Basic Facts

							India


Basic Facts
Official name Republic of India
Capital New Delhi
Area 3,165,596 square kilometres
1,222,243 square miles
Administrative divisions (population)
Andaman and Nicobar Islands 322,000 (1994 Estimate)
Andhra Pradesh 71,800,000 (1994 Estimate)
Arunachal Pradesh 965,000 (1994 Estimate)
Assam 24,200,000 (1994 Estimate)
Bihar 93,080,000 (1994 Estimate)
Chandigarh 725,000 (1994 Estimate)
Dadra and Nagar Haveli 153,000 (1994 Estimate)
Daman and Diu 111,000 (1994 Estimate)
Delhi 10,865,000 (1994 Estimate)
Goa 1,235,000 (1994 Estimate)
Gujarat 44,235,000 (1994 Estimate)
Haryana 17,925,000 (1994 Estimate)
Himachal Pradesh 5,530,000 (1994 Estimate)
Jammu and Kashmir (disputed) 8,435,000 (1994 Estimate)
Karnataka 48,150,000 (1994 Estimate)
Kerala 30,555,000 (1994 Estimate)
Lakshadweep 56,000 (1994 Estimate)
Madhya Pradesh 71,950,000 (1994 Estimate)
Maharashtra 85,565,000 (1994 Estimate)
Manipur 2,010,000 (1994 Estimate)
Meghalaya 1,960,000 (1994 Estimate)
Mizoram 775,000 (1994 Estimate)
Nagaland 1,410,000 (1994 Estimate)
Orissa 33,795,000 (1994 Estimate)
Pondicherry 894,000 (1994 Estimate)
Punjab 21,695,000 (1994 Estimate)
Rajasthan 48,040,000 (1994 Estimate)
Sikkim 444,000 (1994 Estimate)
Tamil Nadu 58,840,000 (1994 Estimate)
Tripura 3,055,000 (1994 Estimate)
Uttar Pradesh 150,695,000 (1994 Estimate)
West Bengal 73,600,000 (1994 Estimate)


Urban areas (population)
Mumbai (Bombay) 9,925,891 (1991)
Delhi 7,206,704 (1991)
Calcutta 4,309,819 (1991)
Chennai (Madras) 3,841,396 (1991)
Hyderabad 2,964,638 (1991)
Ahmadabad 2,876,710 (1991)
Bangalore 2,660,088 (1991)
Kanpur 1,874,409 (1991)
Nagpur 1,624,752 (1991)
Lucknow 1,619,115 (1991)
Pune 1,566,651 (1991)
Surat 1,498,817 (1991)
Jaipur 1,458,483 (1991)
Indore 1,091,674 (1991)
Bhopal 1,062,771 (1991)
Vadodara 1,031,346 (1991)
Cochin 564,589 (1991)
New Delhi 301,000 (1991)


People
Population   984,003,683 (1998 Estimate)


Population growth
Population growth rate 1.71 per cent (1998)
Population density
311 persons per square kilometre
805 persons per square mile


Urbanization
Per cent urban 27 per cent (1997)
Per cent rural 73 per cent (1997)
Life expectancy
Total 62.9 years (1998)
Female 63.7 years (1998)
Male 62.1 years (1998)


Infant mortality rate
63 deaths per 1,000 live births (1998)


Literacy rate
Total 52.1 per cent (1995)
Female 37.7 per cent (1995)
Male 65.5 per cent (1995)


Ethnic divisions
Indo-Aryan 72 per cent
Dravidian 25 per cent
Mongoloid and other 3 per cent


Languages
There are 24 languages each spoken by at least 1 million people, and numerous other
languages and dialects. Hindi is the official national language and is the primary
language for 40 per cent of the population. Other official languages include
Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Kannada, Kashmiri, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya,
Punjabi, Sanskrit, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu; Hindustani is a popular variant of
Hindi/Urdu and is spoken widely throughout northern India. English has associate
status as the official working language and is important for national, political, and
commercial matters.

Hindi 40 per cent
Bengali 8 per cent
Telugu 8 per cent
Marathi 7 per cent
Tamil 6 per cent
Urdu 5 per cent
Gujarati 5 per cent
Kannada 4 per cent
Malayalam 4 per cent
Oriya 3 per cent
Punjabi 3 per cent
Assamese 2 per cent
Other 5 per cent


Religions
Hindu 82.0 per cent
Muslim 12.0 per cent
Christian 2.3 per cent
Sikh 2.0 per cent
Buddhist 0.7 per cent
Jain 0.4 per cent
Other 0.6 per cent


Government
Type of government Federal republic
Independence
15 August 1947 (from the United Kingdom)
Constitution 26 January 1950
Voting rights Universal at age 18

Membership of international organizations
APCC, AfDB, AsDB, Association of Natural Rubber Producing Countries, CAN
(observer), CCC, Colombo Plan, Commonwealth, FAO, G-15, G-19, G-24, G-6, G-
77, IAEA, IBRD, ICC, ICFTU, ICPO/Interpol, ICRM, IFRCS, IJO, IMF,
INTELSAT, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITTO, Inmarsat, NAM, OAS (observer),
PCA, SAARC, UN, UNESCO, WFTU, WHO, WToO, WTrO

Economy
Crops, jute and jute-like fibre production
Gross domestic product (GDP) (US$)
381,566 million (1997)
GDP per capita (US$) 400 (1997)
GDP by economic sector
GDP, agriculture 25.3 per cent (1997)
GDP, industry 30.1 per cent (1997)
GDP, services 44.6 per cent (1997)
National budget (US$)
Total revenue 49,022 million (1996)
Total expenditure 57,105 million (1996)
Monetary unit
1 Indian rupee (Re), consisting of 100 paise


Exports
Clothing, gems and jewellery, engineering goods, chemicals, leather manufactured
goods, cotton yarn, fabric


Imports
Crude oil and petroleum products, machinery, gems, fertilizer, chemicals

Major trading partners for exports
United States, Japan, Germany, United Kingdom, Hong Kong, United Arab Emirates,
Belgium

Major trading partners for imports
United States, Germany, Japan, Saudi Arabia, United Kingdom, Belgium, Kuwait,
Russia


Industries
Textiles, chemicals, food processing, steel, transport equipment, cement, mining,
petroleum, machinery


Agriculture
Principal crops: rice, wheat, oilseeds, cotton, jute, tea, sugar cane, potatoes; livestock:
cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats, poultry


Natural resources
Coal (one of the largest reserves in the world), iron ore, manganese, mica, bauxite,
titanium ore, chromite, natural gas, diamonds, petroleum, limestone


Sources
Basic Facts and People
Area data are from the individual country statistical bureaus. Population, population
growth rate, infant mortality, and life expectancy data are from the United States
Census Bureau, International Programs Center; International database, 1998;
(www.census.gov). Population density data are from the individual country statistical
bureaus, and the United States Census Bureau, International Programs Center;
International database, 1998; (www.census.gov). Urban areas (city) population data
are from the individual country statistical bureaus. Literacy rate data are from the UN
Education, Science and Culture Organization (UNESCO) database, 1998;
(www.unesco.org). Urban and rural population data are from the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (UN), FAOSTAT database,
1998; (www.fao.org). Ethnic divisions, languages, religions, government,
independence, constitution, and voting rights data are largely from the CIA 1995
World Factbook, CIA 1996 World Factbook, and CIA 1997 World Factbook.
Economy
Gross domestic product (GDP), GDP per capita, GDP by economic sectors, and
national budget data are from the International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (IBRD)/World Bank database, 1998; (www.worldbank.org).

Note: Due to rounding, totals may not add up to 100 per cent.


Population
In the far north of the Indian subcontinent, in what is now Pakistan, the Indus Valley
civilization endured for almost 1,000 years before it fell into decline around 1750 BC.
About 1500 BC, Aryans arrived from the Iranian regions and gradually pushed the
native Dravidians to the south. They spoke Sanskrit and their Vedic religion was the
foundation of Brahmanism, the early form of Hinduism.
India has the second largest population in the world after China, with 984 million
people (1998 Estimate). Of India’s ethnically diverse population, Indo-Aryans
account for 72 per cent and Dravidians for 25 per cent. The remaining 3 per cent is
made up of many other groups.


Language
There are at least 300 known languages in India, 24 of which have 1 million or more
speakers each. Hindi is the national language. The constitution recognizes another 17
languages, including Bengali, Tamil, Urdu, Punjabi, Telugu, and Sanskrit. At least 30
per cent of the population speaks Hindi. English is important for business and
government and is the language of national communication.


Religion
Worshippers in the Ganges River
Bearing in mind the potential for conflict in such a religiously diverse country, those
who framed the constitution made sure that it declared India a secular state. India is
the birthplace of the Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, and Sikh religions; it is also the adopted
home of most followers of Zoroastrianism, as well as a great many Muslims, Jews,
and Christians.

About 80 per cent of the people are Hindu; Muslims comprise the largest religious
minority group. Hinduism is extremely diverse, polytheistic, and rich in ceremony.
Historically, it organized society into four social castes: Brahman (priests), Kshatriya
(nobles and warriors), Vaisya (traders and farmers), and Sudra (servants), but these
were subdivided into many thousands of other groups, at the bottom of which was a
group known as the “untouchables”, who were shunned by the rest of society. Some
scholars believe that originally a person’s caste was not decided by the nature of one’s
birth but rather on the question of ability. Therefore, a person could move from one
caste to another with relative ease. However, the Brahman (considered the highest
caste) later manipulated the system so that social caste would be determined by one’s
birth. Although discrimination on grounds of caste is now illegal, it is still widely
practised.

About 14 per cent of the people are Muslim and 2 per cent, mostly in the Punjab,
belong to the Sikh religion, which was introduced in the early 16th century. It draws
on principles from both Hinduism and Islam and stresses simple teachings and
devotion. The Sikh practice of tolerance is reflected in offers of free food and shelter
to anyone who comes to a Sikh place of worship.

Buddhism began in India and flourished, but today less than 1 per cent of the
population is Buddhist. The Jain religion, too, once had a large following in India, but
is now practised by fewer than 1 per cent of Indians. Jains believe in ahimsa—a
reverence for life, literally “non-violence”—and self-denial, and are vegetarians. Less
than 3 per cent of the population is Christian.


Marriage and Family
Sikh Wedding
Women's Changing Roles
Indian people are religious and family orientated, and their lives are deeply rooted in
tradition. The interests of the family take precedence over that of an individual.
Families are generally large, but the government is actively encouraging family
planning to curb rapid population growth. Extended families often live together or
near each other, and form the basic social and economic unit of rural Indian society.
The elderly are respected and cared for by their families. The father is considered the
head of the household. Middle-class families, especially in urban areas, are becoming
more nuclear, and a middle- or upper-class father expects to take care of the children
financially until they have finished an education and taken a job—regardless of how
long it takes. Most poor and middle-class women work outside the home because of
economic necessity, and a growing number of urban women are joining the
professional workforce.

Many marriages are still arranged by parents; the degree to which the children are
consulted depends on the family. Marriage is sacred to most Indians and is considered
to endure beyond death. Chastity is the most treasured virtue of womanhood.
Weddings are times of great celebration, expense, and feasting. Ceremonies are often
elaborate and vary widely from region to region. In many ceremonies, the bride and
groom exchange garlands and promises before they circle around a fire three to seven
times to solemnize the marriage. Bright clothing, jewellery, and flowers are part of
almost every type of ceremony. The bride’s parents may still give a dowry, such as
money or land, to the groom, even though the practice is illegal.


Diet and Eating
Foods vary widely in India, depending on the culture and region. For example, rice is
a staple in the south, while roti (wheat bread) is the staple in the north. Indian meals
are usually very spicy. Different types of curry, made with eggs, fish, meat, or
vegetables, are popular. Vegetarianism is widely practised, often for religious reasons.
All castes and religions have their own rules and customs governing food. Hindus
consider cows to be sacred and they, like Sikhs, will not eat beef or use anything
made of leather. Muslims do not eat pork or drink alcohol.

Eating habits vary considerably. Less traditional—most often urban—families will eat
together and follow many western customs. Traditional families may use the right
hand instead of cutlery for eating their food. Also, women often eat after other
members of the family and any guests. A namaste gesture can indicate that one has
had enough to eat. Some Hindus object to having their food handled by members of
lower castes.


Socializing
The namaste is the traditional greeting used in India; it is performed by pressing the
palms together (fingers up) below the chin, and saying “Namaste” (Namaskaram in
the south). To greet superiors or to show respect, a slight bow is added. “Hello” and
“Hi” are also acceptable greetings. Out of respect for a woman’s privacy, Indian men
do not usually shake hands with or touch women in formal or informal gatherings.
Indian men will, however, shake hands with Westerners, and educated women may do
so as a courtesy. It is polite to use titles such as Shri for a man, Shreemati for a
married woman, Kumari for an unmarried woman, or the suffix -ji with a last name to
show respect. Muslims use the salaam gesture of greeting, which is performed by
raising the right hand towards the forehead, with the index finger pointing to the
forehead and the rest of the hand pointing upwards. It is similar to a salute but not as
rigid or formal. Indians usually ask permission before taking leave of others.

Most visiting occurs in the home, and visits between friends or family are often
unannounced. The need for prior arrangements is increasing in large cities. At social
gatherings, guests are often adorned with a garland of flowers, which they then
remove and carry in the hand as an expression of humility. Guests invited for a meal
customarily bring sweets, flowers, or fruit for the hosts. Indians often consider it
impolite to say no to an invitation; if they cannot attend, they are more likely to say
they will try to attend.

Many Indians do not wear shoes inside the home. Most at least remove their shoes
before entering the living room. Hosts offer their guests refreshments such as tea or
coffee and fruit or sweets, which it is polite to decline once or twice before eventually
accepting. When visitors are ready to leave, they often indicate it by saying
“Namaste”. In temples, saffron powder, holy water from the Ganges River, and
sometimes food are offered to visitors as prasad, or blessings from the gods; it is
discourteous to refuse these gifts. Women cover their heads when entering sacred
places. In traditional society, women are often not involved in social functions.


Recreation
India has a thriving film industry, which is one of the largest in the world. Every
major city has more than 100 modern cinemas. Musicals and romances are most
popular. People also enjoy watching television, reading, and debating anything from
philosophy to politics. Dance performances and music concerts are popular. Soccer,
cricket, and hockey are popular sports. The many religious and folk festivals
throughout the year play an important part in the lives of the Indian people.


Holidays and Celebrations
The international New Year (1 January) is recognized in India, though the Hindu New
Year occurs in April or May. Republic Day (26 January) celebrates the founding of
India as an independent republic, and many parades are held on this day.
Independence Day (15 August) celebrates India’s independence from Great Britain,
although this holiday is not as elaborately celebrated as Republic Day. Labour Day is
observed on 1 May. Another official holiday is the birthday of the former leader
Mahatma Gandhi on 2 October. On this day people make pilgrimages to the place
where this advocate of non-violent protest was cremated. Despite the small percentage
of Christians in India, Good Friday (the Friday preceding Easter) and Christmas (25
December) are legal holidays.

In addition to official holidays, there are many festivals throughout the year,
celebrating certain deities, the arrival of spring, and other events. Among the most
important of these is Vasant Panchami, at the end of January or early February. This
is a Hindu festival of spring, at which people wear yellow clothing to symbolize the
mustard flower, which announces spring’s arrival.
Holi, in late February and March, is a lively spring festival at which people smear red
and yellow powder on each other and spray each other with coloured water. On this
day, in theory, castes are forgotten and all citizens are equal.

Baisakhi, in April or May, is the Hindu solar new year. It is celebrated with temple
worship, ritual bathing, and fairs featuring music, dancing, and fireworks.

Naag Panchami, in July or August, is the Hindu festival honouring snakes, to which
offerings of milk or flowers are made.

Janmashtami, in August or September, is one of the most important of Hindu festivals
and celebrates the birthday of Krishna, who was a hero to both rich and poor.

Dussehra is an Islamic holiday observed throughout India around October to celebrate
the triumph of good over evil.

Diwali, or the Festival of Lights, is celebrated for a week in the first half of
November. The festivities involve all manner of lights, such as lamps, fireworks, and
bonfires. Gifts are exchanged at this time and people enjoy special foods.


Music
India has a classical music system that falls into two related but distinct systems, the
North Indian Hindustani, and the South Indian Karnatak. Both are based on
combining melodic modes called raga with repeating rhythmic cycles known as tala.
The music may be vocal or instrumental, a featured solo event, or accompaniment to a
variety of classical dance and theatre genres. A classical performer will usually be
accompanied by drums and a drone instrument (which creates long, sustained tones).

The Indian population still lives largely in villages, and much of their music is
connected with agrarian festivals, and religious and domestic rituals. There is a
diversity of music, varying according to region, village, and linguistic, religious, and
ethnic affiliation. However, radio, audio cassettes, and even television, are
widespread, and have carried standardized Indian film and popular music into every
village. The Indian film industry is one of the largest in the world, and the impact of
film music, nationally and internationally, has been enormous.


Libraries and Museums
India has more than 60,000 libraries, including more than 1,000 specialized libraries
attached to various government departments. The National Library in Calcutta is one
of three copyright libraries that receive all books and magazines published in India.
Outstanding among several hundred public libraries is that in Delhi.

India’s more than 460 museums contain important historical and archaeological
collections, such as the Government Museum and National Art Gallery in Chennai;
the National Museum in New Delhi; Sarnath Museum in Varanasi; and the Indian
Museum in Calcutta. Vadodara, Chennai, Calicut, and New Delhi have museums
containing outstanding collections of medieval and modern art.
Government
The republic of India is a federation divided into states and Union Territories. Each
state has its own governor, who is appointed by the president, and its own elected
legislature. Union Territories are each governed by a lieutenant governor or
administrator appointed by the president. The president, who is elected by a college of
parliament and the state assemblies, is head of state. The prime minister is head of
government. The national legislature comprises a 245-member Council of States
(Rajya Sabha), which is elected for six years; and a 545-member House of the People
(Lok Sabha), which is elected for five years.


Recent History
India is the world’s most populous democracy; free elections have determined
leadership since 1947. The tolerance and social harmony necessary to maintain
democracy have been tested in recent years by violent clashes between Hindus and
Muslims. A large part of the Muslim majority of Jammu and Kashmir are fighting for
independence. Matters were complicated in the 1980s by another separatist struggle,
that of the Sikhs in Punjab. The accommodation of the cultural and religious diversity
of its people presents a constant challenge.

During elections held in April and May of 1996, the Congress party, which had ruled
India for all but four years since its independence in 1947, suffered an overwhelming
defeat, winning only 135 out of 545 seats in the People’s Assembly. No party
possessed a clear parliamentary majority after the election, but in June a coalition of
centrist, leftist, and regional parties called the United Front survived a confidence vote
to become the ruling party. H.D. Deve Gowda, a farmer and civil engineer, was sworn
in as prime minister on 1 June. A political crisis ensued when the Congress party
withdrew support for Gowda in spring 1997, but leaders then agreed to support Inder
Kumar Gujral as prime minister and leader of the United Front. Gujral was officially
accepted by President Shankar Dayal Sharma as prime minister and took office on 21
April, pledging to improve relations with Pakistan and to work for social justice, but
the country has remained remarkably united and strong.

K. R. Narayanan, the vice-president, was elected president in July. His election had
striking social significance, as he came from what has traditionally been considered
India's lowest caste. In August 1997, India celebrated the 50th anniversary of its
independence. In March 1998 Atal Bihari Vajpayee was sworn in as the new prime
minister. Leader of the Hindu-nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party, Prime Minister
Vajpayee had held the position for 13 days in 1996. He organized another coalition
government.

India is involved in a number of geopolitical issues with Pakistan and China. It
contests the status of Jammu and Kashmir with both countries. Arunachal Pradesh is
also a source of disagreement with China.

On March 15, 1998, Atal Bihari Vajpayee, leader of the Hindu nationalist Bharatiya
Janata Party (BJP), was officially invited to form India's fifth government in two
years. Once considered a political fringe group for promoting a hardline Hindu
nationalist ideology, the BJP has grown rapidly during the last decade. However, it
was forced to temper its stand on a variety of contentious issues in order to attract
enough political support to form a government. After the election, the BJP agreed to
postpone its plans to abolish special rules protecting India's large Muslim minority
and to build a Hindu temple at a site in northern India where Hindu nationalists
destroyed a Muslim mosque in 1992. Vajpayee, considered a moderate in the BJP,
promised on 29 March to seek political consensus to resolve controversial national
issues and to refrain from discriminating against India's Muslims. But he did not
retract the BJP's pledge to build nuclear weapons, which it claims are necessary to
deter military aggression by neighbouring Pakistan. India has fought three wars with
Pakistan since 1947.

India conducted a series of five underground nuclear tests in mid-May 1998, which
drew immediate international condemnation. In response, Pakistan detonated a
number of its own nuclear devices in late May. Governments around the world
expressed disappointment that India and Pakistan had violated an international
moratorium on nuclear testing that had been in place since the Comprehensive Test
Ban Treaty took effect in 1996. Neither India nor Pakistan endorsed the treaty, which
was signed by 149 countries and forbids all nuclear tests. India argued that the treaty
unfairly perpetuates the nuclear monopoly held by the five declared nuclear
countries—China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States, and
Vajpayee said the tests were necesssary to ensure India's security. The BJP, which
leads a governing coalition comprised of more than a dozen partners, campaigned on
a pledge to develop India's nuclear weapons capacity. Australia, Germany, Japan, the
United States, and several other countries imposed a range of economic and trade
sanctions to punish India for the tests. The Chinese government also condemned the
tests, urging countries around the world to put pressure on India to end its nuclear
weapons programme. However, France, Russia, and the United Kingdom, all nuclear
states, declined to impose sanctions.

On April 14, 1999, India's fragile coalition government lost its parliamentary majority
when a key coalition partner withdrew its support. Three days later the 13-month-old
government collapsed after losing a vote of confidence by 269 to 270—the narrowest
parliamentary defeat since India became independent in 1947. Prime Minister
Vajpayee promptly resigned after the vote.

Parliament was dissolved on April 26, after the Congress Party's leader, Sonia
Gandhi—the Italian-born widow of the assassinated former prime minister Rajiv
Gandhi—failed to form a minority government. The Congress party had been the
second largest party in the lower house but with only some 140 seats of the 545 total,
it still required many elusive allies to take power. New elections are to be held within
six months.


Economy
Ganges Valley Tea
Although India has one of the world's largest industrialized economies, almost two-
thirds of the labour force is employed in agriculture. India is a leading world producer
of tea, peanuts, rice, cashews, oilseeds, tobacco, wheat, cotton, milk, sugar cane, and
rubber. Other important crops are cereals, jute, and coffee. Natural resources include
coal, iron ore, natural gas, diamonds, crude oil, limestone, and other minerals. The
main industries are textiles, food processing, steel, machinery, transport equipment,
cement, jute products, mining, and petroleum. In recent years more emphasis has been
placed on developing high-tech industries. The biggest export earners are gems and
jewellery, engineering products, clothing, chemicals, and textiles. Tourism is an
increasingly important source of foreign exchange.

For most of the time since independence, India has followed socialist economics
combined with a philosophy of self-sufficiency. Industry was developed as part of a
series of five-year plans, but economic growth was sluggish compared with that
enjoyed by countries in Southeast Asia. For the vast majority of Indians the village
remains the focus of almost all social and economic activity, although
industrialization and economic growth have lent impetus to the process of
urbanization. After the Rao government took office in 1991, austerity measures were
introduced to cut the budget deficit, and an increasingly free-market approach was
pursued. India has enormous potential, but most of its fast-growing population is very
poor; the gross domestic product (GDP) per capita is US$400 US dollars (1997). The
currency is the rupee.


Transport and Communication
Crowded Mumbai Train
Roads in urban areas are generally well developed, but those in rural regions may be
unpaved and impassable during heavy rains. In cities, buses—which are often
crowded—serve as the main means of public transport. Taxis are also plentiful, but
meters are not always used and rates change often. India has a large rail network,
connecting major cities. Other common forms of transport include bicycle rickshaws,
motor scooters, and horse-drawn tange. Traffic travels on the left-hand side of the
road. Television is very popular, and many people own a set, especially in urban
areas. Radios are even more widespread, as they are more affordable. Newspapers are
also plentiful. The domestic telephone service is not well developed; however, it is at
present being opened up to international investment with the aim of improving
services.


Education
Education is a primary concern in India. Although education is free and compulsory
for 8 years (from the ages of 6 to 14), schools are often inadequate and many children
do not attend. Government programmes are trying to meet the increasing demand for
education. Corruption and malpractice are increasing in the educational system, which
has lately come under both public and government scrutiny. Violations range from
selling degrees to accepting and demanding bribes for school admission. India has
more than 100 universities, 3,000 colleges, and at least 15 institutes dedicated to
research in the arts and sciences. One problem is that education is under the control of
the state governments, which are often chronically short of funds.


Health and Welfare
India faces serious health problems as a result of overpopulation and poverty. Access
to medical facilities is limited both by the lack of resources and the sheer size of the
population. Diseases such as cholera, yellow fever, malaria, typhoid, and hepatitis
endanger many, especially in rural areas. Government programmes seek to improve
health standards by teaching about nutrition, hygiene, and family planning.


Location
Region
South Asia
Neighbours
China, Nepal, and Bhutan border India to the north, Bangladesh and Myanmar
(Burma) are to the east, the Bay of Bengal is to the southeast, the Palk Strait, the Gulf
of Mannar, and the Indian Ocean are to the south, and Pakistan and the Arabian Sea
are to the west.
Area
3,165,596 square kilometres (1,222,243 square miles)
Size Comparison
Less than one-fifth the size of Russia


Topography
India can be divided into four main regions: the Himalaya, the northern river-plains
region, the Deccan, and the Eastern and Western Ghats.

The Himalaya are a mountain system about 200 kilometres to 300 kilometres (100
miles to 200 miles) wide, which extends 2,400 kilometres (about 1,500 miles) along
the northern and eastern margins of India. The Himalaya are the highest mountain
system in the world. Among the outstanding summits wholly or partly within India is
K2, or Mount Godwin Austen (8,611 metres/28,251 feet), which is second in height
only to Mount Everest (8,848 metres/29,028 feet) located in neighbouring Nepal.

South and parallel to the Himalaya lies the northern river-plains region, a belt of flat,
alluvial lowlands about 280 to 408 kilometres (174 to 253 miles) in width. The region
comprises the major part of the vast plains area watered by the Indus, Ganges, and
Brahmaputra rivers. The plains region of India extends from the border with Pakistan
to the border with Bangladesh and continues east into Assam, which is connected with
the remainder of the republic by a narrow corridor of land near Darjiling.

The central and western portions of the Indian plains region are watered by the
Ganges and its tributaries, which drain the southern slopes of the Himalaya; the region
is known consequently as the Gangetic Plain. The Assam region is watered by the
Brahmaputra River and its affluents, which rise on the northern slopes of the
Himalaya. The Brahmaputra crosses into Bangladesh north of the Khasi Hills. The
Indus River rises in Tibet, flows west, and crosses into Pakistan.

South of the plains region lies the Deccan, a vast, triangular tableland occupying most
of peninsular India. The Deccan is a generally rocky and uneven plateau divided into
natural regions by low mountain ranges and deep valleys. Elevations in the plateau
region range from about 305 metres to 1,525 metres (1,000 feet to 5,003 feet). The
Deccan Plateau is bordered on the east and west by the mountain systems known,
respectively, as the Eastern Ghats and the Western Ghats.
The Western Ghats, a bold escarpment overlooking the Arabian Sea, have a general
elevation of about 915 metres (3,000 feet). Between the Eastern Ghats, which average
about 460 metres (1,500 feet) in elevation, and the Bay of Bengal is a narrow coastal
plain, the Coromandel Coast. In the southern interior, near Bangalore, are the Nilgiri
Hills.


Climate
Because of the peninsularity, unusual topography, and geographical position of India,
climatic conditions are widely diversified on both a seasonal and regional basis. The
diversity ranges from tropical to temperate zonal extremes, with the temperature
extremes confined largely to the slopes of the Himalaya.

Except in the elevated regions, the remainder of India has a uniformly tropical
climate. Seasonal variations resulting from the southwest and northeast monsoons
profoundly influence such climatic factors as temperature, humidity, and precipitation
throughout the subcontinent.

In general, India has two seasons: rainy and dry. The rainy season, which extends
from June to November, is the season of the southwest monsoon, a moisture-laden
wind blowing off the Indian Ocean and the Arabian Sea. Beginning early in June on
the west coast of the peninsula, the monsoon gradually affects almost the entire
country.

During the rainy period, precipitation is extremely heavy, often more than 3,175
millimetres (125 inches), along the slopes of the Western Ghats. In the northeast
section of the country, at Cherrapunji in the Khasi Hills, the yearly rainfall is about
10,920 millimetres (430 inches), one of the highest in the world. Mean annual
precipitation along the southern slopes of the Himalaya is about 1,525 millimetres (60
inches).

Occasionally the winds fail to bring enough rain, causing severe droughts and famine;
but the rains breed malaria, and contrasting daytime and night-time temperatures
encourage pulmonary disorders. Normally, the power of the summer monsoon
diminishes in September.

The cool season of the northeast monsoon, extending from early in December to
February, is usually accompanied by extremely dry weather, although severe storms,
attended by slight precipitation on the northern plains and heavy snowfall in the
Himalaya, sometimes cross the country. The hot season, beginning about the middle
of March and extending until the onset of the southwest monsoon, reaches its most
oppressive stage during May, when temperatures as high as 52°C (126°F) are
commonly recorded in central India.

In the vicinity of Calcutta, the mean annual temperature is about 26°C (79°F). The
mean annual temperature in the west central coastal region of the peninsula is about
28°C (82°F). In the vicinity of the city of Chennai, temperatures range from about 24°
to 33°C (75° to 91°F), with an annual mean of about 29°C (84°F).
Environmental Issues
Second only to China in human population, India’s top environmental consideration is
how to deal with its many people. Considering the nearly impossible immediate task
of providing for nearly 1 billion humans, India has done much to curb abuse of its
environment. The success of this effort has been aided in no small part by the fact that
many of its people are vegetarian and require fewer resources for food production
compared to meat-eating societies. Agricultural land is therefore more efficiently
utilized.

Soil erosion and salinization are major problems associated with irrigated land. Other
environmental threats include deforestation, overgrazing, desertification, and air
pollution from industrial effluents and vehicle emissions. Water pollution results from
raw sewage and run-off of agricultural pesticides, and tap water is not potable
throughout the country. Major natural disasters include flooding, landslides, and
earthquakes, especially in the Himalayan states. The worst industrial accident in
history occurred in Bhopal in 1984 when methyl isocyanate gas leaked from the
Union Carbide chemical plant, killing 3,300 people and maiming thousands.

India was the first developing country to acquire nuclear power and has an ambitious
nuclear energy programme that aims to supply 10 per cent of the country’s energy
needs by the year 2000. Traditional sources of energy, most of which are used
domestically, include firewood, charcoal, and animal dung. As in many developing
nations, deforestation in India is due in large part to firewood collection.

The concept of protection of natural areas, particularly forests, dates back thousands
of years in India to the establishment of sacred groves, village forest plots, and
hunting reserves. The first forest laws were passed in the mid-1800s, and a forestry
tradition continued through the British colonial period and into independence after
1947. Modern legislation has included a number of acts and policy statements that
have maintained a high priority for environmental protection. The concept of linking
protected areas with conservation corridors has been incorporated into long-term
plans, and the rights of local tribespeople, especially the poor, have been officially
advocated as integral to conservation programmes.

India has a national goal of covering one-third of its land area with existing or planted
forests. Although drastically reduced from their original extent, forests still cover
approximately 21.9 per cent (1995) of the country. About 1 per cent of these are
primary forests. Wetlands make up 18.4 per cent of the land, most of which is under
paddy cultivation. India possesses tremendous biodiversity and numerous ecosystems,
providing a home to an estimated 6 per cent of the world’s plant species, up to 33 per
cent of them endemic. But up to 10 per cent of India’s flora—about 1,300 species—
are critically endangered, mainly because of the population-related pressures of
deforestation and agriculture.

A National Wildlife Action Plan provides a framework for species protection and
directs the establishment of a protected areas network covering all the major habitat
types for at least 4 per cent of the total land area of the country. Already 4.8 per cent
(1997) of the land is under protection, including 69 national parks and 410 sanctuaries
established by 1990.
India has ratified the World Heritage Convention and the Ramsar Convention on
Wetlands. Thirteen biosphere reserves are planned under the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Man and Biosphere
Program. India has had tremendous success with species conservation. World-
renowned programmes include Project Tiger, which has established nine special tiger
reserves, and the Crocodile Breeding and Management Project. A Snow Leopard
Conservation Scheme for the Himalayan region is planned. Many non-governmental
organizations aid India’s conservation efforts.

India has signed and ratified many international conservation and environmental
agreements, including those concerning Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered
Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear
Test Ban, Ozone Layer, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber, and the Antarctic Treaty.