WOMEN OFFENDERS
CUMBERLAND COUNTY SHERIFF’S OFFICE
FTO R WELCH
INSTRUCTIONAL GOAL
After this unit of instruction, the student will be able
to:
Define gender responsiveness
Identify the characteristics and issues that revolve
around women offenders
Define equal treatment vs. differential needs
Identify programs that are beneficial to women
offenders
Identify legal considerations with regard to women
offenders.
“ the lifetime chance of being sent to Federal or State Prison
at least once indicates that overall about 11 women out of
1,000 will be incarcerated at some time in their lives.
Special Report, Women Offenders *revised 10/03/00 U.S. DOJ
Gender Responsiveness
Defined as:
“Creating an environment that reflects an
understanding of the realities of women’s lives
and addresses the issues of the women”
Gendered Justice: Programming for Women in Correctional Settings, Bloom &
Covington (2003)
CHARACTERISTICS OF WOMEN
OFFENDERS
Ethnicity
Median Age
Substance Abuse
Family Background
Physical & Sexual Abuse
Multiple Physical and Mental Health Issues
Children
Education
Ethnicity
Low Income women of color
African-American
50 % of women in prison are African-American and are
8 times more likely than whites to be incarcerated
2/3 of women under institutional supervision are
African-American, Hispanic or other non-white ethnic
groups
Median Age
Adult women on probation, in jail, and in
prison are on average 33 years old
Substance Abuse
40 % of women were under the influence of drugs when crime
occurred, 32 % for male offenders
89 % of women use drugs on a regular basis compared to their
male counterparts 76 %
Alcohol use is higher in men
At time of offense, offenders under the influence of
alcohol:
29 % of women offenders
38 % of male offenders
Family Background
Women are more likely than men to have one
family member who has been incarcerated:
50 % of women – family member incarcerated
37 % of men – family member incarcerated
Physical & Sexual Abuse
More than 40 % of women offenders reported
having being abused at some time in their lives
compared with 9 % of men.
Bureau of Justice Statistics (1999)
Multiple Physical & Mental Health Issues
Poor health due to:
Poverty
Inadequate health care
Poor nutrition
Substance Abuse
Depression
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
Children of Women in the Criminal Justice System
Women offenders are the primary caregiver for
dependent children
1.3 million minor children have a mother under
criminal justice supervision
Averages of women offenders who have 2 minor
children
65 % in State Prisons
59 % in Federal Prisons
Education
Typically lack educational and vocational
training
More than 2/3 were unemployed at time of
arrest
Earnings placed them in the “lowest economic
strata of their communities”
ISSUES OF WOMEN OFFENDERS
Family Background
Physical & Sexual Abuse
Substance Abuse
Physical Health
Mental Health
PTSD
Children & Marital Status
Education & Employment
Family Background
“ Disconnection and violation rather than growth-
fostering relationships characterize the
childhood experiences of most women in the
corrections system”
A Women’s Journey Home: Challenges for Female Offenders: Covington;
Center for Gender & Justice April 2002
Cycle of violence begins at an early age
First encounters with the justice system are as juvenile:
runaways to escape situations
criminal activity to support drug habits
Young parents
have children of their own and continue the cycle
of abuse
lack of education and job skills
children are placed in foster care and then are at
risk themselves
Being abused or neglected as a child increases
the risk of arrest as a juvenile by 53 %, as an
adult by 38%
Cathy Spatz Widom “ The cycle of Violence” Science 244(1989)
42 % of women offenders grew up in single
parent homes, usually the mother
Physical or Sexual Abuse
1 in 4 women may be a victim of sexual assault during
their lifetime
Women in prison are 3 times more likely to have a
history of abuse than men in prison.
Sexually abused girls have a higher rate of sexual
revictimization
Substance Abuse
80 % of women in State prisons have substance
abuse problems
1 in 3 women serving time report committing
the offense to obtain money to support a drug
habit
Self-medicate for relief from trauma symptoms
or can also lead to engage in risk-taking/self-
injury
Physical Health
20 to 35 % go to sick call, compared to 7 to 10% of
men
6 % enter jails while pregnant
Most pregnancies are high risk due to:
inadequate health care
abuse and substance abuse
STD’s
3.5 % of women in prison are HIV+
At greater risk for breast, lung, and cervical cancer
Mental Health
Co-occurring disorders: in addition to addictions
to one or more drugs, women offenders may
have;
Major depression
Bipolar disorder
PTSD
Some suffer psychotic disorders, including
schizophrenia
Treatment for these complex disorders will span
over several years and can involve episodic
incarcerations.
In correctional institutions, women offenders have
twice the rate of major mental illness
19% women offenders
9% male offenders
Corrections staff through training are usually able
to identify and refer inmates to the mental
health support systems in facilities, however
disorders associated with women may not be
easily identified, such as:
PTSD
Anxiety disorders
These disorders are likely to increase the risk of
management problems for staff, so it is
important to acknowledge and attend to these
disorders.
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
“ the development of characteristic symptoms
following exposure to an extreme traumatic
stressor”
Diagnostic & Statistical Manual of Mental Health Disorders, American
Psychiatric Assoc.
Traumatic Stressor:
Must involve an “actual or threatened death or
serious injury or other threat to one’s physical
integrity”.
This event can be experienced directly, witnessed,
or experienced vicariously.
“Experienced Vicariously” is defined as learning
that a traumatic event occurred unexpectedly or
violently to a family member or close associate.
Three Categories of PTSD Symptoms
Re-experiencing Symptoms
thoughts of the trauma
nightmares
flashbacks
trigger responses
Avoidance/Numbing Symptoms
avoiding situations reminiscent of the
trauma
amnesia relating to part of the trauma
isolation from others
general emotional numbness
Arousal Symptoms
insomnia
angry outbursts or irritability
general jumpiness
Women offenders with a history of physical or
sexual abuse may experience extreme difficulties
in jail settings.
Problems can be associated to incidents of prior
abuse, specifically interacting with authority
figures or persons who remind them of the
perpetrator of violence.
They may have problems with being physically
restrained, locked up, and being unclothed.
Children & Marital Status
1.3 million minor children have a mother under
correctional supervision
70 % are younger than age 18
90 % of children with fathers incarcerated live
with their mothers
More than half of the children of women
offenders never visit their mothers during
incarceration
Lack of visits due primarily to remote locations of
institutions, lack of transportation, and inability of care
givers to arrange visitation
Caretakers of children expect the released woman to
take immediate custody
Rarely receive any financial or emotional support from
the fathers
Reunification with children that are under State custody
is extremely difficult
Women who are returning to communities from
correctional facilities must comply with
conditions of supervised release, achieve
financial stability, access health care, locate
housing, and try to reunite with their families
Women under criminal justice supervision are
more likely than the general population to never
have been married.
In 1998, nearly half of the women in jail and
prison reported that they never have been
married.
Bureau of Justice Statistics, Special Report, Women Offenders 10/03/00
Education & Employment
Individuals with High School or GED diploma
Limited vocational training – traditional
women’s jobs, clerical, food service,
cosmetology
In 1998 most jobs held by were low-skill, entry
level jobs with low pay
Earned little more than half of what the average
woman earned in the leading 20 jobs in 1999
“There are connections among crime, work and
welfare. Unemployment is a steady predictor of
criminality and imprisonment. The lack of
adequate economic and social supports for
women and children in society is a key factor in
rising crime rates”
Elliot Currie, Confronting Crime: An American Challenge 1985
EQUAL TREATMENT VS. DIFFERENTIAL
NEEDS
Contemporary perspectives on female criminality
can provide a solid foundation for the
development of a gender-responsive criminal
justice system…….
Current Theories
Focus on women’s lives and personal histories,
shows connections among crime, substance
abuse, violence, and trauma
The Pathways to Crime perspective applies a
variety of research methodologies in search for
explanations to criminal behavior
Pathways and Relational explanations offer
specific targets for correctional intervention and
re-integration to the community
Rule of Parity – Equal Treatment to Everyone
Does not have to mean that the same treatment is
appropriate for both men and women. There are
distinguishing aspects of male and female
offenders:
Different pathways to crime
Different responses to supervision
Differences in substance abuse, trauma,
mental illness, parenting responsibilities, and
employment histories
Examples:
Differences in levels of participation, motivation,
and degree of harm caused by criminal behavior
Female crime rates are lower than male crime rates
The correlation of victimization and offending appears
more evident in women’s lives
Family violence, trauma, and substance abuse
contribute to criminality
Less violent while in custody but higher rates of
minor disciplinary infractions
More likely to be influenced by responsibilities and
concerns for their children, by their relationships
with staff, and their relationships with other
offenders
Three Fundamentals Needed To Improve
Behavioral Outcomes for Women Offenders
SAFETY
RESPECT
DIGNITY
Abuse and trauma histories have implications for
an understanding of the need for safety and
security within correctional environments.
Women offenders that have extensive abuse
(physical & substance) histories can make them
more vulnerable to inappropriate relationships with staff
and can create the possibility of women-initiated sexual
situations.
The criminal justice system is based on a control
model, and treatment is based on a model of
behavioral change. These two models must be
integrated so that women offenders can
experience positive outcomes during
confinement.
This concept is critical when addressing the
following differential needs:
The reasons why women commit crimes
The impact of interpersonal violence on
women’s lives
The importance of children in their lives
The relationships between women in
institutional settings
The challenges involving in re-entering the
community
Skills Needed Working with Women Offenders
Active Listening
Patience in explaining rules and expectations
Awareness of the emotional dynamics
Capacity to respond firmly, fairly, and consistently
PROGRAMS BENEFICIAL TO
WOMEN OFFENDERS
Substance Abuse Programming
Mental Health/Trauma Counseling
Educational/Vocational Programs
Community Corrections Programs
Re-integration to the Community
LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS
The current legal environment is favorable toward
the development of gender appropriate policy
and criminal practice owing to both judicial
interpretation and congressional legislation.
Specific Issues:
Cross-gender supervision
Due Process Challenges
Pregnancy and Child-Related Issues
Equal Protection Issues -
Equivalent access to programs and services