, and the cations potassium, magnesium, calcium, iron and manganese occur in smaller amounts. The inorganic salts are sometimes referred to as blood electrolytes. The kidneys maintain plasma electrolytes at precise concentrations – an example of homeostasis. Food Materials. The food materials present in the plasma are glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and triglycerides. Their amount depends upon the digestion of food in the alimentary canal. Normally, an adult person has 80 to 100 mg of glucose per 100 ml of blood 12 hours after a meal. If blood sugar exceeds 180 mg glucose is excreted in the urine, causing the disease diabetes mellitus or hyperglycemia. Fall in blood sugar is called hypoglycemia. Waste Products. The waste products found in the plasma are urea, uric acid, ammonia and creatinine. The kidneys remove these. Their excess causes toxic effect called uremia. Dissolved Gases. Small amounts of oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen are found dissolved in the plasma. Regulatory Substances. These include hormones, vitamins and enzymes. Anticoagulant. A natural strong anticoagulant present in the plasma is a heteropolysaccharide named antiprothrombin, or heparin. It checks clotting of blood in uninjured blood vessels by preventing the conversion of prothrombin into thrombin. It is produce in the liver. Cholesterol. Liver synthesizes cholesterol and releases it into the blood. It is also absorbed into the blood from the food, such as eggs, digested in the intestine. It provides materials to the tissue cells for the synthesis of membrane lipids, vitamin D, steroid hormones and bile slats. Cholesterol normally ranges from 50 to 180 mg.per 100 ml. of blood. Rise in the level of cholesterol in the blood may cause heart trouble. Red Blood Corpuscles (RBCs). The red blood corpuscles are the most numerous formed elements of the blood. They are the most abundant cells in the human body. A unique feature of the RBCs is the presence of a red, oxygen-carrying pigment, the hemoglobin, in their cytoplasm. Shape. The shape of RBCs are circular, biconcave, denucleated discs. Their central part is thinner than the margin. This shape provides flexibility and results in a 20 to 30% increase in surface area as compared to sphere. This favors quick diffusion of gases.
Human Blood
Size. Human RBCs are smaller than the white corpuscles. They are 7 – 8 μm n diameter and 2 μm thick near the rim. Small size of RBC provides it greater surface area for quick diffusion of O2 into it. Number. The RBCs are far more numerous than the WBCs. A normally healthy adult man and woman have 5 and 4.5 million RBCs per cubic millimeter of blood respectively. This is called the total RBC count. The RBC count decreases in anaemia. Anemia is caused by loss of blood (hemorrhage), destruction of RBCs (hemolytic), or faulty formation of blood. The RBC count increases during exercise to meet the increased demand of oxygen and at high altitudes to cope with the low oxygen content of the air. An abnormal rise in RBC count is called polycythemia. Decrease in the number of red blood corpuscles, termed erythrocytopenia, causes oxygen shortage in the blood and tissues. The oxygen shortage stimulates the kidney cells to secrete a hormone, named erythropoietin, into the blood. This hormone, in turn stimulates the bone marrow to increase the production of red blood corpuscles. Addition of red blood corpuscles increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood. As the blood’s oxygen level becomes normal, secretion of erythropoietin stops and the production of red blood corpuscles returns to normal.
Color. The RBCs look yellowish when seen singly and red when viewed in bulk. They impart red colour to the blood. The colour is due to the presence of a solution of iron-containing pigment, hemoglobin, in them. Hemoglobin is a conjugated protein. It consists of a basic protein globin joined to a nonprotein group heme, hence the name hemoglobin. Heme is an iron-porphyrin ring. A mammalian haemoglobin molecule is a complex of 4 heme molecules joined with 4 globin molecules. There is about 15 mg of haemoglobin in 100 ml of blood. A red blood corpuscle has some 280 million haemoglobin molecules. In the lungs, due to high partial pressure of oxygen, haemoglobin takes up oxygen and changes to bright red oxyhaemoglobin. The latter carries 4 oxygen molecules loosely joined to 4Fe++ ions (Hb4 + 4O2 Hb4O8). Thus, one RBC can carry over a billion oxygen molecules (280 million × 4 = 1120 million). In the tissues, due to low partial pressure of oxygen; oxyhaemoglobin breaks up in to oxygen and deoxyhaemoglobin. In this way, the RBCs carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. The RBCs also carry carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs for elimination. It is transported in two forms : mainly in combination with the water of RBC, forming bicarbonate lons (CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3 –); and partly in combination with the amino group of globin, forming carbaminohaemoglobin (HbO2 + CO2 HbCO2 + H+ + O2). Structure. A red blood corpuscle is bounded by an elastic and semipermeable plasma membrane. This enables it to squeeze through capillaries having a diameter less than its own. It loses plasticity in sickle-cell anaemia. In this disorder , the RBCs block the capillaries, leading to grave consequences. An erythrocyte contains homogenous cytoplasm which loses the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulam, mitochondria, ribosome and centrioles during the development of the corpuscle. This gives a double advantage. The corpuscle has more
Human Blood
space to hold haemoglobin. Its oxygen consumption is very low due to lack of organelles so that it can supply more oxygen carried by haemoglobin to the tissue cell. Red blood corpuscles cannot reproduce or carryout cellular metabolism due to lack of organelles. Besides haemoglobin, a red corpuscle also contains several inorganic ions, including those of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride and phosphate. The adult red blood corpuscles of mammals are described as enucleated(denucleated) as, when young, they have a nucleus that later disappears. Formation. Formation of red blood corpuscles is called erythropoiesis. It occurs in liver and spleen in the foetus and in the red bone marrow after birth. Proteins and irons are components of haemoglobin, and vitamin B12 and folic acid stimulate erythropoiesis. Deficiency of any of these materials may cause anaemia. Excess RBCs are stored in the spleen. Life Span and Disposal. Human RBCs remain functional in the blood for about 120 days*. The worn out RBCs are destroyed by phagocytosis in the blood itself and in the spleen and lever in particular. Their iron is returned to the red bone marrow for reuse in the synthesis of fresh haemoglobin. Their pigment is degraded to yellowish pigment bilirubin which is excreted in bile. The pale yellow colour of the plasma is mainly due to bilirubin. If bilirubin is not excreted fully, the skin and mucous membranes of the person become yellowish. This disorder is called jaundice. Special Property. In resting (drawn) and slow flowing blood, the RBCs form piles called rouleaux by adhering together due to surface tension. White Blood Corpuscles (WBCs). The white blood corpuscles lack haemoglobin. Shape. The WBCs are rounded or irregular cells. They can change their shape and are capable of amoeboid movement. This enables them to squeeze out of capillaries in to the tissues. This processes is called diapedesis. Size. The WBCs are mostly larger then the red corpuscles. They range in size from 12 to (20um). Number. The WBCs are far fewer than the RBCs. Their number varies from 5,000 to 10,000 per cubic millimeter of blood. This number is the total count of WBCs. It may increase or decrease abnormally in certain conditions. Rise in WBC count is called leucocytosis. It is a physiological response to infections (e.g.; pneumonia), inflammations such as appendicitis, and malignancies such as leukemia (blood cancer). Fall in WBC count is termed leucopenia. It occurs in conditions such as folic acid deficiency. Infection of AIDS virus. WBS count is useful in diagnosing diseases. Colour. The WBCs are colourless. Structure. The leucocytes are nucleated cells. Their cytoplasm contains mitochondria, Golgi apparatus and centrioles besides other organelles. Formation. Formation of leucocytes is called leucopoiesis. It occurs in lymph nodes, spleen,thymus and red bone marrow. Life Span and Disposal. The leucocytes survive for a few (3-4) days only in the blood. Dead WBCs are phagocytized in blood, liver and lymph nodes. Types. The WBCs are of two main types: granular leucocytes or granulocytes non granular leucocytes or agranulocytes. Both types have subtypes. Agranulocytes. These leucocytes lack granules in the cytoplasm and have nonlobed, rounded or oval nucleus. Agranulocytes are called mononuclear cell. They have two subtypes : monocytes and lymphocytes. The monocytes arise in the bone marrow. The B and T lymphocytes are produced in the bone marrow and thymus respectively, and mature in spleen and lymph nodes. Formation of agranulocytes is termed agranulopoiesis. (i) Monocytes. These are the largest of all types of leucocytes. They have a large, subrounded or bean shaped nucleus and a good amount of cytoplasm. They are very motile. They are phagocytic in action, and engulf bacteria and cellular debris. Generally they change in to macrophages after entering tissue spaces.
Human Blood
(ii) Lymphocytes. These are about the size of the red corpuscles. They have a very large, rounded nucleus and scanty cytoplasm. They are nonmotile and nonphagocytic. They secrete antibodies to destroy microbes and their toxins, reject grafts and kill tumour cells. They also help in healing of injuries. The lymphocytes differentiate into two main types: B lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes. Granulocytes. These leucocytes contain granules in the cytoplasm and have lobed nucleus. They are produced in the red bone marrow. Their formation is called granulopoiesis. They have 3 subtypes: basophils, eosinophils and neutrophils. (a) Basophils. These take up basic stain such as methylene blue. They are fairly large and have nearly Sshaped nucleus and a few coarse granules. Granules contain histamine. The basophils release histamine and heparin by exocytosis into the blood. (ii) Eosinophils. These stain with acidic dyes such as eosin. They are also fairly large and have bilobed nucleus and abundant course granules. The latter contain hydrolytic enzymes and peroxidase which are discharged in to the phagosome. The eosinophils have antihistamine properties. Their number increases in people with allergic conditions such as asthama or hayfever. They also help in dissolving blood clot. (iii) Neutrophils. These stain equally well with both basic and acidic dyes. They are quite large and have many lobed nucleus and abundant fine, azurophilic granules. The latter present lysosomeswith hydrolytic enzymes. The eosinophils are phagocytic in action. They engulf microbes. They are chemotactically attracted to bacterial peptidases. (iv) Platelets. The platelates also lack haemoglobin. (a) Shape. The platelets are rounded or oval, disc like bodies but quickly become stellate in extracted blood. (b) Size. The platelets are the smallest formed elements of the blood. They are only 2-5 um wide. (c) Number. The platelets are fewer than the red corpuscles and more then the white corpuscles in number. There are about 250,000 platelets in a cubic millimeter of blood. Increase and decrease in the number of platelets is known as thrombocytosis and thrombocytopenia respectively. (d) Colour. The platelets are colourless like the leucocytes. (e) Structure. The platelets are flat, non-nucleated fragments of large cells in the bone marrow, rather than true cells. They are bounded by a membrane and contain a few organelles and secretory granules in the cytoplasm. They have at the centre a group of basophilic granules, which give the appearance of a nucleus. At the site of injury, the platelets release platelet factor or tromboplastin that helps in blood clotting. (f) Formation. The platelets are formed in the red bone marrow. Their formation is known as thrombopoiesis. (g) Life Span and Disposal. The platelets survive for 3-7 days only. The are disposed of by phagocytosis in blood itself. Spindle Cells or Thrombocytes. These are biconvex, nucleated cells with granular cytoplasm. They are found in vertebrates other than mammals. The spindle cells aid in clotting of blood like the platelets of mammals. Haemopoiesis. The process of formation of blood is called haemopoiesis. This tissue in which blood is formed are termed haemopoietic tissues. These include red bone marrow and lymphoid tissues (spleen, thymus and lymphatic nodes). Erythrocytes, leucocytes and platelets all arise from a common source, the pluripotent stem cells in the red bone marrow figure.
Human Blood
Differences between R.B. Cs and W.B.Cs or man
Human Blood
Functions. The blood plays a vital role in the body and is often called the ‘river of life’. Each one of its constituents is important. (A) Plasma. The plasma severs the following functions : (i) Transport of Food. Food materials, such as glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and triglycerides; vitamins and mineral salts are carried by plasma from the alimentary canal and liver to all the tissues of the body for growth, repair and energy. (ii) Transport of Oxygen. A small amount of oxygen is carried by plasma as its aqueous solution from the lungs to the tissues for oxidation of food. (iii) Transport of Carbon Dioxide. Plasma collects CO2 from the tissues and carries it to the lungs for elimination from the body. (iv) Transport of Waste Products. Plasma carries nitrogenous wastes, such as urea, uric acid and creatinine, from the liver and other tissues to the kidneys for removal in the urine. (v) Transport of Hormones. The endocrine glands secrete their hormones directly into the blood, which carries them to their target organs. (vi) Transport of Metabolic Intermediates. Plasma carries metabolic intermediates from one tissue to another for further metabolism. For example, lactic acid formed in muscles during anaerobic respiration is carried by plasma to the liver where it is partly oxidized and partly changed into glycogen. (vii) Supply of Raw Materials. Plasma supplies raw materials to the glands for the preparation of their products. (viii) Regulation of Water Balance. Plasma regulates the water balance of the body, as it supplies water to the tissues and receives the excess water formed in metabolic processes. (ix) Regulation of pH. Plasma helps to regulate the pH of the body fluids. It contains buffer materials, such as proteins and mineral salt, which can neutralize the acids and bases entering the blood. (x) Regulation of Body Temperature. Plasma carries heat from the heat-producing tissues, such as muscles and glands, to others where no or a little heat is produced or to body surface where it can be dissipated. (xi) Moistening of Tissue. Plasma keeps the tissues moist by leaking through the capillary walls as tissue fluid. (xii) Prevention of Blood Loss. Prothrombin and fibrinogen proteins of the plasma help in blood clotting at the site of injury. This prevents blood loss. (xiii) Immunity. Antibodies present in the plasma provide immunity against certain diseases.
Human Blood
(xiv) Lymph Formation. Plasma contributes to lymph formation by filtering out through capillary walls. (B) Red Blood Corpuscles. The red blood corpuscles have two functions : (i) Transport of Oxygen. Erythrocytes carry oxygen bound to haemoglobin as oxyhaemoglobin from the lungs to the tissues for oxidation of blood to release energy. (ii) Transport of Carbon Dioxide. Erhthrocytes carry a small amount of CO2 as carbaminohaemoglobin from the tissues to the lungs for removal from the body. (C) White Blood Corpuscles. The white blood corpuscles act as the soldiers, scavengers and builders of the body. (i) Soldiers. Neutrophils and monocytes defend the body against the attacks of microorganisms. They collect at the site of infection and engulf the invaders. This action is called phagocytosis. Lymphocytes and eosinophils destroy toxins released by the microbes. (ii) Seavengers. Neutrophils and monocytes also phagocytize the dead cells to clean the body. (iii) Builders. Lymphocytes help in scar-formation after injury to heal the wounds. They also form collagen and elastin fibers. They may enter bone marrow and form erythrocytes and neutrophils. (D) Platelets. The platelets play a role in blood clotting. Blood Clotting or Coagulation. Blood clotting is a nature’s device to check the excessive loss of blood from an injury caused to the body. The process of clotting is initiated by platelets. The injured cells release substances that attract the platelets. They gather at and stick to the injured surface of the blood vessel. Their clumping is enhanced by ADP. The mass of aggregated platelets alone may physically plug a cut in a very small vessel. The contact of platelets with the collagen fibers exposed by the injury causes them to disintegrate and release two substances : serotonin and thromboplastin, which minimize loss of blood from the injury in two ways. Vasocontration. Serotonin causes the blood vessels at the site of bleeding contract. This reduces the blood loss, and also makes it less likely for the clot, formed to plug the injury, to be swept out by the flow of blood. Clot Formation. Thromboplastin, a lipoprotein, helps in clot formation. Clot formation occurs in there steps f
Human Blood
165 (i) Thromboplastin helps in the formation of an enzyme prothrombinase. This enzyme inactivates heparin and it also converts the inactive plasma protein prothrombin into its active form, thrombin. Both the changes require calcium ions. (ii) Thrombin acts as a proteolytic enzyme to separate two peptides from the soluble plasma protein fibrinogen molecule to form insoluble fibrin monomer. (iii) The fibrin monomers polymerize to form long, sticky fibers. The fibrin threads form a fine network over the wound and trap blood corpuscles (RBCs, WBCs, platelets) to form a crust, the clot. The latter seals the wound and stops bleeding. A clot is formed in about 2 to 8 minutes. The platelets also polymerise actin and myosin into a contractile apparatus. The latter later contracts, and the clot becomes relatively firm and solid. The part of blood plasma in the clotted area is squeezed out as a clear fluid called blood serum. The serum is plasma except that it lacks fibrinogen and corpuscles. It is, therefore, unable to clot. Role of Vitamin K in Blood Clotting. Vitamin K is necessary for the synthesis of prothrombin in the liver. If vitamin K is inadequate in the diet or is not absorbed in the intestine, blood clotting becomes inefficient. This produces symptoms similar to those of haemophilia. Natural Anticoagulants. A substance that checks the clotting of blood is called anticoagulant. Blood does not clot in uninjured vessels due to the presence in if of a strong natural anticoagulant, heparin, or antiprothrombin, produced in the liver. It checks the change of prothrombin into thrombin. Thrombosis. Sometimes a clot is formed inside an intact vessel. Such a clot is known as thrombus, and its formation as thrombosis. Thrombosis blocks the blood flow, and proves very serious if it involves the blood vessels of heart or brain. Another natural anticoagulant, named hirudin, occurs in the saliva of leech. It prevents lotting of victim’s blood in the leech’s crop. Sodium and potassium oxalates are other anticoagulants. They precipitate calcium ion which prevents clotting.
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Human Blood
Human Blood