Hazardous Waste Handbook
for Health and Safety
Hazardous Waste Handbook
for Health and Safety
Third Edition
William F. Martin
John M. Lippitt
Paul J. Webb
Boston Oxford Auckland Johannesburg Melbourne New Delhi
Copyright © 2000 by Butterworth–Heinemann
A member of the Reed Elsevier group
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Martin, William F.
Hazardous waste handbook for health and safety / William F. Martin, John M. Lippitt,
Paul Webb.—3rd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-7506-7135-1 (alk. paper)
1. Hazardous waste sites—Safety measures—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Hazardous
waste sites—Health aspects—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 3. Environmental health—
Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Lippitt, John M. II. Webb, Paul. III. Title.
TD1052 .M38 2000
628.4¢2¢0289—dc21
00-023588
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Contents
Authors vi Appendix A: Abbreviations 145
Preface vii Appendix B: Acronyms 147
Acknowledgements viii Appendix C: Chemical Formulas 149
Appendix D: Glossary 151
1 Introduction: Laws and Regulations 1
Appendix E: Sample Site Safety Plan 155
2 Hazards 9
Appendix F: Medical Occupational History 161
3 Planning and Organization 21
Appendix G: Hazardous Substance Data Sheet 165
4 Site Characterization 27
Appendix H: Chemical Protective Clothing
5 Air Monitoring 35 Recommendations 169
6 Personal Protective Equipment 43 Appendix I: Decontamination Procedures for
Three Typical Levels of Protection 175
7 Site Control and Work Practices 77
Appendix J: Health and Safety Checklist 179
8 Decontamination 93
Appendix K: Chemical Hazard Data—NIOSH
9 Spills and Site Emergencies 101
Pocket Guide (Sample) 193
10 Medical Monitoring Programs 113
Appendix L: Toxicology Review 239
11 Training 125
12 Monitoring Well Safety at Hazardous Sites 131 Index 251
13 Hazardous Waste Transportation Safety 135
v
Authors
William F. Martin, P.E., holds a civil engineering degree in hazardous and solid waste management. Mr. Lippitt
from the University of Kentucky and a master’s degree provides expertise in health and safety management
in environmental health engineering from the Univer- for SCS projects and has prepared several documents
sity of Texas. He served twenty-two years as a commis- concerning methods of worker protection and costs of
sioned officer in the U.S. Public Health Service. He worker safety and health for NIOSH and the USEPA.
held positions with the Indian Health Service, U.S. His professional experience prior to joining SCS
Coast Guard, Federal Water Pollution Control Admin- involved five years as a public health sanitarian, a year
istration, and National Institute for Occupational conducting carcinogen-testing research and develop-
Safety and Health. A registered professional engineer ment with the USEPA Health Effects Research Labo-
in Texas and Kentucky, he has presented and published ratory, and nine months as an on-site coordinator for
numerous technical papers, both foreign and domestic. the Ohio EPA to monitor the activities of a licensed
He served on the Superfund steering committee made hazardous waste landfill.
up of EPA, OSHA, NIOSH, and the U.S. Coast Guard. Paul J. Webb, C.I.H., has experience including
He served as the NIOSH Hazardous Waste Program industrial hygiene positions with the North Carolina
Director with primary responsibility for coordinating Department of Labor, Division of Occupational Safety
all Institute Superfund activities, including research and Health, and within the pharmaceutical industry. He
projects and the production of comprehensive health is currently president of Occu-Health Consultants, Inc.,
and safety guidelines, worker bulletins, and training a Raleigh-based firm specializing in occupational health
materials. Mr. Martin has consulted on environmental and safety. Over the past several years, his firm has
engineering and hazardous waste health and safety worked with clients in private industry and municipal
with Valentec International Corporation, Environ- government in the development and implementation of
mental Systems & Services, Inc., and Greenglobe emergency response programs and personnel training.
Engineering, Inc. Mr. Webb received his B.S. in biology and his M.P.H.
John M. Lippitt, M.En., is a Registered Sanitarian in industrial hygiene from the University of South
with the Ohio State Board of Sanitation Registration. Carolina. He is certified in the comprehensive practice
He is currently employed as a Project Scientist for SCS of industrial hygiene by the American Board of Indus-
Engineers, a consulting engineering firm specializing trial Hygiene.
vi
Preface
Professionals in environmental health, occupational course commonly referred to as the Occupational Safety
health, environmental management, and engineering and Health Administration (OSHA) forty-hour or
have often noted the need for a well-referenced health Hazardous Waste Operation and Emergency Response
and safety training manual to prepare new workers for (HAZWOPER) training. The Environmental Protec-
hazardous materials and hazardous waste cleanup activ- tion Agency (EPA), Department of Defense (DoD),
ities. This need is addressed in this third edition of Department of Energy (DoE), U.S. Coast Guard
Hazardous Waste Handbook for Health and Safety. (USCG), and OSHA regulations and contracts usually
These authors average over fifteen years each in pro- require this level of health and safety training for all on-
fessional experience in teaching, regulating, consulting, site personnel. This training manual is a companion to
and handling of hazardous materials. Additional field the textbook Protecting Personnel at Hazardous Waste
experience and new regulations have prompted this Sites, Third Edition (Butterworth-Heinemann, 1999).
third edition. The third edition has expanded and Hazardous waste management is a challenging
updated material in every chapter. References have endeavor in our national effort to protect the quality of
been revised to reflect current sources. The main objec- our environment. The authors of this book feel that this
tive of this textbook continues to be its use as a resource challenge can be met without sacrificing the health of
book for training professionals in the practice of occu- those individuals and companies called on to accom-
pational safety and health in hazardous materials and plish the task.
waste activities. The authors feel strongly that anyone This manual is an expanded version of the previous
teaching or training hazardous waste workers should edition, with many updates of the NIOSH/OSHA/
have thoroughly covered at least the content of this USCG/EPA publication “Occupational Safety and
edition in an academic setting and have had consider- Health for Hazardous Waste Site Activities” (1985)
able field experience under experienced supervision. # 85-115, which the authors of this book helped to
This edition is considered a minimum of academic develop in 1983–1985.
exposure for the hazardous waste health and safety
vii
Acknowledgements
Recognition is given to the U.S. Public Health Service, Stephen P. Berardinelli, Ph.D., Aaron W. Schoppee,
especially the National Institute for Occupational Ph.D., Jim Spahr, and Dr. Belard in the Division of
Safety and Health (NIOSH), the Center for Disease Safety Research, Morgantown, West Virginia, recom-
Control and Prevention (CDCP), the Occupational mended a number of changes in the second edition
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), the U.S. relating to personal protective equipment that were
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Depart- incorporated into the present edition. The authors also
ment of Energy (DoE), the Department of Defense recognize the following for their review comments on
(DoD), and the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG), for their the first two editions, which have been incorporated
efforts under the Resource Conservation and Recovery into the present edition: James P. Kirk, William R.
Act (RCRA) and Superfund to gather, develop, and Goutdie III, Steven J. Sherman, Vicki Santoro, Joseph
make publicly available health and safety guidelines, A. Gispanski, and James B. Walters.
publications, and contractor reports. The contributing authors of the third edition of
This practical hazardous waste health and safety Protecting Personnel at Hazardous Waste Sites provided
handbook and training manual would not be possible the key items for updating this training manual: Edward
without the previous work of many individuals, compa- Bishop, Ph.D., C.I.H.; Joanna Burger, Ph.D.; Leslie W.
nies, and government agencies. During the past fifteen Cole, M.S.; David L. Dahlstrom, C.I.H.; David Dyjack,
years, the authors have worked with a host of highly Dr.P.H., C.I.H.; Michael Gochfeld, M.D., Ph.D.; Dennis
qualified professionals in the nation’s efforts to contain Goldman, Ph.D.; Ralph F. Goldman, Ph.D.; Larry L.
hazardous waste spills, clean up abandoned landfills, Janssen, C.I.H.; Paul W. Jonmaire, Ph.D.; John M.
control hazardous chemical threats to the environment Lippitt, M.En.; William F. Martin, P.E.; James M.
and public health, and adequately dispose of solid and Melius, M.D.; Richard C. Montgomery, Ph.D.; James P.
hazardous waste. Pastorick, B.A.; Lamar E. Priester, Jr., Ph.D.; L. E.
Outside reviewers contributed substantially to the “Chip” Priester III; Timothy G. Pothero, B.A.; Charles
quality and focus of this edition.A special thanks to Pro- F. Redinger, C.I.H., Ph.D.; Charles J. Sawyer, C.I.H.,
fessor Joe Ledbetter, Ph.D., University of Texas, for his P.E.; Arthur D. Schwope, M.A.; H. Randy Sweet;
specific review comments, which improved the quality Lynn P. Wallace, Ph.D., P.E., D.E.E.; and Paul J. Webb,
of this edition. The South Carolina Department of C.I.H.
Health and Environmental Control, through the The authors wish to thank Laurie Goodale of
reviews of Shannon Berry, Ron Kinney, and Harold Priester & Associates for her desktop publishing skills
Seabrook, was very helpful in keeping this edition prac- in the production of this third edition. Thanks to Ann T.
tical and current. An extensive review by William Kiefert, M.S., for her technical editing of the final draft.
Keffer, senior engineering advisor, was very helpful for Ms. Kiefert’s experience with Florida’s environmental
the second edition, and also provided some excellent regulations and her graduate studies at Florida State
options for this edition. The NIOSH staff, especially University contributed to her expert input.
viii
1
INTRODUCTION: LAWS AND REGULATIONS
n the past two decades, industry, govern- Department of Energy (DoE) lands and facilities.
I ment, and the general public have become
increasingly aware of the need to respond
to the hazardous waste problem, which has
grown steadily over the past 100 years. In 1980,
Congress passed the Comprehensive Environ-
Occupational risk assessment and toxicology
have been expanded because classroom experi-
ence at educational centers all across the United
States indicated that many professional people
were being trained for hazardous waste occupa-
mental Response, Compensation, and Liability tions with very limited backgrounds in applied
Act (CERCLA)—the Superfund law—to provide occupational health.
for liability, compensation, cleanup, and emer- This manual is intended for individuals who
gency response for hazardous substances have direct responsibility to carry out hazardous
released into the environment and the cleanup waste site cleanup and hazardous waste
of abandoned and uncontrolled hazardous waste emergencies. It can be used as:
disposal sites. The Superfund Amendments and
Reauthorization Act (SARA) of 1986 extended • a training manual
CERCLA and added new authorities under Title
III of SARA that included Emergency Planning, • a planning tool
Community Right-to-Know, and Toxic Chemical • a management reference
Release Reporting. The Resource Conservation • an educational textbook
and Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1976 sets the stan-
dards for waste handling, storage, and disposal. • a technical reference document
The 1975 Hazardous Materials Transportation Act
provides regulation of hazardous materials label- It also serves as an applied industrial hygiene
ing, packaging, placarding, manifesting, and handbook for hazardous waste activities and is a
transporting. valuable sourcebook on hazardous waste occu-
This handbook is a training manual and guid- pational safety and health. It should be used as a
ance document for employees and supervisors preliminary basis for developing a specific health
responsible for occupational safety and health and safety program. Consult other sources and
programs at hazardous waste sites. It was devel- experienced individuals as necessary for the
oped to give site supervisors specific instruc- details needed to design and implement occupa-
tions and guidelines on how to protect the tional safety and health plans at specific haz-
safety and health of workers. A second goal of ardous waste sites.
this handbook is to improve hazardous waste Although this manual cites federal regu-
operations efficiency through knowledge and lations, it is not a definitive legal document and
training of the work force. A third goal is to should not be taken as such. Individuals who are
reduce the cost of hazardous waste cleanups responsible for the health and safety of workers
through reduced lawsuits and liability losses of at hazardous waste sites should obtain and
employers and individuals. comply with the most recent federal, state, and
Additional field experience and new regu- local regulations.
lations have prompted this third edition. Updated Several of the key hazardous waste, health
information has been added to address the and safety–related regulations are briefly summa-
1990’s effort to clean up and convert to civilian rized in this chapter.
use major Department of Defense (DoD) and
The Codes of Federal Regulations (CFRs) provide the CFR 11, and 49 CFR 100199. These federal publications
complete text of current regulations. Some of the CFRs can be located at major public libraries, university
of direct application to hazardous waste operations are libraries, and most major federal and state offices. Many
as follows: 40 CFR 300, 29 CFR 1910, 40 CFR 260265, 30 databases will provide access to these regulations. Two
1
2 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
of these are the Computer-Aided Environmental an actual release has occurred. Even before any emer-
Legislative Data System (CELDS) and LEXIS. CELDS gency has arisen, certain information must be made
contains abstracts of environmental regulations and is available to state and local authorities, and to the
designed for use in environmental impact analysis and general public upon request. Facility owners and oper-
environmental quality management. The abstracts are ators are obligated to provide information pertaining
written in an informative narrative style, with excessive to any regulated substance present on the facility to the
verbiage removed. Characteristics of this system are as appropriate state or local authorities (Subtitle A). Three
follows: types of information are to be reported to the appro-
priate state and local authorities (Subtitle B):
1. Legislative information is indexed to a hierarchical
keyword thesaurus, in addition to being indexed to a 1. Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs), which are
set of environmental keywords. prepared by the chemical manufacturer of any haz-
2. Information can be obtained for federal and state ardous chemical and are retained by the facility
environmental regulations, as well as regulatory owner or operator (or if confidentiality is a concern,
requirements related to the keywords. a list of hazardous chemicals for which MSDSs
3. Appropriate reference documents,such as enactment/ are retained can be made available). These sheets
effective date, legislative reference, administrative contain general information on a hazardous chemi-
agency, and bibliographical reference, are provided. cal and provide an initial notice to the state and local
authorities.
The system is structured to satisfy the user agency’s 2. Emergency and Hazardous Chemical Inventory
(U.S. Department of Defense) specific needs for envi- Forms, which are submitted annually to the state
ronmental regulations; consequently, the needs of and local authorities. Tier 1 information includes the
other agencies may not be completely satisfied by maximum amount of a hazardous chemical that may
this system.Augmentations to the system include regula- be present at any time during the reporting year, and
tions of concern to the U.S. Environmental Protection the average daily amount present during the year
Agency (EPA). prior to the reporting year. Also included is the
LEXIS is a full-text system from Mead Data “general location of hazardous chemicals in each cat-
Central. It is a database with a family of files that egory.” This information is available to the general
contain the full text of the following: public upon request. Tier II information is reported
only if requested by an emergency entity or fire
1. United States Code—a codification by major title of department. This information provides a more
the body of U.S. statutes detailed description of the chemicals, the average
2. Code of Federal Regulations—a codification by amounts handled, the precise location, storage pro-
major title of current effective administrative agency cedures, and whether the information is to be made
regulations available to the general public (allowing for the pro-
3. Federal Register—July 1980 to present tection of confidential information).
4. Supreme Court decisions since 1960 3. Toxic chemical release reporting, which releases
5. State court decisions—courts of last resort, inter- general information about effluents and emissions of
mediary courts, lower courts any “toxic chemicals.”
FEDERAL REGULATIONS In the event a release of a hazardous substance
does occur, a facility owner or operator must notify
SUPERFUND AMENDMENTS AND the authorities. This notification must identify the
REAUTHORIZATION ACT (SARA) hazardous chemical involved; amounts released;
(42 U.S.C. 11001 ET SEQ.)
time, duration, environmental fate; and suggested
Basic Objective This act revises and extends action.
CERCLA (Superfund authorization). CERCLA is A multilayer emergency planning and response
extended by the addition of new authorities known network on the state and local government levels is to
as the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to- be established (also providing a notification scheme for
Know Act of 1986 (also known as Title III of SARA). the event of a release).
Title III of SARA provides for “emergency planning
and preparedness, community right-to-know reporting, Enforcement Responsibilities: Federal–State Rela-
and toxic chemical release reporting.” tionship Local emergency planning committees or an
emergency response commission appointed by the gov-
Key Provisions There are key provisions which ernor of the state are responsible for the response
apply when a hazardous substance is handled and when scheme. The primary drafters of the local response plans
INTRODUCTION: LAWS AND REGULATIONS 3
are local committees, which are also responsible for ini- 4. The provision of the authority for the EPA to act
tiating the response procedure in the event of an emer- when there is a release or threat of release of a pol-
gency. Each state commission will supervise the local lutant from a site that may endanger public health.
activities. Such action may include “removal, remedy and
remedial action.”
Accomplishments and Impacts SARA legisla- 5. The revision of the National Contingency Plan for
tion, promoting emergency planning and providing the Removal of Oil and Hazardous Substances (40
citizen information at the local level, was a response to CFR, Part 300). This plan must include a section to
the Bhopal, India, disaster. A major intent is to reassure establish procedures and standards for responding to
U.S. citizens that a similar tragedy will not occur in this releases of hazardous substances, pollutants, and con-
country. The standardization of reporting and record taminants as well as abatement actions necessary to
keeping should produce long-term benefits and well- offset imminent dangers.
designed response plans. Whether a high-quality
emergency response involvement can be maintained Enforcement Responsibilities: Federal–State Re-
indefinitely at the local level remains a question. lationship The EPA has responsibility for enforce-
ment of the act as it pertains to the inventory, liability,
COMPREHENSIVE ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSE, and response provisions.The EPA is also responsible for
COMPENSATION, AND LIABILITY ACT
(42 U.S.C. 9601 ET SEQ.) claims against the Hazardous Substance Superfund,
which is administered by the President of the United
Basic Objective The act, known as CERCLA or States. The EPA is responsible for promulgating regula-
“Superfund,” has four objectives. These are: tions to designate hazardous substances, reportable
quantities, and procedures for response. The National
1. To provide the enforcement agency the authority to Response Center, established by the Clean Water Act,
respond to releases of hazardous wastes (as defined is responsible for notifying appropriate government
in the Clean Water Act, Clean Air Act, Toxic Sub- agencies of any release.
stances Control Act, Solid Waste Disposal Act, and The following Department of Transportation agen-
by the administrator of the enforcement agency) cies also have responsibilities under the act:
from “inactive” hazardous waste sites that endanger
public health and the environment 1. U.S. Coast Guard—responses to releases from
2. To establish a Hazardous Substance Superfund vessels
3. To establish regulations controlling inactive haz- 2. Federal Aviation Administration—responses to re-
ardous waste sites leases from aircraft
4. To provide liability for releases of hazardous wastes 3. Federal Highway Administration—responses to re-
from such inactive sites leases from motor carriers
The act amends the Solid Waste Disposal Act. It 4. Federal Railway Administration—responses to re-
provides for an inventory of inactive hazardous waste leases from rolling stock
sites and for the appropriate action to protect the public
from the dangers possible from such sites. It is a States are encouraged by the act to participate in re-
response to the concern for the dangers of negligent sponse actions. The act authorizes the EPA to enter into
hazardous waste disposal practices. contracts or cooperative agreements with states to take
response actions. The fund can be used to defray costs to
Key Provisions Key provisions of this act are: the states. The EPA must first approve an agreement
with the state, based on the commitment by the state to
1. The establishment of a Hazardous Substance Super- provide funding for remedial implementation. Before
fund based on fees from industry and federal appro- undertaking any remedial action as part of a response,
priations to finance response actions. the EPA must consult with the affected state(s).
2. The establishment of liability to recover costs of
response from liable parties, and to induce the Accomplishments and Impacts On July 16, 1982,
cleanup of sites by responsible persons. the EPA published the final regulations pursuant to
3. The determination of the number of inactive Section 105 of the act, revising the National Contin-
hazardous waste sites by conducting a national gency Plan for Oil and Hazardous Substances under
inventory. This inventory shall include coordination the Clean Water Act, reflecting new responsibilities and
by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease powers created by CERCLA. The plan establishes an
Registry within the Public Health Service for the effective response program. Because the act requires a
purpose of implementing the health-related authori- national inventory of inactive hazardous waste sites, the
ties in the act. intent is to identify potential danger areas and effect a
4 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
cleanup or remedial actions to avoid or mitigate public generated, ensuring that hazardous wastes are properly
health and environmental dangers. In studying a sam- contained and transported, and regulating the storage,
pling of these sites, the House Committee on Interstate disposal, or treatment of hazardous wastes.
and Foreign Commerce (House Report No. 961016) A major objective of the RCRA is to protect the
found four dangerous characteristics common to all the environment and conserve resources through the devel-
sites. These characteristics are: opment and implementation of solid-waste plans by
the states. The act recognizes the need to develop and
1. Large quantities of hazardous wastes demonstrate waste management practices that are not
2. Unsafe design of the sites and unsafe disposal only environmentally sound and economical but also
practices conserve resources. The act requires the EPA to under-
3. Substantial environmental danger from the wastes take a number of special studies on subjects such as
4. The potential for major health problems to people resource recovery from glass and plastic waste and man-
living and working in the area of the sites aging the disposal of sludge and tires. An Interagency
Resource Conservation Committee has been estab-
The intent of the act is to eliminate the above prob- lished to report to the president and the Congress on
lems by dealing with the vast quantities of hazardous the economic, social, and environmental consequences
and toxic wastes in unsafe disposal sites in the country. of present and alternative resource conservation and
The immediate impact of the act has been the identifi- resource recovery techniques.
cation of the worst sites where the environmental and
health dangers are imminent. This priority list will be Key Provisions Some of the significant elements
used to spend the money available in the Hazardous of the Act follow.
Waste Response Fund in the most effective way to elim- Hazardous wastes are identified by definition and
inate the imminent dangers.The long-term impact of the publication. Four classes or definitions of hazardous
act will be to eliminate and clean up all the identified waste have been identified: ignitability, reactivity, cor-
inactive sites and develop practices and procedures to rosivity, and toxicity. The chemicals that fall into these
prevent future hazards in such sites, whether active or classes are regulated primarily because of the danger-
inactive. Another accomplishment of the act is to estab- ous situations they can cause when landfilled with
lish liability for the cost of cleanup to discourage unsafe typical municipal refuse. Four lists, containing approxi-
design and disposal practices. The act has armed the mately 1000 distinct chemical compounds, have been
EPA with the authority to pursue an active program of published. (These lists are revised as new chemicals
cost recovery for cleanup from responsible parties. become available.) These lists include waste chemicals
from nonspecific sources, by-products of specific indus-
RESOURCE CONSERVATION AND RECOVERY trial processes, and pure or off-specification commercial
ACT (RCRA) (42 U.S.C. 6901 ET SEQ.)
chemical products. These classes of chemicals are regu-
Basic Objective RCRA, as it exists now, is the lated primarily to protect groundwater from contami-
culmination of a long series of pieces of legislation, nation by toxic products and by-products.
dating back to the passage of the Solid Waste Disposal The act requires tracking of hazardous wastes from
Act of 1965, which address the problem of waste dis- generation, to transportation, to storage, and to disposal
posal. It began with the attempt to control solid waste or treatment. Generators, transporters, and operators of
disposal and eventually evolved into an expression of facilities that dispose of solid wastes must comply
the national concern with the safe and proper disposal with a system of record keeping, labeling, and manu-
of hazardous waste. Establishing alternatives to existing facturing to ensure that all hazardous waste is desig-
methods of land disposal and the conversion of solid nated only for authorized treatment, storage, or disposal
wastes into energy are two important needs noted by facilities. The EPA must issue permits for these facili-
the act. ties, and the facilities must comply with standards issued
The RCRA of 1976 gives the EPA broad authority by the EPA.
to regulate the disposal of hazardous wastes; encourages The states must develop hazardous waste manage-
the development of solid waste management plans and ment plans and have them approved by the EPA. These
nonhazardous waste regulatory programs by states; pro- plans will regulate hazardous wastes in the states and
hibits open dumping of wastes; regulates underground will control the issuance of permits. If a state does not
storage tanks; and provides for a national research, develop such a plan, the EPA will develop one based on
development, and demonstration program for improved the federal program.
solid waste management and resource conservation Solid waste disposal sites are to be inventoried to
techniques. determine compliance with sanitary landfill regulations
The control of hazardous wastes will be undertaken issued by the EPA. Open dumps are to be closed or
by identifying and tracking hazardous wastes as they are upgraded within five years of the inventory.As with haz-
INTRODUCTION: LAWS AND REGULATIONS 5
ardous waste management, states must develop man- meets any one of the definitions must be handled as a
agement plans to control the disposal of solid waste and hazardous waste.
to regulate disposal sites. The EPA has issued guidelines Like other environmental legislation, RCRA
to assist states in developing their programs. enforcement responsibilities for hazardous waste man-
As of 1983, experience and a variety of studies agement will eventually be handled by each state, with
dating back to the initial passage of the RCRA legisla- federal approval. Each state must submit a program for
tion found that an estimated 40 million metric tons the control of hazardous waste. These programs must
of hazardous waste escaped control annually through be approved by the EPA before the state can accept
loopholes in the legislative and regulatory framework. enforcement responsibilities.
Subsequently, Congress was forced to reevaluate The state programs will pass through three phases
RCRA, and in doing so found that RCRA fell short of before final approval will be given. The first phase is the
its legislative intent by failing to regulate a significant interim phase, during which the federal program will be
number of small-quantity generators, regulate waste in effect. The states will begin submitting their programs
oil, ensure the environmentally sound operation of land for the control of hazardous wastes. The second-phase
disposal facilities, and realize the need to control the programs will address permitting procedures. A final
contamination of groundwater caused by leaking under- phase will provide federal guidance for design and oper-
ground storage tanks. ation of hazardous waste disposal facilities. Many states
Major amendments were enacted in 1984 in order have chosen to allow the federal programs to suffice as
to address the shortcomings of RCRA. Key provisions the state program to avoid the expense of designing and
of the 1984 amendments include: enforcing the program.
It should also be noted that the Department of
• Notification of underground tank data and regula- Transportation has enforcement responsibilities for the
tions for detection, prevention, and correction of transportation of hazardous wastes and for the manifest
releases system involved in transporting.
• Incorporation of small-quantity generators (which
generate between 100 and 1000 kg of hazardous waste Accomplishments and Impacts The 1980 regula-
per month) into the regulatory scheme tions for the control of hazardous wastes were a
response to the national concern over hazardous waste
• Restriction of land disposal of a variety of wastes disposal. States have begun to discover their own “Love
unless the EPA determines that land disposal is safe Canals,” and the impacts of unregulated disposal of haz-
from human health and environmental points of ardous wastes on their communities. While the Super-
views fund legislation provides funds for the cleanup of such
• Requirement of corrective action by treatment, sites, RCRA attempts to avoid future Love Canals.
storage, and disposal facilities for all releases of haz-
ardous waste regardless of when the waste was placed TOXIC SUBSTANCES CONTROL ACT (TSCA)
(15 U.S.C. 2601 ET SEQ.)
in the unit
• Requirement of the EPA to inspect government- Basic Objective This act sets up the toxic sub-
owned facilities (which handle hazardous waste) stances program which is administered by the EPA. If
annually, and other permitted hazardous waste facil- the EPA finds that a chemical substance may present an
ities at least every other year unreasonable risk to health or to the environment and
that there is insufficient data to predict the effects of the
• Regulation of facilities that burn wastes and oils in substance, manufacturers may be required to conduct
boilers and industrial furnaces tests to evaluate the characteristics of the substance,
such as persistence, acute toxicity, or carcinogenic
Enforcement Responsibilities: Federal–State Re- effects. Also, the act establishes a committee to develop
lationship Subtitle C of the Solid Waste Disposal a prioritized list of chemical substances to be tested. The
Act, as amended by the RCRA of 1976, directs the EPA committee may list up to fifty chemicals that must be
to promulgate regulations for the management of tested within one year. However, the EPA may require
hazardous wastes. testing for chemicals not on the priority list.
The hazardous waste regulations initially published Manufacturers must notify the EPA of the inten-
in May 1980 from the RCRA control the treatment, tion to manufacture a new chemical substance. The EPA
storage, transport, and disposal of waste chemicals that may then determine if adequate data are available to
may be hazardous if landfilled in the traditional way. assess the health and environmental effects of the new
These regulations (40 CFR 261265) identify hazardous chemical. If the data are determined to be inadequate,
chemicals in two ways, by listing and by definition. A the EPA will require testing. Most important, the EPA
chemical substance that appears on any of the lists or may prohibit the manufacture, sale, use, or disposal of a
6 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
new or existing chemical substance if it finds the chem- Enforcement Responsibilities: Federal–State Re-
ical presents an unreasonable risk to health or the envi- lationship The EPA has enforcement responsibilities
ronment. The EPA can also limit the amount of the for the act, but the act makes provisions for consulta-
chemical that can be manufactured and the amount and tions with other federal agencies involved in health and
manner in which the chemical can be used. environmental issues, such as OSHA and the Depart-
The act also regulates the labeling and disposal of ment of Health and Human Services. Initially, the states
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and prohibits their could receive EPA grants to aid them in establishing
production and distribution after July 1979. programs at the state level to prevent or eliminate
In 1986, Title II, “Asbestos Hazard Emergency unreasonable risks to health or the environment related
Response,” was added to address issues of inspection to chemical substances.
and removal of asbestos products in public schools and
to study the extent of (and response to) the public Accomplishments and Impacts TSCA has pro-
health danger posed by asbestos in public and com- vided a framework for ensuring that chemical manu-
mercial buildings. facturers take responsibility for testing the health and
environmental effects of chemical substances. Although
Key Provisions Testing is required on chemical it requires the manufacturer to establish the safety of a
substances meeting certain criteria to develop data with chemical, it still gives the EPA the final authority to
respect to the health and environmental effects for prohibit or severely restrict chemicals in commerce.
which there are insufficient data relevant to the deter- Thus, it is an attempt to prevent significant health and
mination that the chemical substance does or does not environmental problems that may surface later on. The
present an unreasonable risk of injury to health or the fact that when this legislation was initially passed, PCB
environment. effects were such an issue because of their widespread
Testing shall include identification of the chemical and uncontrolled use is reflective of public concerns
and standards for test data. Testing is required from the over the number of other possible chemicals commonly
following: used which could be carcinogenic. Public concern was
so visible that an immediate need was perceived to reg-
1. Manufacturers of a chemical meeting certain criteria ulate PCBs. Thus, PCBs are controlled and specifically
2. Processors of a chemical meeting certain criteria prohibited by TSCA rather than RCRA.
3. Distributors or persons involved in disposal of chem-
icals meeting certain criteria NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY ACT
(NEPA) (42 U.S.C. 4341 ET SEQ.)
Test data required by the act must be submitted to Enforcement Responsibilities: Federal–State Re-
the EPA. The data must identify the chemical, list the lationship The President’s Council on Environmental
uses or intended uses, and provide the information Quality (CEQ) has the main responsibility for oversee-
required by the applicable standards for the develop- ing federal efforts to comply with NEPA. In 1978, CEQ
ment of test data. issued regulations to comply with the procedural provi-
The EPA will establish a priority list of chemical sions of NEPA. Other provisions of NEPA apply to
substances for regulation. Priority is given to substances major federal actions significantly affecting the quality
known to cause or contribute to cancer, gene mutations, of the human environment.
or birth defects. The list is revised and updated as
needed. Accomplishments and Impacts The enactment
A new chemical may not be manufactured without of this act has added a new dimension to the planning
notifying the EPA at least ninety days before manufac- and decision-making process of federal agencies in the
turing begins. The notification must include test data United States.This act requires federal agencies to assess
showing that the manufacture, processing, use, and dis- the environmental impact of implementing their major
posal of the chemical will not present an unreasonable programs and actions early in the planning process. For
risk of injury to health or the environment. Chemical those projects or actions that are either expected to have
manufacturers must keep records for submission to the a significant effect on the quality of the human environ-
EPA as required. The EPA will use these reports to ment or are expected to be controversial on environ-
compile an inventory of chemical substances manufac- mental grounds, the proponent agency is required to file
tured or processed in the United States. a formal environmental impact statement (EIS). Other
The act also regulates the disposal and use of and accomplishments and impacts of the act are:
prohibits the future manufacture of PCBs, and requires
the EPA to engage, through various means, in research, • It has provided a systematic means of dealing with
development, collection, dissemination, and utilization environmental concerns and including environmental
of data relevant to chemical substances. costs in the decision-making process.
INTRODUCTION: LAWS AND REGULATIONS 7
• It has opened governmental activities and projects to FEDERAL AND STATE REGULATORY AGENCIES
public scrutiny and public participation.
The following federal agencies and their parallel state
• Some projects have been delayed because of the time agencies can be contacted for the latest regulations,
required to comply with the NEPA requirements. training materials, and technical updates:
• Many projects have been modified or abandoned to
balance environmental costs with other benefits. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
• It has served to accomplish the four purposes of the (NIOSH)—Centers for Disease Control and
act as stated in its text. Prevention
4676 Columbia Parkway
Cincinnati, OH 45226
FEDERAL INSECTICIDE, FUNGICIDE, AND
RODENTICIDE ACT (FIFRA) (7 U.S.C. 136 ET SEQ.) Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA)
Basic Objective FIFRA is designed to regulate 200 Constitution Avenue, NW
the use and safety of pesticide products within the Washington, DC 20210
United States. The 1972 amendments are intended to
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
ensure that the environmental harm resulting from the
401 M Street, SW
use of pesticides does not outweigh the benefits.
Washington, DC 20460
Key Provisions Key provisions of FIFRA include: Federal Emergency Management Administration
(FEMA)
• The evaluation of risks posed by pesticides (requir- 500 C Street, SW
ing registration with the EPA) Washington, DC 20472
• The classification and certification of pesticides by U.S. Coast Guard (USCG)—Department of Trans-
specific use (as a way to control exposure) portation
2100 Second Street, SW
• The restriction, suspension, or cancellation of the use
Washington, DC 20593
of pesticides that are harmful to the environment
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
• The enforcement of the above requirements through
1600 Clifton Road, NE
inspections, labeling, notices, and state regulation
Atlanta, GA 30333
Enforcement Responsibilities: Federal–State Re- Although this handbook was designed to assist
lationship The EPA is allowed to establish regula- supervisors at abandoned or uncontrolled hazardous
tions concerning registration, inspections, fines, and waste sites, the information can be used in planning for
criminal penalties, and to stop the sale of pesticides. and responding to emergencies involving hazardous
Primary enforcement responsibility, however, has been materials.
assumed by almost every state. Federal law specifies A short bibliography is provided at the end of
only that each state must have adequate laws and each chapter to provide additional sources of technical
enforcement procedures to assume primary authority. information.
As in the case for almost any federal law, FIFRA
preempts state law to the extent that it addresses the
BIBLIOGRAPHY
pesticide problem. Thus, a state cannot adopt a law or
regulation that counters a provision of FIFRA, but it “Accreditation of Training Programs for Hazardous
can adopt laws which are more stringent. Waste Operations: Notice of Public Hearings.”
Federal Register 55 (210): 45616–8, 1990.
Accomplishments and Impacts Although the American Conference of Governmental Industrial
volume of pesticides and related information is enor- Hygienists (ACGIH). Threshold Limit Values for
mous, FIFRA has enabled the EPA to acquire additional Chemical Substances and Physical Agents and
information for analysis of risk and environmental Biological Exposure Indices. Cincinnati, Ohio:
degradation resulting from the use of pesticides. This ACGIH, 1988.
information has been, and will continue to be, generally ——. Guidelines for the Selection of Chemical Protective
invaluable in such analyses. However, Congress contin- Clothing. Cincinnati: ACGIH, 1983.
ues to struggle with the balancing of benefits and detri- Andrews, L.P. Worker Protection During Hazardous
ments of the use of pesticides in its attempt to deal Waste Remediation. Center for Labor Education
with the economic, scientific, and environmental issues and Research. New York: Van Nostrand, Reinhold,
involved in the regulation of pesticides. 1990.
8 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
Blackman, W.C. Jr. Basic Hazardous Waste Manage- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
ment. 2nd ed. New York: Louis Publishers, 1996. (NIOSH). Occupational Safety and Health Guid-
Bretherick, L. Handbook of Reactive Chemical ance Manual for Hazardous Waste Site Activities.
Hazards. 3rd ed. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
1985. Publication No. 85115. Washington, DC: GPO,
Cheremisinoff, P.N. Hazardous Materials: Emergency October, 1985.
Response Pocket Handbook. Lancaster, PA: Tech- ——. Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. Washington,
nomic, 1988. DC: National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Corbitt, R.A. Standard Handbook of Environmental Health, 1997.
Engineering. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1989. ——. Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances.
Dyjack, D.T., S.P. Levine, et al. “Comparison of AIHA Cincinnati: NIOSH, 1990.
ISO 9001 . . . ” AIHA Journal 59:419–29, June, —— /OSHA/USGG/EPA. Occupational Safety &
1989. Health Guidance Manual for Hazardous Waste
EPA. Standard Operating Guides. U.S. EPA (OERR), Site Activities. Document DHHS (NIOSH) 85–115,
OSWER Directive 9285.1–02, Washington, DC, 1985.
1988. Occupational Safety and Health Administration
——. (1989). Worker Protection Standards for Haz- (OSHA). 29 CFR 1910.120, Vol. 54 (42), March 6,
ardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response: 1989.
Final Rule. 40 CFR 311 54(120):26653–8 (July 23). Scannell, G.F. Inspection Guidelines for Post-Emergency
Government Institutes, Inc. Hazardous Material Spills Response Operations Under 29 CFR 1910.120. U.S.
—Conference Proceedings. Rockville, MD: Gov- DOL (OSHA) Directorate of Compliance Pro-
ernment Institutes, Inc., yearly. grams. CPL 2–2.51, 1990.
——. Management of Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sullivan, T.F.P. Directory of Environmental Information
Sites—Conference Proceedings. Rockville, MD: Sources. 3rd ed. Rockville, MD: Government Insti-
Government Institutes, Inc., annually. tutes, Inc., 1990.
Inhaber, H. Slaying the NIMBY Dragon. New The Merck Index. 11th ed. Rahway, NJ: Merck &
Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1998. Company, 1989.
Lave, L.B., and A.C. Upton. Toxic Chemicals, Health and U.S. Department of Transportation (DoT). Hazardous
the Environment. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Materials Emergency Response Guide Book. DoT
Press, 1987. Publication No. 5800.5. Washington, DC: DoT,
Lindgren, G.F. Guide to Managing Industrial Hazardous 1990.
Waste. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1983. Wagner, Travis P. The Complete Guide to Hazardous
Martin, W.F., and M. Gochfeld. Introduction and Federal Waste Regulation. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley
Programs. Chapter 1 of Protecting Personnel and Sons, 1999.
at Hazardous Waste Sites. 3rd ed. Boston: Waxman, M.F. Hazardous Waste Site Operations. New
Butterworth-Heineman, 2000. York: John Wiley and Sons, 1996.
2
HAZARDS
azardous waste sites pose a multi- • cold exposure
H tude of health and safety risks, any
one of which could result in serious
injury or death (see Table 2.1). These
hazards are due to the physical and chemical
nature of the site as well as the work being per-
• noise
Interaction among the substances may
produce additional compounds not originally
deposited at the site. Workers are subject to
formed. They include the following: dangers posed by the disorderly physical envi-
ronment of uncontrolled sites. The stress of
• chemical exposure working in protective clothing adds its own risk.
Selection of protective equipment often is overly
• fire and explosion
conservative due to many unknowns (see
• oxygen deficiency Chapter 6, Personal Protective Equipment).
In approaching a site, it is prudent to as-
• ionizing radiation sume that all these hazards are present until site
• biologic (etiologic) hazards characterization has shown otherwise. A site
health and safety plan must provide protection
• physical safety hazards against the potential hazards and specific protec-
• electrical hazards tion against individual known hazards. The safety
plan must be continuously updated with new
• heat stress information and changing site conditions.
CHEMICAL EXPOSURE • Contact with groundwater and surface waters that
have been contaminated by direct contact with
Preventing exposure to toxic chemicals is a primary
wastes and/or contaminated media
concern at hazardous waste sites. Most sites contain
a variety of chemical substances in gaseous, liquid, or • Contact with chemical contaminants released, often
solid form. These substances can enter the unprotected under pressure, from unplanned chemical reactions
body by inhalation, direct skin contact, ingestion, or caused by mixing incompatible chemical in the wastes
through a puncture wound (injection). A contaminant and contaminated media being cleaned up
can cause damage at the point of contact or act sys-
• Contact with previously unknown wastes when
temically by causing a toxic effect at other points in
containers are opened or ruptured during handling
the body.
and/or uncovered during excavation and movement
Workers on hazardous waste sites can be exposed
of bulk wastes and soils
to chemicals in a variety of ways, including:
• Contact with wastes released or media contaminated
• Direct contact with wastes during sampling, loading by spills, failure of containment, fires, explosions and
and over-packing of containers, and handling of bulk other emergency situations
wastes and waste containers
Preventing worker exposures is the primary objective
• Cross-contamination of food, tobacco products, ma- of site controls, safe work practices, and use of per-
terials, and equipment caused by inappropriate prac-
sonal protection equipment and clothing (see Chapter
tices (smoking or eating in contaminated areas)
7, Site Controls, and Chapter 6, Personal Protective
and/or inadequate decontamination of personnel and
Equipment).
equipment upon exit from contamination areas
Chemical exposures are generally divided into two
• Entry into low-lying areas and confined spaces where categories: acute and chronic. Symptoms resulting from
air contaminants accumulate from waste containers acute exposures usually occur during or shortly after
and areas and piles containing bulk wastes exposure to a sufficiently high concentration of a
9
TABLE 2.1 Overview of Typical Hazards Encountered at Hazardous Waste Sites
Hazard Exposure Route Symptom or Measurement or Personal Additional
Type or Cause Effect Measuring Device Prevention Protection Comments
Chemical Inhalation, eye/skin Headaches, nausea, TLV, PEL, IDLH, LD50, Follow SOP and Protective clothing. Remove person
exposure contact, ingestion, rashes, burning, etc. Devices: OVA, safety procedures; Respiratory immediately and
puncture. coughing, cancer, HNU, air sampling, use extra caution protection. decontaminate if
liver damage, detection tubes, when working in hot exposed to a
kidney damage personal monitoring, zones. Use remote chemical.
convulsions, coma, field GC control devices
death whenever possible.
Ionizing Molecular degradation Radiation burns, Radiation detection Do radiation survey Protective clothing Consult health
radiation releases gamma, beta, mutagenicity, meters, Geiger-Müller early investigation. and dust masks physicist if
and alpha radiation: death detector, gamma Gamma is detectable will protect against measurements are
gamma is most scintillation meter through thin metal alpha and help above 10 mR/hr. At
serious; alpha is (e.g., drums) so limit beta. Only 1 mR/hr, back off and
most hazardous in survey can be done limited protection map the 1 mR/hr
case of ingestion. without disturbing against gamma is area.
chemical wastes. available.
Fire and Unstable chemicals; Burns, concussion, Flash point: Ventilate to prevent Nomex. Always test
explosion incompatible shock, dismem- 25% LEL—Withdraw safe instruments. of toxic vapors and
low-lying areas with and reevaluate fumes may result in
sparks, open flames, situation; will not read chemical exposures.
or static electricity. accurately in oxygen-
deficient environment.
>10% LEL—Stop all
spark-producing
operation.
Oxygen In enclosed spaces Inattention, impaired 21% O2 is normal. Monitor enclosed SCBAs supply air. When O2 is below
deficiency (e.g., buildings, tanks, judgment, reduced 25.0% Fire hazard potential; discontinue inspection and consult fire
department or other fire specialist.
Radiation Radiation >1 mR/hr Radiation above background levels (normal background—
survey 0.02 mR/hr) signifies the possible presence of radiation
instruments sources. Continue investigation. Perform thorough
monitoring. Consult with a health physicist.
>10 mR/hr Potential radiation hazard; evacuate site.
Continue monitoring only upon advice of a health physicist.
Inorganic Colorimetric Depends on Consult standard reference manuals for air concentration/
and organic tubes species toxicity data. Action level dependent on TLV/PEL.
gases and
vapors
HNU Depends on Consult standard reference manuals for air concentration/
photoionizer species toxicity data. Action level dependent on TLV/PEL.
Organic Organic vapor Depends on Consult standard reference manuals for air concentration/
gases and analyzer species toxicity data.
vapors 1. Operated in Action level dependent on TLV/PEL.
GC mode
2. Operated in
survey mode
LEL = lower explosive limit; SCBA = self-contained breathing apparatus; PEL = permissible exposure limit; GC =
gas chromatography; TLV = threshold limit value.
• Note the presence of any natural dermatitis agents: soil (surface and subsurface)
poison ivy surface water
poison oak storage containers
poison sumac streams and ponds (water and sediment)
• Note any identification tags, labels, markings, or other groundwater (upgradient, beneath site, down-
indicators of material. gradient)
• Take samples of the following items: • Sample for or identify the following:
air (see Chapter 5, Air Monitoring) biological or pathological hazards
drainage ditches (water and sediment) disease-carrying animals or insects
SITE CHARACTERIZATION 31
• If necessary, use one or more of the following remote Field personnel should record all activities and
sensing or subsurface investigative methods to locate observations while on-site in a field logbook, a bound
buried wastes or contaminant plumes: book with consecutively numbered pages. Entries
electromagnetic conductivity should be made during or just after completing a task
magnetometry to ensure thoroughness and accuracy. The following
metal detection should be recorded during sampling:
ground-penetrating radar
• date and time of entry
INFORMATION DOCUMENTATION • purpose of sampling
Accurate, current, and readily accessible information • name, address and affiliation of personnel performing
about site conditions and activities is essential for sampling
assessing hazards, reviewing plans, and making de- • name and address of the material’s producer, if
cisions in an emergency situation. However, action known
may be required before all the highly desirable infor-
mation is available. Thus, any plan for action should • type of material (e.g., sludge or wastewater)
provide for the continuous input of information. • description of material container
Documentation may become crucial in the event • description of sample
of any litigation. If litigation is likely, develop a
• chemical components and concentrations, if known
document-tracking plan with the assistance of qualified
attorneys. • number and size of samples taken
Record all information pertinent to field activities, • description and location of sampling point
sample analysis, and site conditions in one of several
• date and time of sample collection
forms:
• difficulties experienced in obtaining sample
• logbooks • visual references such as maps or photographs of
• field data records sampling site
• graphs • field observations (including weather and site
conditions)
• photographs
• field measurements of the materials (e.g., explosive-
• sample labels ness, flammability, and pH)
• chain-of-custody forms • whether chain-of-custody forms have been filled out
• analytical records for the samples
• whether chain-of-custody seals have been used
These documents must be controlled to ensure that
they are all accounted for when the project is com- Sometimes, because of the team structure, number
pleted. Assign the task of document control to one indi- of individuals involved, or need for a specific type of
vidual on the project team and specify the following paper, notes might be made on separate sheets. When
responsibilities: that is necessary, the field notes, data records, graphs,
and other records must be initialed, listed in the
• Number each document (including sample labels) logbook, and stapled into it.
with a serial number. Photographs can be an accurate, objective addition
• List each document in a document inventory. to a fieldworkers’s written observations. For each pho-
tograph taken, record the following in the field logbook:
• Record the whereabouts of each document in a
separate document register so that it can be readily • date, time, and name of site
located. In particular, record the name and location
• name and signature of photographer
of site personnel who have documents in their
possession. • location of subject within the site
• Collect all documents at the end of each work • general compass direction of the photograph’s
period. orientation
• Make sure that all document entries are made in • general description of subject
waterproof ink. • sequential number of the photograph and film roll
• File all documents in a central file at the completion number
of the site response. • camera and lens type used
32 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
Assign serially numbered sample labels or tags to In addition to supporting litigation, written records
sampling team personnel and record them in the field of sample collection, transfer, storage, analysis, and
logbook. Note lost, voided, or damaged labels in the destruction help ensure the proper interpretation of
logbook. Firmly affix the labels to the sample contain- analytical test results. Record information describing
ers using either gummed labels or tags attached by the chain of custody on a form that accompanies the
string or wire. Record on the tag, in waterproof ink, sample from collection to destruction. See Figure 4.1 for
information such as the following: a sample chain-of-custody record.
• sample log number HAZARD ASSESSMENT
• date and time sample collected Once the presence and concentration of a specific chem-
• preservative used ical or class of chemicals have been established, the
health hazards associated with that chemical or class
• analysis required
must be determined. This is done by referring to stan-
• name of collector dard data reference sources and, sometimes, original
• pertinent field data toxicological studies. For many of the more commonly
Hazardous Materials Laboratory Collector’s Sample No.
CHAIN-OF-CUSTODY RECORD
Hazardous Materials
Location of Sampling: Producer Hauler Disposal Site
Other:
Company’s Name Telephone (–––––)
Address
number street city state zip
Collector’s Name Telephone (–––––)
signature
Data Sampled Time Sampled hours
Type of Process Producing Waste
Waste Type Code Other
Field Information
Sample Allocation:
1.
name of organization
2.
name of organization
3.
name of organization
Chain of Possession
1.
signature title inclusive dates
2.
signature title inclusive dates
3.
signature title inclusive dates
Figure 4.1. Example of chain-of-custody record
TABLE 4.3 Guidelines for Assessing Chemical and Physical Hazards
Sources for
Hazard Guideline Explanation Values
Chemical
Airborne TLV-TWA The time-weighted average concentration for a normal ACGIH
concentration 8-hour workday and 40-hour workweek to which nearly all
workers may be repeatedly exposed without adverse
effects; should be used as an exposure guide rather than an
absolute threshold
TLV-STEL A 15-minute time-weighted average exposure that should ACGIH
not be exceeded during any 15-minute period
TLV-C The concentration that should not be exceeded even ACGIH/OSHA
instantaneously
PEL Time-weighted averages and ceiling concentrations similar 29CFR 1910.1000
to (in many cases derived from) the ACGIH TELs (OSHA
enforceable)
IDLH The maximum level from which a worker could escape NIOSH/OSHA
within 30 minutes without any escape-impairing symptoms
or any irreversible health effects
REL 9- or 10-hour time-weighted average NIOSH
Dermal Permissible Concentrations of airborne chemicals that represent EPA
contact concentration acceptable levels of dermal exposure over an 8-hour
workday; not to be used for assessing respiratory hazards
Dermal Skin-S Indicates that a substance may be readily absorbed through ACGIH/OSHA
absorption or damage the skin; provides no threshold for safe expo-
through sure; direct contact with a substance designated “skin”
airborne or should be avoided
direct contact
Dusts TLV Same as TLV-TWA, TLV-STEL, and TLV-C above ACGIH
Carcinogens TLV, CA Some human carcinogens have an assigned TLV; for others, ACGIH/NIOSH
no contact is recommended by the ACGIH
Noise Permissible Threshold levels for acceptable noise exposure 29 CFR 1910.95
noise
exposure
Ionizing TLV Sound pressure levels and durations of exposure that ACGIH
radiation represent conditions to which nearly all workers may be
repeatedly exposed without adverse effects on their ability
to hear and understand normal speech
Explosion LEL The minimum concentration of vapor in air below which NFPA
propagation of a flame will not occur in the presence of an
ignition source
Fire Flash point The lowest temperature at which the vapor of a com- NFPA
bustible liquid can be made to ignite momentarily in air
TLV = threshold limit value; TWA = time-weighted average; STEL = short-term exposure limit; TLV-C = threshold
limit value—ceiling; PEL = permissible exposure limit; IDLH = immediately dangerous to life or health; REL = recom-
mended exposure limit; CA = potential carcinogen; LEL = lower explosive limit.
34 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
encountered chemicals, several government agencies Monitoring also includes continual evaluation of
have specified acceptable exposure limits. The agencies any changes in site conditions or work activities that
and their exposure limit terminology are as follows: could affect worker safety. When a significant change
occurs, reassess the hazards. Following are some indica-
• Occupational Safety and Health Administration tors of the need for reassessment:
(OSHA)—permissible exposure limit (PEL)
• commencement of a new work phase, such as the start
• National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health
of drum sampling
(NIOSH)—recommended exposure limit (REL)
• change in job tasks during a work phase
• American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists (ACGIH)—threshold limit value (TLV) • change of season
• drastic change in weather
OSHA also considers RELs and TLVs as PELs, but in • change in ambient levels of contaminants
this case PEL stands for published exposure limit. Table
4.3 provides guidelines for assessing chemical and phys-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ical hazards.
American Conference of Governmental Industrial
HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE DATA SHEET Hygienists (SCGIH). Threshold Limit Values for
Chemical Substances and Physical Agents. Cincin-
The information on the chemical, physical, and toxico-
nati: ACGIH.
logical properties of each compound known or expected
Bishop, E. “Air Monitoring at Hazardous Waste Sites.”
to occur on-site should be recorded on a hazardous sub-
In Protecting Personnel at Hazardous Waste Sites.
stance data sheet (see Appendix G). Response person-
3rd ed. W.F. Martin and M. Gochfeld, eds. Boston:
nel will then have the necessary health and safety
Butterworth–Heinemann, 2000.
information in one place, and new personnel can be
California Department of Health Services. Samplers
quickly briefed. Use as many reference sources as pos-
and Sampling Procedures for Hazardous Waste
sible to fill out the sheets, as information on the same
Streams. Publication No. 80-135353. California
property of a compound may vary from one source to
Department of Health Services, January 1980.
another.
Centers for Disease Control (CDC). A System for Pre-
Using the data gathered off-site and on-site, deter-
vention, Assessment, and Control of Exposures and
mine whether the site is or can be made safe for the
Health Effects from Hazardous Waste Sites (SPACE
entry of cleanup personnel or whether additional infor-
for Health). Atlanta: CDC, January, 1984.
mation is needed to define the necessary protective
Cole, L. “Radiation Safety.” Chapter 14 in Protecting
measures. Conduct further site surveys as necessary.
Personnel at Hazardous Waste Site. 3rd ed.
W.F. Martin and M. Gochfeld, eds. Boston:
MONITORING
Butterworth–Heinemann, 2000.
Because site activities and weather conditions change, a National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
continuous monitoring program must be implemented (NIOSH) and Occupational Safety and Health
after characterization has determined that the site is Administration (OSHA). Pocket Guide to Chemi-
safe for the commencement of other operations. cal Hazards. U.S. Department of Health and
Perform ongoing monitoring of atmospheric and Human Services (DHHS) Publication No.90-117.
chemical hazards using a combination of stationary Washington, D.C.: DHHS, June, 1990.
sampling equipment, personnel monitoring devices, and Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Air
periodic area monitoring with direct-reading instru- Contaminants—Permissible Exposure Limits. 19
ments (see Chapter 5, Air Monitoring). Use data CFR 1910.1000 Washington, DC: U.S. Department
obtained during off-site and on-site surveys to develop of Labor, 1989.
a plan that details the procedures to be used for moni- Pastorick, J.P. “Ordnance, Explosive Waste and Unex-
toring ambient conditions during cleanup operations. ploded Ordnance.” Chapter 15 in Protecting Per-
Where possible, monitor routes of exposure other than sonnel at Hazardous Waste Site. 3rd ed. W.F. Martin
inhalation. For example, skin swipe tests or personal and M. Gochfeld, eds. Boston: Butterworth–
monitoring with a passive dosimeter may be used to Heinemann, 2000.
determine the effectiveness of personal protective Webb, P.J. “Information Gathering, Databases and Site
clothing (PPC). Depending on the physical properties Characterization.” Chapter 2 in Protecting Per-
and toxicity of the on-site materials, community expo- sonnel at Hazardous Waste Site. 3rd ed. W.F. Martin
sure resulting from remedial action operations may and M. Gochfeld, eds. Boston: Butterworth–
need to be assessed. Heinemann, 2000.
5
AIR MONITORING
irborne contaminants can present a If the identification of the major airborne conta-
A significant threat to worker health and
safety. Thus, identification and quan-
tification of these contaminants
through air monitoring are essential components
of a health and safety program at a hazardous
minants is incomplete, any assessment of the
health and safety conditions at the site will be
incomplete.
This chapter identifies the factors to con-
sider when conducting air monitoring at a haz-
waste site. Reliable measurements of airborne ardous waste site by (1) presenting strategies for
contaminants are necessary to: assessing inhalation exposure to chemicals at
hazardous waste sites and (2) describing instru-
• determine the level of PPE required ments and methods for measuring exposures.
• define the areas where protection is needed The information presented here stems from
several studies conducted by the EPA and
• assess the potential health hazards of NIOSH and is derived from experience gained
exposure from Superfund operations at operational haz-
• determine whether continual exposure is ardous waste treatment facilities, hazardous
occurring, which may indicate the need for waste sites, emergency response sites, and
medical monitoring landfills.
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS instruments provide information in real time, enabling
immediate decision making.
The purpose of air monitoring is to identify and quan-
Direct-reading instruments may be used to detect
tify all airborne contaminants so that you can determine
IDLH conditions or to demonstrate the presence of spe-
the level of worker protection needed. Identification
cific chemicals or classes of chemicals. They are the
is often a qualitative event, that is, the contaminant or
primary tools of initial site characterization. The infor-
the class to which it belongs is demonstrated to be
mation provided by direct-reading instruments can be
present, but the determination of its concentration
used to institute appropriate protective measures (i.e.,
(quantification) must wait on subsequent testing. Two
PPE), to determine the most appropriate equipment for
principal approaches toward identification and quan-
further monitoring, and to develop optimum sampling
tification of airborne contaminants are available, both
and analytical protocols.
derived from NIOSH and industrial hygiene standards:
All direct-reading instruments have inherent con-
(1) the on-site use of direct-reading air survey instru-
straints in their ability to detect hazards:
ments and (2) laboratory analyses of air samples.
These methods are meant to identify the air contami-
nants which are present and to assist in determining • The measurements are relative to specific chemicals.
the level of protection needed for site entry. They are • Generally, the instruments are not designed to
not a substitute for industrial hygiene sampling during measure and/or detect low (minute) airborne
site entry. concentrations.
• Many of the direct-reading instruments that have
DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS
been designed to detect one particular substance also
Direct-reading instruments were developed as early detect other substances (cross-sensitivity), so they can
warning devices for use in industrial settings where a give false readings.
leak or an accident could release a high concentration
of a known chemical into the ambient atmosphere. Gen- For all these reasons, it is imperative that the instru-
erally, they detect and/or measure high exposure levels ments be operated and their data interpreted by quali-
that are likely to cause acute reactions. Unlike conven- fied individuals who are thoroughly familiar with the
tional instruments, which take samples that must be particular device’s operating principles and limitations
subsequently analyzed in a laboratory, direct-reading and who have obtained the device’s latest operating
35
36 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
instructions and calibration curves. At hazardous waste to measure the minute quantities of contaminants
sites, where unknown and multiple contaminants are the that, over years of accumulative exposure, may induce
rule rather than the exception, the readings of these chronic health changes. To detect relatively low-level
instruments should be interpreted conservatively. The concentrations of contaminants, long-term personal air
following guidelines may facilitate accurate recording samples, also called full-shift samples, must be analyzed
and interpretation: in a laboratory.These samples are usually collected after
preliminary monitoring with direct-reading instruments
• Develop response curves for pollutants not desig- indicates that no IDLH conditions are present. Full-
nated on the instrument. shift air samples may be collected passively or by means
• Remember that the instrument’s readings have of a pump that draws air through a filter or sorbent.
no value where contaminants are unknown. When Table 5.3 lists some sampling and analytical techniques
recording readings of unknown contaminants, report used by NIOSH at hazardous waste sites.
them as needle deflection or positive instrument When the concentration of contaminants is being
response rather than specific concentrations (i.e., parts determined, the correct measurement apparatus de-
per million, or ppm). Conduct additional monitoring pends on the physical state of the contaminants. For
at any location where a positive response occurs. example, chemical hazards such as polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs) and polynuclear aromatic hydrocar-
• Report a reading of zero as “no instrument response” bons (PNAs) occur as both vapors and particulate-
rather than “clean” because there may be quantities bound contaminants. A dual-media system is needed to
of chemicals present that are not detectable by the measure both forms of these substances. The volatile
instrument. component is collected on a solid adsorbent and the
• Repeat the survey with several detection systems to nonvolatile component is collected on a filter. More
maximize the number of chemicals detected. than two dozen dual-media sampling techniques have
been developed by NIOSH.
Tables 5.1 and 5.2 list several direct-reading instru- A major disadvantage of long-term air monitoring
ments and the conditions and/or substances they is the time required to obtain data.The time lag between
measure. The flame ionization detector (FID) and the sampling and obtaining the analysis results may be a
photoionization detector (PID) (see Table 5.1) are com- matter of hours if an on-site laboratory is available or
monly used at hazardous waste sites. However, these days, weeks, or even months if a remote laboratory is
ionization devices do not detect two particularly toxic involved. This can be a significant problem if the situa-
agents: (1) particulate cyanides (or any particulates) and tion requires immediate decisions concerning worker
(2) hydrogen sulfide and other inorganic gases that have safety. Also, by the time samples are returned from a
no achievable ionization potentials. Thus, the use of ion- remote laboratory, the waste site cleanup may have pro-
ization devices and laboratory analysis must be supple- gressed to a different stage or to a location where dif-
mented with detector tubes for these agents. ferent contaminants or different concentrations may
Using a range of colorimetric detector tubes, exist. Careful planning and/or the use of an on-site lab-
one can distinguish between the following classes of oratory may alleviate these problems.
contaminants: Based on this concept, NIOSH has developed a
mobile operational laboratory for use at hazardous
• acid-reacting substances waste sites. Several cleanup contractors also have
• alcohols mobile laboratories available for lease, hire, or contract
arrangement. The mobile laboratory is generally a
• amines or reactive nitrogen materials trailer that houses analytical instruments capable of
• aromatic hydrocarbons classifying contaminants in nearly real time by a variety
• halogenated hydrocarbons of techniques. Typical instruments include gas chro-
matographs, ion chromatographs, and X-ray fluores-
• ketones cence spectrometers. When not in use in the mobile
laboratory, these devices can be relocated to fixed-base
Results are valuable as a rapid, qualitative indicator of facilities.
contaminant classes but cannot provide quantitative Usually only a few of the field samples collected are
pollutant levels without identification of specific com- analyzed on-site to provide rapid estimates of the con-
pounds present. centration of airborne contaminants. These data can be
used to determine the initial level of worker personal
LABORATORY ANALYSIS
protection, to modify field-sampling procedures, and to
Direct-reading personal monitors are available for only guide the fixed-base laboratory analysis. If necessary,
a few specific substances and are rarely sensitive enough samples screened in the mobile laboratory can be
TABLE 5.1 Direct-Reading Instruments for General Survey
Hazard Detection Ease of Care and Operating
Example Monitored Application Method Limitations Operations Maintenance Time
Combustible gas MSA 260 Combustible Measures the A filament, Accuracy is in part, Effective use Recharge or
indicator (CGI) (O2/LEL gases and concentration of a usually made of dependent on the requires that replace
meter) vapors combustible gas or platinum, is difference between the the operator battery.
vapor. heated by the calibration and sampling understand
burning of the temperatures. the operating Calibrate
combustible gas principles and immediately
or vapor. Sensitivity is a function procedures. before use.
of the difference in the
chemical and physical
properties between the
calibration gas and the
unknown.
The filament can be
damaged by certain
compounds, such as
silicones, halides, and
tetraethyl lead.
Oxygen-deficient
atmospheres can affect
accuracy.
Flame ionization Organic Many In survey mode, Gases and vapors Does not detect Requires Recharge or 8 hours;
detector (FID) vapor organic detects the total are ionized in a inorganic gases and experience to replace 3 hours
analyzer gases and concentrations of flame. A current vapors or some interpret data battery. with strip
(Century vapors many organic gases is produced in synthetics. correctly, chart
Systems and vapors; in gas proportion to the especially in Monitor fuel recorder.
OVA or chromatography number of carbon Sensitivity is dependent GC mode. and/or
equivalent) (GC) mode, atoms present. on the compound. combustion
identifies and air supply
Should not be used at gauges.
measures specific temperature less than
compounds. 40°F. Perform
In survey mode, routine
Difficult to identify maintenance
all the organic compounds absolutely. as described
compounds are
ionized and detected in the
High concentrations of
at the same time; in manual.
contaminants or oxygen-
GC mode, volatile deficient atmospheres Check for
species are require system leaks.
separated. modification.
Reduced reliability in
high humidity due to
incomplete combustion.
(continued)
TABLE 5.1 (Continued)
Hazard Detection Ease of Care and Operating
Example Monitored Application Method Limitations Operations Maintenance Time
Ultraviolet (UV) HNU or Many Detects total Molecules are Does not detect Effective use Recharge or 10 hours;
photoionization equivalent organic concentrations of ionized using UV methane. requires that replace the 15 hours
detector (PID) and some may organic and radiation, and a the operator battery. with strip
inorganic some inorganic current is pro- Does not detect a understand chat
gases gases and vapors; duced that is compound if the probe the operating Regularly recorder.
and vapors some identification directly propor- used has a lower energy principles and clean lamp
of compounds is tional to the than the compound’s procedures and window.
possible if more number of ionization potential. be competent in
than one probe is ions. Response may change calibrating, Regularly
used. when gases are mixed. reading, and clean and
interpreting the maintain
Other voltage sources instrument, instrument
may interfere with accessories.
measurements.
Does not readily ionize
fully chlorinated
materials.
High humidity affects
readings.
Low humidity affects
operation.
Response is sensitive to
dust or moisture on the
lamp.
Infrared (IR) Miniature IR Many gases Measures Different In the field, Miran must Requires
spectrophotometer spectrophotometer and vapors concentration of frequencies of IR make repeated passes to personnel with
(Miran or many gases and light are passed achieve reliable results. extensive
equivalent) vapors in air; through the experience in IR
designed to quantify sample. The Requires 115-volt AC spectrophotometry.
one- or two- frequencies power.
component absorbed are
mixture. specific for each Not approved for use in
compound. a hazardous location.
TABLE 5.2 Direct-Reading Instruments for Specific Survey
Hazard Detection Ease of Care and Operating
Monitored Application Method Limitations Operations Maintenance Time
Direct-reading Specific Measures The compound The measured Greatest sources of Do not use a Essentially
colorimetric gases concentrations reacts with the concentration of the error are how the previously opened instantaneous
indicator tube and vapors of specific indicator chemical same compound may operator judges the tube even if the
gases and in the tube, vary among different stain’s end point and indicator chemical
vapors. producing a stain manufacturers’ tubes. the ±25% cross- is not stained.
whose length is sensitivity of the
proportional to Many similar instrument. Check for leaks.
the compounds’ chemicals interfere.
concentration. Refrigerate prior to
Affected by use to maintain
temperature, shelf life of about
pressure, and two years.
humidity.
Calibrate with a
NIOSH certification volumetric
program has been test quarterly.
discontinued.
Oxygen metera Oxygen (O2) Measures the The meter uses an Must be calibrated Effective use requires Protect with a 8 to 12 hours
percentage electrochemical prior to use to that the operator disposable cover.
of O2. sensor to mea- compensate for understand the
sure the partial altitude and baro- operating principles Change detector
pressure of O2 metric pressure. and procedures. solution according
in the air and to manufacturer’s
converts that Certain gases, recommendations.
reading to an O2 especially oxidants,
concentration. can affect readings. Recharge or replace
Carbon dioxide batteries prior to
poisons the detector expiration and the
cell. specified interval.
If the ambient air is more
than 0.5% carbon dioxide,
replace or rejuvenate the
O2 detector cell frequently.
a
Oxygen measurements are most informative when paired with combustible gas measurements. Several combination units package a combustible gas
indicator (CGI) with an oxygen meter.
40 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
TABLE 5.3 Sample Collection and Analytical Methods
Typical Limit of
Substance Collection Device Analytical Methods Detection (mg)
Anions Prewashed silica gel Ion chromatography
Chloride tube 5
Nitrate 10
Bromide 10
Fluoride 5
Sulfate 10
Phosphate 20
Aliphatic amines Silica gel GC/NPD 10
Asbestos AA filter PCM 4500*
Metals AA filter ICP-AES 0.5
Organics 1 Charcoal tube GC/MS 10
Nitrosamines Thermosorb/N GC-HECD 0.01
Particle size Personal Gravimetric
Distribution Cascade impactor
PCBs GC filter and florsil tube 0.05
Pesticides 13-mm GF filter and GC/MS 0.05
Chromosorb 102 tube
*Fibers per filter.
GC/NPD = gas chromatography and nitrogen-phosphorus detector; PCM = phase contrast microscopy; ICP-AES =
inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry; GC/MS = gas chromatography and mass spectrometry;
GC-HECD = gas chromatography using a Hall electrical conductivity detector; GF = glass fiber; PCB = polychlorinated
biphenyls.
subsequently reanalyzed in sophisticated fixed-base lab- SITE CHARACTERIZATION
oratories. The mobile laboratory also provides storage
Site characterization begins with the initial off-site
space, countertop staging areas for industrial hygiene
investigation into the current circumstances, the origin,
equipment, and facilities for recharging self-contained
and the history of the wastes at the site (see Chapter 4).
breathing apparatuses (SCBAs).
Establish priorities for air monitoring based on this
Air monitoring is conducted in various stages and
information. With the selected monitoring equipment in
categories, including the following:
hand, and wearing the selected PPE as deemed neces-
sary by the off-site characterization, proceed to monitor
• IDLH monitoring to identify acutely hazardous con-
the background air quality on-site in the following
ditions during initial site entry and for high-risk activ-
manner.
ities such as confined-area entry.
• General monitoring to identify major sources, classes, IDLH MONITORING
and concentrations of airborne contaminants. First, conduct air monitoring to identify any IDLH
• Perimeter monitoring to provide fixed-location mon- conditions, such as flammable or explosive atmospheres,
itoring to measure and ensure appropriate designa- oxygen-deficient environments, and high levels of
tions of clean versus contaminated areas. airborne toxic substances. Monitoring instruments
• Periodic monitoring to identify potential variations in normally include combustible gas indicators, oxygen
air. meters, colorimetric tubes, and organic vapor monitors.
This should be done as soon as possible after the site
• Contamination concentration and patterns based on has been designated as hazardous. Exercise extreme
changes in site conditions, weather, and activities. caution in continuing the site survey when atmo-
• Personnel monitoring to check worker exposures spheric hazards are indicated. Be aware that condi-
based on samples collected in the workers’ breath- tions can change suddenly from nonhazardous to
ing zones during site operations and on analysis hazardous.
of air-purifying respirator (APR) cartridges and Acutely hazardous concentrations may persist in
canisters. confined and low-lying spaces for long periods of time.
AIR MONITORING 41
Consider whether the suspected contaminants are PERIODIC MONITORING
lighter or heavier than air. Look for any natural or arti-
Site conditions may change following the initial charac-
ficial barriers, such as hills, tall buildings, or tanks,
terization. Monitoring should be repeated periodically,
behind which air might stand still, allowing concentra-
especially when
tions to build up. Examine any confined spaces, such as
cargo holds, mine shafts, silos, storage tanks, boxcars,
• work begins on a different portion of the site
buildings, bulk tanks, and sumps, where chemical expo-
sures capable of causing acute health effects are likely • different contaminants are being handled
to accumulate. Low-lying areas, such as hollows and • a markedly different type of operation is initiated
trenches, also are suspect. Monitor these spaces for (e.g., barrel opening as opposed to exploratory well
IDLH conditions. drilling)
In open spaces, toxic materials tend to be emitted
into the atmosphere, transported away from the source, Monitoring may be discontinued if
and dispersed. Acutely hazardous conditions are not
likely to persist in open spaces for extended periods of • it can be demonstrated that site contaminants are
time unless there is a very large (and, hence, readily homogeneously distributed and consistent exposures
identifiable) source, such as an overturned tank car. are anticipated
Therefore, open spaces are generally a lower monitor-
• sampling in maximally contaminated areas has pro-
ing priority.
duced negative results
GENERAL MONITORING
MONITORING PERSONNEL
Conduct air monitoring using a variety of media to iden-
The selective daily monitoring of high-risk workers—
tify the major classes of airborne contaminants and their
that is, those who are closest to the source of con-
concentrations. The following sampling pattern can be
taminant generation—is highly recommended. This
used as a guideline.
approach is based on the rationale that the probability
First, after visually identifying a possible source of
of significant exposure varies directly with the distance
contaminants, pull air samples downwind from the
from the source. If workers closest to the source are not
source along the axis of the wind direction. When down-
significantly exposed, then all other workers are also,
wind monitoring is complete, work upwind until reach-
presumably, not significantly exposed and probably do
ing or getting as close as possible to the source. An
not need to be monitored. Monitoring the high-risk
SCBA should be worn during all sampling operations.
workers first conserves resources.
Once the greatest concentrations are determined,
Since occupational exposures are linked closely
workers must suit up to the appropriate level of PPE.
with active material handling, personal air sampling
Additional PPE must be available in case the level of
should not be necessary until site mitigation has begun.
protection must be upgraded.
Collect personal monitoring samples in the breathing
After reaching the source, or finding the highest
zone and, if workers are wearing respiratory protective
concentration, sample across the axis of the wind direc-
equipment, outside the face piece. These samples rep-
tion to determine the degree of dispersion. Smoke
resent the potential inhalation exposure of workers who
plumes or plumes of instrument-detectable airborne
are not wearing respiratory protection. It is best to use
substances may be released as an aid in this assessment.
flow rate–controlled pumps to collect samples, since it
To ensure that there is no background interference and
is difficult to observe and adjust pumps while wearing
that the detected substances are originating at the iden-
gloves, respirators, and other PPE. Protect the pumps
tified source, also pull air samples from upwind of the
with disposable coverings, such as small plastic bags, to
source.
make decontamination procedures easier.
Personal monitoring is performed using a variety
PERIMETER MONITORING
of sampling media. Unfortunately, single workers
Fixed-location monitoring along the perimeter, where cannot carry multiple sampling media because of the
PPE is no longer required, measures contaminant added strain and because it is not usually possible to
migration away from the site and enables the SSO to draw air through different sampling media using a single
evaluate the integrity of the site’s clean areas. Since the portable, battery-operated pump. Consequently, several
fixed-location samples may reflect exposures either days are required to measure the exposure of a specific
upwind or downwind from the site, wind direction and individual using each of the media. Alternatively, if
velocity data are needed to interpret the sample results. workers are in teams, a different monitoring device can
Designation of the perimeter must be based on sample be assigned to each team member. Another method is
results, not on fences or property boundaries. to place multiple sampling devices on pieces of heavy
42 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
equipment. While these are not, technically, personal handled. The other half were collected at a municipal
samples, they are collected very close to the breathing landfill that accepted limited types of hazardous waste
zone of the heavy equipment operator and thus would and at a hazardous waste treatment facility that
be reasonably representative of personal exposure. accepted virtually all categories of waste.
These multimedia samples can yield as much informa- Of the 500 samples, no contaminant exceeded 10%
tion as several personal samples. of the OSHA eight-hour permissible time-weighted
average (TWA) concentration. The substances analyzed
VARIABLES OF HAZARDOUS WASTE included acids, bases, cyanides, heavy metals, organic
SITE EXPOSURE vapors, PCBs, and pesticides. The metals scan typically
Complex, multisubstance environments such as haz- included thirty elements from aluminum to zinc. The
ardous waste sites pose significant challenges to accu- NIOSH study found evidence that particulate-bound
rate and safe assessment of airborne contaminants. PNAs were responsible for eye and respiratory irrita-
Several independent and uncontrollable variables, most tion among some workers.
notably temperature and weather conditions, can affect
airborne concentrations. These factors must be consid- BIBLIOGRAPHY
ered when developing an air-monitoring safety program AIHA Engineering Field Reference Manual. Akron,
and when analyzing data. Some demonstrated variables OH: AIHA, 1982.
and variances include the following: AIHA Manual of Recommended Practice for Com-
bustible Gas indicators and Portable, Direct-reading
• Temperature. A 10°C increase in temperature can Hydrocarbon Detectors. 2nd ed. Akron, OH:
more than double the vapor pressure of PCBs. AIHA, 1993.
• Wind speed. An increase from 3.7 meters per second American Conference of Governmental Industrial
to 6.9 meters per second at 20°C can double the Hygienists (ACGIH). “1997–1998, Threshold Limit
PCB vapor concentration near a free-liquid surface. Values for Chemical Substances and Physical
Dust and particulate-bound contaminants also are Agents and Biological Exposure Indices.” Cincin-
affected. nati, OH: American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists, 1998.
• Rainfall. Water from rainfall can essentially cap or Bishop, E. “Air Monitoring at Hazardous Waste Sites.”
plug vapor emission routes from open or closed con-
Chapter 5 in Protecting Personnel at Hazardous
tainers, saturated soil, or lagoons, thereby reducing
Waste Sites. 3rd ed. W.F. Martin and M. Gochfeld,
airborne emissions of certain substances.
eds. Boston: Butterworth–Heinemann, 2000.
• Moisture. Dust, including finely divided hazardous Costello, R.J., and J. Melius. “Inhalation Exposures at
solids, is highly sensitive to moisture content, which Hazardous Waste Sites.” Paper presented at the
can vary significantly with respect to location and AIHC, Las Vegas, May 1985.
time. Hill, R.H., and J.E. Arnold. “A Personal Air Sampler for
• Vapor emissions. The physical displacement of satu- Pesticides.” Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 8
rated vapors can produce short-term, relatively high (1979):621–628.
vapor concentrations. Continuing diffusion and/or Leichnitz, K. “Qualitative Detection of Substances by
evaporation may be important long-term, low- Means of Draeger Detector Tube Ethyl Acetate
concentration phenomena involving large areas. 200/a.” Draeger Review 46 (1980):13–21.
Levine, S.P., R.D. Turpin, and M. Gochfeld. “Protecting
• Work activities. Remedial action can lead to mechan- Personnel at Hazardous Waste Sites: Current
ical disturbance of contaminated materials, thereby
Issues.” Appl. Occup. Environ. Hyg. 6(12)(1994):
changing the concentration and composition of air-
1007–1013.
borne contaminants at any one time or place at the
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
site.
(NIOSH). NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods.
4th ed. Cincinnati: NIOSH, 1984.
FIELD STUDY RESULTS
NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. U.S.
NIOSH has collected more than 500 air samples at haz- Department of Health and Human Services,
ardous waste sites. About half of those were collected National Institute for Occupational Safety and
at remedial action sites where drums were being Health, 1997.
6
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
nyone entering an uncontrolled haz- The final rule became effective on March 6,
A ardous waste site must be protected
against any potential hazards that may
be encountered. The purpose of per-
sonal protective clothing (PPC) and personal pro-
tective equipment (PPE) is to shield or isolate
1990. Employers engaged in covered activities
are required to establish a safety and health
program for each site. Within the program,
employers are required to prepare a written PPE
program applicable to each task identified. This
individuals from the chemical, physical, and bio- program identifies requirements for PPE selec-
logical hazards presented by a waste site. tion, use, and maintenance. It must comply with
Careful selection of adequate PPE should protect requirements in 29 CFR 1910.120. The written
the PPE program also must comply with established
• respiratory system OSHA standards for PPE, also found in 29 CFR
1910. Respiratory protection is regulated under
• skin and body OSHA (29 CFR 1910.134) and NIOSH (Title 42
• face and eyes Part 84). Table 6.1 provides a list of OSHA stan-
• feet and hands dards that should be addressed in the PPE
• head program.
No one piece of PPE, nor any single combi-
• hearing nation of equipment and clothing, is capable of
This chapter describes the various types of PPE protecting against all threats. In fact, no PPE is
appropriate for use on uncontrolled hazardous capable of providing protection against even one
waste sites and provides guidance in their selec- threat for a prolonged period of time. PPE should
tion and use. The final section discusses heat be considered the last option for protection. It
stress and other key physiological factors that should be used in conjunction with other protec-
must be considered in connection with PPE use. tive methods, such as safety procedures, alter-
More detailed guidance on PPE selection and native remedial actions, and/or engineering
use can be found in Personal Protective Equip- controls.
ment for Hazardous Materials Incidents: A Selec- The use of PPE can create significant
tion Guide (NIOSH). worker hazards, such as heat stress, physiologi-
Based on the Superfund Amendments and cal stress, and impaired visibility, mobility, and
Reauthorization Act (SARA) of 1986, the U.S. communication. The greater the levels of PPE
Congress tasked OSHA with establishing protection, the greater are the associated risks.
requirements for worker protection on hazardous For any given situation, equipment and clothing
waste sites. In accordance with requirements in should be selected to provide an adequate level
Section 126 of Title I of SARA, OSHA estab- of protection. Overprotection is hazardous and
lished the Hazardous Waste Operations and should be avoided.
Emergency Response rule in 29 CFR 1910.120.
DEVELOPING A PPE PROGRAM safety and health plan. No specific format has been
required, but the following elements should be
Two basic objectives must be achieved in a PPE
included:
program: (1) preventing overexposure of workers to
safety and health hazards and (2) preventing injury to
workers resulting from incorrect use or malfunction of • design and use of engineering controls and site work
the required PPE. To accomplish these goals, a compre- practices established for protection of worker safety
hensive PPE program must be established. In accor- and health (required to the extent feasible to reduce
dance with the OSHA 29 CFR 1910.120 rule, the PPE and control potential worker exposures to safety and
program must be in writing as part of the site-specific health hazards)
43
44 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
TABLE 6.1 OSHA Regulations and Sources PPE program maintenance
for Use of Protective Clothing
and Equipment Other elements required in the site-specific safety
and health plan provide necessary input into the PPE
program. These elements include the following:
Type of
Protection Regulation Source • identification of hazardous materials and conditions
(Chapter 4)
General 29 CFR 41 CFR 50-204.7 • environmental sampling and surveillance (Chapters 4
1910.132 (General Requirements for and 5)
Personal Protective
• site controls and work practices (Chapter 7)
Equipment)
• decontamination (Chapter 8)
Eye and 29 CFR ANSI Z87.1-1968
face 1910.133(a) (Eye and Face Protection) • response to site emergencies (Chapter 9)
Noise 29CFR — • medical surveillance and monitoring in the field
1910.95 (Chapter 10)
Respiratory 29 CFR ANSI Z89.2-1969 • employee training requirements (Chapter 11)
1910.134 (Standard Practice for
Respiratory Protection) The PPE program should be reviewed at least
annually and when new hazards are identified, site con-
Head 29 CFR ANSI Z89.1-1969 ditions change, or after any incident involving PPE use
1910.135 (Safety Requirements for
that result in, or could have resulted in, injury. When
Industrial Head Protection)
reviewing the PPE program, the following issues should
Foot 29 CFR ANSI Z41.1-1967 be considered:
1910.136 (Men’s Safety Toe Footwear)
• the number of person-hours required for PPE ensem-
Source: American National Standards Institute bles at the various levels of protection
(ANSI), New York, 1987. • accident and illness experiences
• the levels of exposures encountered
• designation of required levels of protection for estab- • the appropriateness of PPE, engineering controls, and
lished work zones (consistent with engineering con- standard work safety practices and procedures
trols and work practices referenced above)
• the adequacy of operational guidelines for conduct-
• requirements for selection, use, and maintenance of ing site activities
respiratory equipment
• the effectiveness of PPE decontamination, cleaning,
• requirements for selection, use, and maintenance of inspection, maintenance, and storage practices
PPC
• coordination of PPE information and needs with site
• establishment of required PPE ensembles to provide safety and health program requirements
the necessary level of worker protection for the des-
ignated work zones • program costs
• procedures and requirements for employee training • the maintenance of necessary records (e.g., PPE use
and supervision of equipment use to address and and assignment, employee training, and medical
control the following: surveillance)
duration of activities for each task • an evaluation of PPE program goals and accomplish-
limitations of PPE and ensemble use ments
donning of PPE (i.e., dressing) • recommended PPE program improvements and
respirator fit testing and evaluation during use modifications
monitoring of environmental conditions
monitoring adequacy of PPE ensemble and The results of the PPE program review and evaluations
performance criteria/limitations for existing should be made available to the affected employees and
conditions presented to upper management for implementation.
doffing PPE (i.e., undressing)
decontamination of PPE and personnel SELECTION OF RESPIRATORY EQUIPMENT
inspection and monitoring of the PPE’s condition Respiratory protection is of primary importance, as the
and procedures for repair or replacement lungs present the body’s greatest exposed surface area.
storage and access to PPE Respiratory protective devices (respirators) consist of a
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT 45
face piece connected to an air or oxygen source. The Respirators are further differentiated by the type
three major categories of respirators differ with respect of airflow supplied to the face piece:
to the air or oxygen source:
• Negative-pressure respirators (also referred to as
• Self-contained breathing apparatuses (SCBAs) demand respirators) draw air into the face piece via
supply air from a source carried by the user. the negative pressure created by user inhalation. The
• Air-line respirators (ALRs) supply air from a source disadvantage of demand respirators is if any leaks
located some distance away and connected to the develop in the system (e.g., a crack in the hose or an
user by a hose. ill-fitting face piece), the user draws contaminated air
into the face piece during inhalation.
• Air-purifying respirators (APRs) enable the user to
inhale purified ambient air. • Positive-pressure respirators (also referred to as
pressure-demand respirators) maintain a slight posi-
Because SCBAs and ALRs both supply air to the tive pressure in the face piece during both inhalation
user, they are sometimes categorized together as and exhalation. A pressure regulator and an exhala-
supplied-air respirators. Table 6.2 lists the relative tion valve on the mask maintain the mask’s positive
advantages and disadvantages of SCBAs, ALRs, and pressure at all times. If a leak develops, the regulator
APRs. sends a continuous flow of clean air into the face
TABLE 6.2 Relative Advantages and Disadvantages of Respiratory Protective Equipment
Type of Respirator Advantages Disadvantages
Self-contained Operated in positive-pressure Bulky and heavy (up to 35 pounds).
breathing apparatus mode, provides the highest Finite air supply limits work duration.
(SCBA) available level of protection Less dutiable for strenuous work or work in confined
against most airborne spaces.
contaminants.
Mobile.
Protection factor of 10,000.
Air-line respirator Enables longer work periods Not approved for use in IDLH atmospheres or for initial
(ALR) than an SCBA. site entry unless equipped with an emergency backup
Less bulky and lighter than an SCBA escape respirator for emergency use in the
SCBA; weighs less than event of air-line failure; emergency SCBA shall be
5 pounds (or around rated for at least 5 minutes of continuous use,
15 pounds if escape enabling the worker to escape from the hazardous
protection is included). environment.
Protects against most airborne Impaired mobility; NIOSH limits the length of the supply
contaminants. air hose to 300 feet; auxiliary piping may extend this
distance provided no decrease in air pressure occurs
within the auxiliary piping.
Air-purifying Enhanced mobility. Air supply hose vulnerable to damage, chemical
respirator (APR) Lighter than an SCBA (generally contamination, and degradation; decontamination of
2 pounds or less). of hoses may be difficult.
Less expensive than an SCBA Worker must retrace steps to leave work area.
or ALR. Requires supervision/monitoring of the air supply line.
Cannot be used in IDLH or oxygen-deficient (less than
19.5% oxygen) atmospheres.
Limited duration of protection; may be hard to gauge
safe operating time in field conditions.
Protects only against specific chemicals and up to
specific concentrations.
Requires continuous monitoring of contaminate and
oxygen levels.
Should be used only against organic vapors with
adequate warning properties (taste, odor, irritation,
etc.).
46 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
piece, preventing penetration of contaminated To determine whether an SCBA or ALR provides
ambient air. Only positive-pressure respirators are adequate protection in a given situation, multiply the
recommended for work at hazardous waste sites. protection factor by the threshold limit value (TLV) or
• Continuous-flow respirators send a continuous permissible exposure limit (PEL) for the chemical(s) in
stream of air into the face piece at all times. Contin- the atmosphere (see Chapter 4, Site Characterization).
uous airflow prevents infiltration by ambient air but Adequate protection is provided against a particular
exhausts the air supply much more rapidly than chemical if the product is greater than the measured
positive-pressure or negative-pressure respirators. ambient concentration of the chemical. (For APRs, the
maximum safe use concentration for specific chemicals
Different types of face pieces are available for the is designated on the respirator.)
various types of respirators: Bear in mind that a respirator’s protection factor
can be compromised in several situations, most notably
• Full masks cover the face from the hairline to below (1) if a worker has a high respiration rate or (2) if the
the chin. They are recommended for use on uncon- ambient temperature is high or low. If a worker’s respi-
trolled sites because they provide eye as well as res- ration rate exceeds sixty-seven liters per minute, many
piratory protection. positive-pressure respirators will not maintain positive
pressure during peak inhalation. This inboard face piece
• Half masks cover the face from below the chin to over
leakage occurs in ALRs and SCBAs. Also, at high work
the nose. They can be used when the airborne conta-
rates, exhalation valves may leak. Consequently, posi-
minants have been identified and are judged unlikely
tive-pressure respirators working at volumes of sixty-
to irritate the eyes.
seven liters per minute or greater offer no more
• Quarter masks cover the nose and mouth but do not protection than a similarly equipped negative-pressure
cover the chin. Their face piece–to–face seal is not as respirator. In terms of the numerical protection factor,
good as that of half and full face masks. NIOSH does this is a reduction from 10,000 to approximately 50.
not recommend their use on hazardous waste sites, (Actual protection reduction is difficult to estimate and
but OSHA does accept them for industrial use. varies from unit to unit.)
High or low ambient temperatures may occasion a
Federal regulations require use of approved respi- similar reduction in the protection factor. Table 6.4 sum-
rators. Approval numbers are clearly written on all marizes possible effects of temperature on respirator
approved respiratory equipment. Respirators are tested function. As a general precaution, consider that protec-
by NIOSH, and if they pass the OSHA requirements tion factors may decrease at temperatures below 60°F
specified in 30 CFR 11, they are jointly approved by or above 90°F. Note that the temperature inside a fully
NIOSH and the Mine Safety and Health Administra- encapsulating suit, within which an SCBA might be
tion (MSHA). Testing procedures are described in 30 worn, may exceed 90°F.
CFR 11. Periodically, NIOSH publishes the NIOSH
Certified Equipment List, which identifies all approved
respirators and respiatory components. Certification is SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUSES
negated if parts are modified or changed to modify the An SCBA consists of a face piece connected by a hose
equipment as listed. and a regulator to an air source (compressed air, com-
pressed oxygen, or an oxygen-generating chemical)
PROTECTION FACTOR
carried by the wearer. SCBAs are the only respirators
The protection factor, described by a number, denotes approved for entry into IDLH atmospheres. Because
the overall level of protection provided by the respirator. SCBAs use an independent rather than an ambient air
The protection factor is determined by the fit and, with source, they offer protection against most types and
APRs, by the filtering ability of the respirator. The levels of airborne contaminants. However, the duration
number indicates the relative difference in concentra- of the air supply is limited, based on the amount of
tions of substances outside and inside the face piece that oxygen or air and the rate of air consumption, and this
can be maintained by the respirator. For example, the is an important planning factor in SCBA use. SCBAs
protection factor for full-mask APRs is 100 according to also are bulky and heavy. They increase the likelihood
the American National Standards Institute (ANSI).This of heat stress and may impair movement in confined
means, theoretically, that workers wearing these respira- spaces. Generally, only workers handling hazardous
tors should be protected in atmospheres containing materials or operating in contaminated zones are
chemicals at concentrations that are 100 times higher equipped with SCBAs. SCBAs may be approved for
than their safe levels. Protection factors are determined escape only, or for both entry into and escape from a
by quantitative analytical tests.The protection factors for hazardous atmosphere. The types of SCBAs and their
various types of SCBAs, ALRs, and APRs are listed in relative advantages and disadvantages are described in
Table 6.3. Table 6.5.
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT 47
TABLE 6.3 NIOSH and ANSI Assigned Protection Factors
NIOSH Respirator
Type of Respirator Decision Logic ANSI Z88.2-1992
Air-Purifying
Single Use or Quarter Face piece 5 10
Half Face piece 10a 10
Full Face piece, 10 100
Full Face piece, all other media 50 100
Powered Air-Purifying
Half Face piece 50 50
Full Face piece 50 1,000b
Loose Fitting Face piece 25 25
Hood or Helmet 25 1,000b
Air-Line
Half Face piece
Demand 10 10
Continuous Flow 50 50
Pressure Demand 1,000 50
Full Face piece
Demand 50 100
Continuous Flow 50 1,000
Pressure Demand 2,000 1,000
Loose Fitting Face piece 25 25
Hood or Helmet 25 1,000
SCBA
Demand 50 100
Pressure Demand 10,000 10,000c
a
Includes disposable particulate respirators if quantitative fit testing is used.
b
100 if dust/mist filters are used.
c
For emergency planning where concentrations can be estimated.
TABLE 6.4 Possible Temperature-Related Effects exposure to extremely toxic substances may occur (an
That May Compromise extremely toxic substance is defined as a gas or vapor
Respiratory Protection having an LC50 of less than 10 ppm).
Entry-and-escape SCBAs give workers access to
High temperatures Excessive sweat may break the nearly all portions of the work site but decrease worker
face piece–to–face seal. mobility, particularly in confined areas, due to the units’
Exhalation valve and regulator bulk and weight. Their use is particularly advisable
and diaphragm may when dealing with unidentified and unquantified air-
malfunction due to softening borne contaminants. There are two types of entry-and-
and increase flexibility.
escape SCBAs, open-circuit and closed-circuit. In an
Low temperatures Exhalation valve may leak. open-circuit SCBA, air is exhaled directly into the
Exhalation valve may become ambient atmosphere. In a closed-circuit SCBA, exhaled
clogged with ice due to air is recycled by removing the carbon dioxide with
moisture of breath. an alkaline scrubber and replenishing the consumed
oxygen with oxygen from a liquid or gaseous source or
from an oxygen-generating chemical.
Escape-only SCBAs are frequently continuous- Any compressed-air cylinder used with an SCBA
flow devices with hoods that can be placed directly over must meet U.S. Department of Transportation (DoT)
other respiratory face pieces to provide immediate General Requirements for Shipment and Packaging (49
emergency protection. Employers must provide and CFR Part 173) and Shipping Container Specifications
ensure that employees carry an escape respirator where (49 CFR Part 178). Breathing air quality must meet
48 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
TABLE 6.5 Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) Types
Types Description Comments
Entry and escape SCBA
Open-circuit Supplies clean air or oxygen to the Operating time may vary depending
wearer from an air cylinder; wearer on the size of the air tank and the
exhales air directly to the atmosphere. work rate of the individual.
Closed-circuit Recycles exhaled gases (CO, CO2, O2, Once initiated, O2-generating devices
and nitrogen) by removing CO2 with cannot be turned off, and the
an alkaline scrubber and replenishing regenerative chemical is a safety
the consumed O2 with O2 from a hazard.
liquid or gaseous source or from an
O2-generating chemical.
Escape-only SCBA Supplies clean air in to the wearer Used for hazardous substances
from an air cylinder or an fieldwork as a backup device to
O2-generating chemical; approved replace breathing apparatus that
for escape purposes only. has failed or run out of air.
the following requirements of Grade D breathing air as ary source. ALRs are available in positive-pressure,
described by the Compressed Gas Association: negative-pressure, and continuous-flow systems. Posi-
tive-pressure and continuous-flow ALRs with escape
• Oxygen content must be between 19.5% and 23.5%, provisions provide the highest level of protection
with the remainder mainly nitrogen. (among ALRs) and are the only ALRs recommended
• Hydrocarbon concentrations must not exceed 5 for use in remedial actions involving hazardous materi-
milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m3). als. ALRs are not approved for entry into IDLH
areas or for initial site entry in areas requiring respira-
• Carbon monoxide concentrations must not exceed
tory protection unless the apparatus is equipped with
10 ppm.
an emergency bailout bottle or the worker also wears
• Carbon dioxide concentrations must not exceed an escape SCBA rated for at least a five minute
1000 ppm. duration.
• There must not be any pronounced odor. The air source for ALRs may be a compressor,
which purifies and pumps ambient air to the face piece,
Following are some key questions to ask when consid- or compressed-air cylinders. ALRs suitable for use with
ering whether an SCBA is appropriate: compressed-air cylinders are classified as Type C sup-
plied-air respirators. All ALR couplings must be incom-
• Is the atmosphere immediately dangerous to life or patible with the outlets of other gas systems used on-site
health? If so, you must use an SCBA. to prevent a worker from connecting to a hazardous
• Is the duration of air supply sufficient for accom- compressed-gas source. This incompatibility is generally
plishing the necessary tasks? If not, use a larger cylin- standardized.
der or modify the work plan. ALRs enable longer work periods than SCBAs
• Will the bulk and weight of the SCBA interfere with and are not as bulky. However, the air-line hose impairs
task performance or cause unnecessary stress? If so, worker mobility and requires workers to retrace their
consider using an ALR if conditions permit. steps when leaving the area. Also, the air-line hose is
vulnerable to puncture from rough or sharp surfaces,
• Will temperature effects compromise respirator chemical permeation, damage from being run over by
effectiveness or pose added stress to the worker? If heavy equipment, and obstruction from falling drums.
so, shorten the work period or postpone the mission To maintain safe conditions, all such hazards should be
until the temperature changes. removed prior to use. When in use, air lines should be
kept as short as possible, and other workers and vehi-
AIR-LINE RESPIRATORS
cles should be kept away from the air lines.
ALRs (or supplied-air respirators) supply air, not The use of air compressors as the air source for
oxygen, to a face piece via a supply line from a station- an ALR at a hazardous waste site is severely limited
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT 49
by the same concern that requires workers to wear have the contaminants been identified, and are effi-
respirators—the questionable quality of the ambient cient filters and/or sorbents capable of removing
air. On-site compressor use is recommended only when those contaminants available? It not, use cylinders as
contaminants can be identified and readily removed the air source or use another form of respiratory
by sorbents in the compressor’s air purification system. protection.
Even in these conditions, an air compressor’s purifica- • Can other workers and vehicles be kept away from
tion system shares the same constraints as APR—that the area where the line has been laid? If not, consider
is, effective filters and/or sorbents capable of removing another form of respiratory protection.
these contaminants must be available.
Following are some key questions to ask when AIR-PURIFYING RESPIRATORS
considering ALR use:
APRs consist of a face piece and an air-purifying
• Is the atmosphere immediately dangerous to life or device that is a removable component of the face piece
health? If so, use an ALR-SCBA combination or or is worn on a body harness and attached to the face
an SCBA. piece by a corrugated breathing hose. APRs selectively
remove specific airborne contaminants (particulates,
• Will the hose significantly impair worker mobility?
gases, vapors, and fumes) from ambient air by filtration,
If so, modify the task or use other respiratory
absorption, or adsorption and are color coded (Table
protection.
6.6). They are approved for use in atmospheres con-
• Is there a danger of the air-line hose being damaged taining specific chemicals up to designated concentra-
or obstructed (e.g., by heavy equipment, falling tions but not for IDLH atmospheres. APRs have limited
drums, rough terrain, or sharp objects) or permeated use in remedial actions involving hazardous materials
or degraded by chemicals? If so, remove the hazard and can be used only when the ambient atmosphere
or use other respiratory protection. contains sufficient oxygen (19.5%) to support life at
• If a compressor is the air source, is it possible for air- high work rates. Table 6.7 lists the conditions preclud-
borne contaminants to enter the air system? If so, ing APR use.
APRs usually operate only in the negative-pressure
mode. Blower-powered devices maintain a positive face
piece pressure, but they generally remove only dust,
TABLE 6.6 Cartridge and Canister Color Coding
fumes, and particulates, not gases or vapors.
Three types of purifying devices exist: (1) particu-
Atmospheric Contaminant Color late filters, which remove particulates; (2) cartridges and
to Be Protected Against Assigned
canisters, which contain sorbents for specific chemicals,
gases, and vapors; (3) combination devices. Their effi-
Acid gases White ciency varies considerably even for closely related
Organic vapors Black materials.
Ammonia gas Green
Carbon monoxide Blue
Acid gases and organic vapors Yellow
TABLE 6.7 Conditions That Exclude the Use
Acid gases, ammonia, and organic vapors Brown of Air-Purifying Respirators
Acid gases, ammonia, carbon monoxide, Red
and organic vapors
Other vapors and gases not listed above Olive Oxygen deficiency
Radioactive materials (except tritium and Purple IDLH concentration
noble gases) Entry into an unventilated or confined area
Dusts, fumes, and mists (other than Orange Fire fighting
radioactive materials) Situation requiring a protection factor greater than 50
Presence of unidentified contaminants
Contaminant concentrations unknown or exceeding
A purple stripe shall be used to identify radioactive
materials in combination with any vapor or gas. designated maximum use concentration
An orange stripe shall be used to identify dusts, Identified chemicals with inadequate or absent warning
fumes, and mists in combination with any vapor or gas. properties
Where labels only are colored to conform with this One or more shock-sensitive airborne contaminants
table, the canister or cartridge body shall be gray, or a that may be sorbed
metal canister or cartridge body may be left in its natural Presence of two or more incompatible contaminants
metallic color. on-site that might react in the cartridge or canister to
The user shall refer to the wording of the label to produce a toxic or hazardous condition
determine the type and degree of protection the canister Relative humidity greater than 65%
or cartridge will afford.
50 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
Cartridges attach directly to the face piece. The • its odor, taste, or irritant effects are detectable and
larger-volume canisters attach to the chin of the face persistent at concentrations below the PEL (see
piece or are carried with a harness and attached to the Chapter 4)
face piece by a breathing tube. Single cartridges and • its odor or irritation threshold is somewhat above the
canisters remove only one chemical or one class of PEL, but no ceiling limits exist and no serious or
chemical. They have designated maximum concentra- irreversible health effects occur within this concen-
tion limits above which these cartridges and canisters tration range
should not be used. Combination canisters and car-
tridges (also known as Type N, all service, universal, or A substance is considered to have poor warning
all-purpose canisters) contain layers of different sorbent properties when
materials and remove multiple chemicals or classes of
chemicals from the ambient air. Though approved for • its odor or irritation threshold is three or more times
use against more than one substance, these canisters are the PEL
tested independently against single substances. Thus,
their effectiveness against two or more substances has
• its odor or irritation threshold is extremely low in
relation to the PEL (i.e., the worker can detect the
not been demonstrated. A number of standard car-
substance(s) even when the respirator is working
tridges and canisters are commercially available. They
properly)
are color coded to indicate the general chemicals or
classes of chemicals against which they are effective. 29
These warning properties are essential to the safe
CFR 1910.134 lists the OSHA-approved color coding
use of APRs because they allow detection of contami-
used on air-purifying canisters.
nant breakthrough. Warning properties are not fool-
NIOSH has granted approval for complete assem-
proof because they rely on human senses, but they do
blies of APRs (i.e., a gas mask with a canister or car-
provide some indication of possible sorbent exhaustion,
tridge) against a limited number of specific chemicals,
poor face piece fit, and other malfunctions.
including ammonia, chlorine, formaldehyde, hydrogen
Following are some key questions to ask when
chloride, methyl iodide, monomethylamine, and sulfur
considering APR use:
dioxide. Certain respirators have received special
approval against vinyl chloride under carefully con- • Does the ambient atmosphere contain at least 19.5%
trolled conditions, while others have been approved for oxygen? If not, do not use an APR.
use against carbon monoxide.
Respirators should be used only against those sub- • Is the atmosphere immediately dangerous to life or
stances for which they have been approved. A sorbent health? If so, do not use an APR.
should not be used when there is reason to suspect that • Are the airborne contaminants identified and their
it does not provide adequate sorption efficiency against concentrations known? If not, do not use an APR.
a specific contaminant. In addition, approval testing is • Is a cartridge, canister, or filter that has been
performed at a given temperature and over a narrow approved for the chemical or chemicals present in the
range of flow rates and relative humidities. Thus, pro- atmosphere available? It not, do not use an APR.
tection may be compromised in nonstandard conditions.
The assembly that has been approved by NIOSH to • Is the ambient chemical concentration below the des-
protect against organic vapors is tested against only a ignated maximum use concentration? If not, do not
single challenge substance, carbon tetrachloride. There- use an APR.
fore, its effectiveness for protecting against other vapors • Is the ambient air monitored periodically to ensure
has not been demonstrated. that workers are not being exposed to dangerous
Chemical sorbent cartridges and canisters have an levels of toxic chemicals? It not, institute such
expiration date. They may be used up to that date as monitoring.
long as they were not opened previously. Once opened, • Are there any dangerous conditions that could
they begin to sorb humidity and air contaminants change without warning? If so, equip workers with
whether or not they are in use, and their efficiency and escape SCBAs.
service life decrease. Discard cartridges after use.
Where a canister or cartridge is being used against • Could the contaminants cause skin or eye irritation
gases or vapors, the device should be used only if the or penetrate the skin? If so, use a full face piece on
chemical(s) have adequate warning properties. Regula- the respirator.
tions also prohibit the use of APRs against organic • Does the face piece provide a good seal against the
vapors that have poor warning properties. A substance user’s face as demonstrated by fit testing (see “PPE
is considered to have adequate warning properties Use”)? Do not use respirators that do not provide a
when: good face piece–to–face seal.
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT 51
SELECTION OF PPC CONTAMINANTS IDENTIFIED OR CLASSIFIED
For this book, clothing is considered to be any article The selection of CPC depends greatly on the type and
offering skin and/or body protection. It includes the physical state of the contaminants. This information is
following: determined during the site characterization (Chapter 4).
Once the chemicals have been identified, consult avail-
• fully encapsulating suits able information sources to determine a suit’s resistance
• nonencapsulating suits to permeation and degradation by the known chemicals
and its heat-transfer characteristics as described below.
• aprons, leggings, and sleeve protectors Use this information to narrow down the suitable
• gloves options. Then, if possible, physically inspect representa-
• fire fighters’ protective clothing tive garments before purchase and discuss use and
performance factors with someone having previous
• proximity or approach garments experience with the clothing under consideration.
• blast and fragmentation suits
• cooling garments Permeation and Degradation Appendix H pro-
vides clothing material recommendations for approxi-
• antiradiation suits mately 300 chemicals based on an evaluation of
breakthrough and permeation data from vendor litera-
Table 6.8 describes the various types of PPC, details ture, raw material suppliers, and independent tests.
the types of protection they offer, and lists the factors Charts indicating the resistance of various clothing
to consider in their selection and use. This table also materials to permeation and degradation also are avail-
describes a number of accessories that might be used in able from manufacturers and other sources. One good
conjunction with a PPE ensemble: reference is Guidelines for the Selection of Chemical
Protective Clothing (ACGIH, 1985).
• knife When reviewing vendor literature, be aware that
• flashlight or lantern the data provided are of limited value for several
reasons. For example, the quality of vendor test methods
• personal locator beacon
ranges from state-of-the-art to nonexistent. Vendors
• personal dosimeter often rely on the raw material manufacturers for data
• two-way radio rather than conducting their own tests. In addition, the
data may not be updated. In no way do vendor data
• safety belts and lifelines
address the wide variety of uses and challenges to which
CPC may be subjected. Most vendors strongly empha-
Each type of PPC has a specific purpose. Many, but
size this point in the descriptive text that accompanies
not all PPCs, are designed to protect against chemical
their data tables. Thus, CPC vendor recommendation
exposure. Chemical protective clothing (CPC) is avail-
tables provide only guidance in the selection of CPC—
able in a variety of materials that offer a range of resis-
that is, they provide
tances to different chemicals. The most appropriate
clothing material will depend on the chemicals present.
• a place to begin the selection process
Ideally, the chosen material resists degradation (a chem-
ical reaction between the chemical and the material • a means for selecting specific CPC for further
resulting in damage to the material) and permeation evaluation
(the seepage of a chemical substance through the mate- • a means for eliminating specific CPC from consid-
rial). No material protects against all chemicals and eration
combinations of chemicals, and no material is an effec-
tive barrier to prolonged chemical exposure. Also bear in mind that the rate of permeation is a
Selection is a complex task and should be per- function of several factors, including material type and
formed by personnel with training and experience. PPE thickness, manufacturing method, concentration of the
selection generally occurs under the following three hazardous substance, temperature, pressure, humidity
circumstances: (1) the contaminants are identified or (to some extent), solubility of the chemical in the suit’s
classified; (2) the contaminants are unknown; and (3) material, and the diffusion coefficient of the permeating
special hazards exist that require specialized PPE. chemical in the material. The following generalizations
Under all conditions, PPC is selected by evaluating the are applicable:
performance characteristics of the clothing against the
requirements and limitations of the site- and task- • Temperature. Permeation rates increase and break-
specific conditions. through times decrease with increasing temperatures.
TABLE 6.8 Protective Clothing Accessories
Body Part
Protected Type of Clothing Description Type of Protection Use Considerations
Full body Fully encapsulating One-piece garment; boots Protects against splashes, dust, gases, and Does not allow body heat to escape; may
suit and gloves may be integral, vapors. cause heat stress in wearer, particularly if
attached and replaceable, or worn in conjunction with a closed-circuit
separate SCBA; consider the need for a cooling
garment; impairs worker mobility,
visibility, and communication.
Nonencapsulating Jacket, hood, pants, bib Protects against splashes, dust, and other Do not use where gas-tight or pervasive
suit overalls, or one-piece materials but not against gases and vapors; splashing protection is required; may cause
coveralls does not protect head or neck. heat stress in wearer; tape-seal connections
between pant cuffs and boots and sleeves.
Aprons, leggings, Fully sleeved and gloved Provides additional splash protection of When worn over nonencapsulating suit,
and sleeve apron; separate coverings chest, forearms, and legs. results in less heat stress and more comfort
protectors for arms and legs; com- than fully encapsulating suit; useful for
monly worn over non- sampling, labeling, and analysis opera-
encapsulating suit tions; use partial coverings only when
the possibility of total body contact with
contaminants is minimal.
Fire fighters’ Boots, gloves, helmet Protects against heat, hot water, and some Decontamination is difficult; should not be
protective clothing [National Fire Protection particles; does not protect against gases worn in areas where protection against
Administration (NFPA) and vapors or chemical permeation or chemical splashes or permeation is
Standard 1972–1979], degradation; NFPA Standard 1971–1981 required.
running or bunker coat, and specifies that a three-piece garment
running or bunker pants consisting of an outer shell, an inner liner,
and intermediate vapor barrier have a
minimum water penetration of 25 pounds
per square inch (psi) to prevent the passage
of hot water.
Proximity garment One- or two-piece over- Protects against brief exposures to radiant If the wearer may be exposed to a toxic
(approach suit) garment with boot covers, heat; does not protect against chemical atmosphere or needs more than 2 or 3
gloves, and hood of permeation or degradation; can be custom- minutes of protection, use auxiliary cooling
aluminized nylon or cotton manufactured to protect against some and an SCBA.
fabric; normally worn over chemical contaminants.
outer protective clothing,
fire fighters’ bunker gear, or
flame-retardant coveralls
Blast and Blast and fragmentation Provides some protection against very In confined spaces “safe” distances may
fragmentation suit vests and clothing, bomb small detonations (the equivalent of less need to be doubled.
blankets, and bomb carriers than 2 ounces of TNT at distances of 20
feet or more); bomb blankets and baskets
can help redirect a blast.
Anti-radiation suit Protects against alpha and beta particles; Designed to prevent ingestion, inhalation,
does not protect against gamma radiation. or skin contamination; if radiation is
detected on-site, consult an experienced
radiation expert and evacuate personnel
until radiation levels can be reduced to
background level.
Flame/fire- Normally worn as an Provides protection against flash fires.
retardant coveralls undergarment
Flotation gear Life jackets or work vests; Adds 15.5 to 25 pounds of buoyancy to Adds bulk and restricts mobility; must
commonly worn underneath personnel working in or around water. meet U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) standards
chemical protective clothing 46 CFR 160.
to prevent degradation
Cooling garment One of three methods Removes excess heat generated by 1. Requires 10 to 20 cubic feet of respirable
1. A pump circulates worker activity, the equipment, or the air per minute, so it is often uneconomi-
throughout the suit or environment. cal for use at a waste site.
potions of it via an 2. Poses ice storage and recharge
air-line. Cooling may be problems.
enhanced by use of a 3. Poses ice storage problems; if the
vortex cooler, refriger- pump is battery operated, adds bulk
ation coils, or a and weight.
heat exchanger.
2. Packets of ice are
inserted into the
pockets of a jacket or
vest.
3. A pump circulates
chilled water from a
water/ice reservoir and
through circulating
tubes, which cover part
of the body (generally
the upper torso).
(continued)
TABLE 6.8 (Continued)
Body Part
Protected Type of Clothing Description Type of Protection Use Considerations
Head Safety helmet Must meet ANSI Z89.1-1969 Mandatory for operations involving fire Proper adjustment of helmet is necessary
(hard hat) specifications for protection fighting, rescue, or other emergency to prevent it falling off chin; chinstraps are
situations; protects the head from blows. available but should be used only if
they do not interfere with respirator-face
seal.
Helmet liner Insulates against cold; does not protect
against chemical splashes.
Hood Commonly worn with Protects against chemical splashes,
helmet, which provides particulates, and rain.
protection against blows
Protective hair Particularly important for Protects against chemical contamination of
covering workers with long hair hair; prevents the entanglement of hair in
machinery or equipment; prevents hair
from interfering with the visibility or
functioning of respiratory devices.
Eyes and Full-face respirator Covers the face from Protects against vaporized chemicals, Face piece may fog, impairing vision,
face hairline to below the chin splashes, and dusts. particularly in cold weather; use a nose
cup, antifogging agents, and/or exhaust
funnels.
Half mask Covers the face from below Provides no eye protection and partial face All eye and face protection must meet
the chin to over the nose protection. OSHA Standard 29 CFR 1910.
Quarter mask Covers from top of chin to Provides no eye protection and partial face Often difficult to maintain adequate
over the nose protection. respirator-face seal; not recommended for
hazardous waste sites.
Face shield Commonly worn with Protects against chemical splashes; does Face shields and hoods must be suitably
full-face respirator or not protect adequately against projectiles. supported to prevent equipment from
goggles; extends from shifting and exposing portions of the face
helmet to chin during work activity and to prevent
equipment from obscuring visibility.
Splash hood Provides limited protection against
chemical splashes from sides; does not
protect adequately against projectiles.
Safety glasses Glasses with safety lenses Protects against large particles and If lasers are used to survey a site, workers
to protect from projectiles; projectiles should wear protective lenses.
frequently include guards
on sides
Goggles Variety of devices providing Depending on construction, protects against Selection and use should not interfere with
safety lenses or eye plates vaporized chemicals, splashes, large parti- respirator-face seal.
with total enclosure pro- cles, and projectiles (if constructed with
tection around the eyes impact-resistant lenses).
Sweatbands Prevents sweat-induced eye irritation.
Ears Earplugs and Protects against physiological damage and Can interfere with communication; use of
earmuffs psychological disturbance; required when earplugs should be carefully reviewed by a
the time-weighted average noise level is health and safety professional because
above 85 dBA; provides partial protection contaminants could be introduced into the
from entry of splashes and projectiles. ear.
Headphones Radio headset with throat Provides some hearing, splash, and Highly desirable, particularly if emergency
microphone projectile protection while enabling conditions arise.
communications.
Hands and Gloves and May be integral, attached Protects hands and forearms from chemical Wear jacket cuffs over glove cuffs to
arms sleeves or separate from other contact. prevent liquid from entering gloves; tape-
protective clothing seal gloves to sleeves to provide additional
protection.
Overgloves Provides supplemental protection to the Decrease manual dexterity by adding bulk
wearer and protect more expensive around fingers..
undergarments from abrasions, tears and
contamination.
Disposable gloves Should be worn whenever possible to Extremely limited for prolonged contact
reduce decontamination needs. due to permeability; should use protective
outer-glove.
Feet Safety boots Constructed of chemical- Protect feet from contact with chemicals.
resistant material
Constructed with some steel Protect feet from compression, crushing, All boots must meet the specifications of
materials (e.g., toes, shanks) or puncture by falling, moving or sharp ANSI Z41-1981 and should provide good
objects. traction.
Constructed of nonconduc- Protect wearer against electrical hazards May require use of overboot to provide
tive, spark-resistant material and prevent ignition of combustible gases adequate chemical protection.
or coating or vapors.
Disposable shoe Made of variety of materials; Protect more expensive safety boots from Covers may be disposed of after use,
or boot covers slipover shoe or boot contamination; protect feet from contacts facilitating decontamination.
with chemicals.
(continued)
TABLE 6.8 (Continued)
Body Part
Protected Type of Clothing Description Type of Protection Use Considerations
General Accessories:
Knife When wearing a fully encapsulating suit to Use caution when carrying a knife, wearer
cut their way out in the event of an could fall and puncture the body of the
emergency or equipment failure. suit; user must also consider potentially
lethal exposures upon breach of protective
suit.
Flashlight or Enhances visibility in building Must be intrinsically safe for use in
lantern enclosed spaces, and the dark. combustible atmospheres; seal the
flashlight in a plastic bag to facilitate
decontamination; only electrical equipment
approved as intrinsically safe or approved
for the class and group of hazard as
defined in Article 500 of the National
Electrical Code may be used.
Personal locator Operated by sound, radio, Enables emergency personnel to locate Must be intrinsically safe if used in
beacon or light victim. potentially combustible atmospheres.
Personal Can detect oxygen-deficient atmospheres; To estimate actual body exposure, place
dosimeter measures worker exposure to ionizing dosimeter inside fully encapsulating suit.
radiation and certain chemicals.
Two-way radio Enables field workers to communicate Must be intrinsically safe if used in
with personnel in the support zone. potentially combustible atmospheres.
Safety belts and Enable personnel to work in elevated areas Must be constructed of spark free hardware
lifelines or enter confined areas and prevent falls; and chemical-resistant materials to provide
belts may be used to carry tools and proper protection; must meet OSHA
equipment. Standard 29 CFR 1910; permeation of
materials may require disposal of equip-
ment after use if adequate decontamination
cannot be achieved.
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT 57
The degree of reduction in protective performance of knowledgeable selection, one or more suits may be
depends on the chemical and the material. preselected from those offering the widest range of pro-
• Thickness. For a given clothing material, permeation tection against the chemicals one expects to encounter.
is inversely proportional to thickness (i.e., doubling After selecting such a suit or suits, one must rule
the thickness theoretically halves the permeation out the presence of any hazardous materials known to
rate). Breakthrough time (the time from initial expo- chemically attack (degrade) or permeate the suit(s).
sure until the hazardous material is detectable on the This is usually accomplished by using gas detector tubes
inside of the suit) is directly proportional to the to test for those chemicals known to degrade the spe-
square of the thickness (i.e., doubling the thickness cific protective material selected. Since permeation data
theoretically quadruples the breakthrough time). are limited at present, it may not always be possible to
completely rule out chemicals that can permeate.
The presence of degrading and/or permeating
The permeation rate is a direct function of the
chemicals does not necessarily preclude use of the suit.
solubility of the chemical in the material, but one must
For example, butyl rubber rapidly degrades if exposed
exercise caution in interpreting solubility data. Low sol-
to nitric acid for more than twenty minutes, but a butyl
ubilities do not necessarily correspond to low perme-
rubber suit may be used in the presence of nitric acid to
ation rates.The diffusion coefficient is also a direct factor
effect a ten-minute rescue. However, the suit must be
in the permeation rate. Gases, for example, have low sol-
retired after this mission.
ubilities but high diffusion coefficients and may perme-
ate CPC at rates several times greater than a liquid with
moderate to high solubility. Information on solubility OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
and diffusion coefficients may be found in vendor liter- In addition to permeation, degradation, and heat resis-
ature or literature on permeation testing. Table 6.9 tance, several other factors must be considered during
describes CPC compatibility with selected chemicals. CPC selection. These affect not only chemical resistance
Table 6.10 is a general description of CPC durability. but also the worker’s ability to perform the required task.
When trying to determine suit penetration or per- The following list summarizes these considerations.
meation rates, multicomponent liquids pose a problem
due to lack of experience in and information about per- • Chemical resistance. Does the clothing have design
meation and degradation. Mixtures of chemicals can be or construction imperfections that would allow haz-
significantly more aggressive toward plastics and rubbers ardous materials to penetrate (e.g., stitched seams,
than any one of the components alone. Even small buttonholes, porous zippers, pinholes)?
amounts of a rapidly permeating chemical may provide
• Durability. Does the material have sufficient strength
a pathway that accelerates the permeation of other
to withstand the physical stress of the task(s) at hand?
chemicals. Research is being performed to develop data
Will the material resist tears, punctures, and abra-
on these effects. In the meantime, immersion and per-
sions? Will the material withstand repeated use after
meation testing are recommended as the best means of
contamination/decontamination?
selecting CPC for multicomponent solutions.
• Flexibility. Will workers be able to perform their
Heat-Transfer Characteristics The heat-transfer assigned tasks? (This is particularly important when
characteristics of CPC are important factors in selec- evaluating gloves.)
tion. Since most CPC is virtually impermeable to mois- • Temperature effects. Will the material maintain its
ture, evaporative cooling does not occur. The thermal protective integrity and flexibility under hot and cold
insulation (CLO) value of CPC influences heat loss extremes?
through means other than evaporation. A CLO unit is
• Ease of decontamination. Are decontamination pro-
roughly equivalent to the amount of insulation provided
cedures available on-site? Will the material pose any
by clothing a person usually wears at room temperature.
decontamination problems? Should disposable cloth-
The larger the CLO value, the greater the insulating
ing be used?
properties of the garment and, consequently, the lower
the heat transfer. Given other equivalent protective • Compatibility with other equipment. Does the cloth-
properties, select the lowest CLO value in hot environ- ing preclude the use of another piece of protective
ments or for high work rates. Unfortunately, at present, equipment (e.g., suits that preclude hard-hat use in a
CLO values are not commonly available for CPC. hard-hat area)?
CONTAMINANTS UNKNOWN SELECTION OF PPC FOR SPECIAL CONDITIONS
Unfortunately, contaminants are often not identified Fire, explosion, heat, and radiation are considered
or quantified until after CPC selection and use. In lieu special conditions requiring specialized PPE. General
TABLE 6.9 Protective Clothing Material Compatibility with
Selected Chemical Hazards
Natural Polyvinyl Polyvinyl
Chemical Hazard Rubber Neoprene Alcohol Chloride Nitrile
Acetaldehyde G G P F F
Acetic acid E E F G E
Acetic anhydride G G P F G
Acetone E G F P P
Acetonitrile G G G G G
Acrylonitrile F G F F F
Alcohols G F P F E
Ammonia (100%) G G P E —
Amyl acetate F G G P G
Aniline F G F G P
Battery Acid G E P E E
Benzaldehyde F P E P P
Benzene P P E P P
Benzene sulfinic P G P E —
Bromine G G E G G
Butyric acid F G F G —
Cadmium cyanide G E G E G
Carbolic acid F E F E E
Carbon tetrachloride P P E G P
Chlorine F F E G G
Chloroform P P E P P
Chlorosulfonic acid P P F G F
Chromic acid P F P G P
Cresol G G F F P
Cyanide solution G G P F G
Cyclohexane P G E P P
Dimethyl formamide E G P P P
Dioctyl phthalate F G E P P
Dioxane F F P P P
Ethanolamine F G P E P
Ethers G E E P P
Ethyl acetate F G F P P
Ethyl alcohol E E P G E
Ethylene dichloride P P E P P
Ethylene glycol E E G E E
Formaldehyde E E P E E
Formic acid G E P E F
Frem P F E P F
Fuel oil P G E G P
Furfural G G F F P
Gasoline (unleaded) P P F P E
Hexane P G E P E
Hydrobromic acid (40%) G E P E E
Hydrobromic acid (conc) G E P E E
Hydrofluoric acid (30%) G E P G E
Hydrogen peroxide (30%) G E P E E
Isopropyl alcohol E E P E E
Kerosene P E E G E
Mercury G G P E E
Methyl alcohol E E P G E
Methylene chloride P P G P P
Methyl isobutyl ketone F P F P P
Methyl methacrylate P P G P P
Naphtha P P E F E
TABLE 6.9 (Continued)
Natural Polyvinyl Polyvinyl
Chemical Hazard Rubber Neoprene Alcohol Chloride Nitrile
Nitric acid (10%) P P P G E
Nitric acid (70%) P G P P P
Nitric acid (fuming) P P P P P
Nitrobenzene P P E P P
Nitromethane P P P F P
Oleum P P P F P
Parathion P P G F P
Pentane P E E P E
Perchloric acid F E P E E
Perchloroethylene P F E F P
Phenol G G P G P
Phosphoric acid G E P E E
Pickling baths G G P G E
Potassium hydroxide E E P E E
Propylene oxide F P G P P
Pyridine F G G E F
Sodium hydroxide E E P E E
Sodium peroxide F G F E G
Stoddard solvent P G E P P
Styrene P P G P P
Sulfuric acid P P P G P
Tannic acid E E F E E
Tetrachloroethylene P P E P P
Tetrahydrofuran P P F P P
Toluene P P G P P
Toluene di-isocyanate P P G P P
Trichloroethylene P P E P P
Xylene P P E P G
P = poor; F = fair; G = good; E = excellent.
Source: Dave Streng, A Worker Bulletin-Occupational Safety and Health at
Hazardous Waste Sites (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
February, 1982).
TABLE 6.10 Protective Clothing Material Wearing and
Durability Characteristics
Natural Polyvinyl Polyvinyl
Chemical Hazard Rubber Neoprene Alcohol Chloride Nitrile
Tear resistance G G F F G
Abrasion resistance G G G G E
Heat resistance F E P P E
Elongation E E F F G
P = poor; F = fair; G = good; E = excellent.
Source: Dave Streng, A Worker Bulletin-Occupational Safety and Health at
Hazardous Waste Sites (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
February, 1982).
60 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
questions for determination of specialized needs inlet valve. Currently no NIOSH approvals are given for
include the following: ensembles in which the respirator face piece is an
integral part of the suit.
• Fire fighting/explosion The clothing worn inside a PPE ensemble will
Is structural fire fighting involved? depend on the ambient temperature, but the minimum
Is radiant heat exposure a problem? clothing, even in hot weather, should be loose-fitting
Is there a potential for a flash fire (e.g., vapor light cotton underwear. Such garments absorb perspira-
pockets or rapid releases of flammable com- tion and act as a wick for evaporation, thus aiding
pounds)? cooling. To protect the skin from contact with hot inner
Is there a potential for explosions, blasts, and frag- suit surfaces and reduce the possibility of burns in hot
mentation (e.g., compressed gases, confined weather, loose-fitting, light cotton longsleeve shirts may
pockets of explosive vapors or dust, or shock- be needed. Under extreme temperature conditions,
sensitive compounds)? activities requiring use of PPE should be postponed
if possible.
• Liquid impoundments or open bulk liquid containers
Table 6.11 lists the ensemble components of the
Is there a potential for workers to fall into or be
widely used EPA levels of protection (Levels A, B, C,
immersed in liquids?
and D). In the EPA approach, a specific respirator
Does the depth of the liquid, the slope of the con-
is designated for each protection level, with the desig-
tainer, or the type of container walls prevent per-
nation based primarily on airborne-contaminant char-
sonnel from easily getting out if they fall in?
acterization with total organic vapor detectors. Typical
Are the materials likely to knock down or immo-
use of the EPA ensemble levels is described in Table
bilize workers who may be immersed?
6.12.
Are there any irreversible injuries or extreme
Tables 6.13 through 6.16 provide additional guid-
chronic risks associated with immersion-type
ance for adaptation of the EPA levels to site-specific
exposures?
PPE ensembles. The levels used in these tables are des-
• Radiation ignated as Levels 1, 2, 3, and 4 to distinguish them from
If radiation exposures are identified or anticipated, the ensembles as designated in the referenced EPA
consult a qualified health physicist. levels. The EPA designations are designed for general
applications in a variety of situations and include
Specialized PPE, such as fire fighters’ running or specifications that may or may not be applicable when
bunker coats and pants, proximity suits for radiant heat, considering site-specific conditions. Modification of
blast and fragmentation suits, and flotation devices or PPE ensembles must be based on data that provide suf-
safety lines for working around open bulk liquid con- ficient characterizations of the hazards and conditions
tainers or impoundments, are not designed to protect to which workers may be exposed. The PPE listed for
against other chemical exposures or general safety Levels 2, 3, and 4 does not specify respiratory equip-
hazards. Selection of a PPE ensemble requires consid- ment. The selection of respiratory equipment is dis-
eration of all available information about site condition cussed earlier in this chapter.
(see Chapter 4, Site Characterization), work practices Consider these lists as a starting point for ensem-
(see Chapter 7, Site Control and Work Practices), ble creation. To provide the most appropriate level of
and decontamination requirements (see Chapter 8, protection, the ensembles should be tailored to the spe-
Decontamination). cific situation.
If work is being conducted at a highly con-
SELECTION OF A PPE ENSEMBLE taminated site or the potential for contamination is
high, it may be advisable to wear a disposable covering
LEVEL OF PROTECTION
over the suit. Tyvek coveralls or PVC splash suits can be
Up to this point, only the individual components of used. A slit must be made in the back of these suits to
a PPE ensemble have been described. The final goal, fit around the bulge of the encapsulating suit and
however, is to assemble the necessary components into SCBA.
a full ensemble that both protects the worker from the The type of equipment used and the overall level
site-specific hazards and minimizes the hazards and of protection should be reevaluated periodically as the
drawbacks of the PPE ensemble itself. amount of information about the site increases and
In developing an ensemble, note that NIOSH workers are required to perform different tasks. Per-
approves a fully encapsulated suit with either (1) an sonnel should be able to upgrade their level of protec-
ALR, a combination ALR-SCBA, or an SCBA worn tion if, after discussion with the SSO, they feel it is
inside the suit or (2) a respirable air supply providing necessary and the SSO approves. Any downgrading of
air directly to the fully encapsulating suit through an air protection also must be approved by the SSO.
TABLE 6.11 EPA Protective Ensembles
Level of Protection Limiting
Protection Equipment Provided Use Criteria Criteria
Level A Required The highest level Total atmospheric concentration of unidentified
• Pressure-demand SCBA of respiratory, gases or vapors exceeds 500 ppm, as measured
• Fully encapsulating chemical-resistant suit skin, and eye by some types of total organic vapor analyzer
• Inner and outer chemical-resistant gloves protection Known or potential presence of extremely
• Chemical-resistant boots with steel toe and shank hazardous chemical
• Two-way radio communications
Known or potential presence of toxic chemical
Optional that can injure or be absorbed through the skin
• Coveralls
• Long cotton underwear Operations that must be conducted in confined,
• Disposable protective suit, gloves, and boots poorly ventilated areas until the absence of
hazards requiring Level A protection is
demonstrated
Level B Required The same level Oxygen-deficient, nauseating, or irritating Total atmospheric concentration of
• Pressure-demand SCBA of respiratory atmosphere where the exact type of chemical unidentified gases or vapors does
• Chemical-resistant clothing (overalls and long sleeve protection but present is unknown not exceed 500 ppm
jacket; coveralls; hooded one- or two-piece chemical less skin Concentrations of unidentified gases or vapors Gases and vapors are not
splash suit; disposable chemical resistant coveralls) protection than exceed 5 ppm (but less than 500 ppm) as suspected of containing high
• Inner and outer chemical-resistant gloves Level A; the measured by some type of total organic vapor levels of chemicals that can injure
• Chemical-resistant boots with steel toe and shank minimum level analyzer or be absorbed through the skin
• Hard hat recommended
• Two-way radio communications for initial site
Optional entries until the
• Coveralls hazards have
• Disposable outer boots been further
• Face shield identified
Level C Required The same level Danger of splashing Atmosphere contains at least
• Full-face, air-purifying canister equipped respirator of skin protec- 19.5% oxygen The types of air
• Chemical-resistant clothing tion as Level B contaminants have been identified,
• Chemical-resistant gloves but a lower level concentrations measured, and
• Chemical-resistant boots with steel toe and shank of respiratory canister is available that can
• Hard hat protection remove the contaminant
Airborne contaminants possess
properties that warn of exposure
Level D Required No respiratory Does not provide adequate protection for use Atmosphere contains at least
• Coveralls protection in contamination exclusion zones 19.5% oxygen
• Chemical-resistant boots with steel toe and shank (except for Atmosphere contains no known
• Five-minute escape mask emergency hazard
• Safety glasses or chemical splash goggles escape);
minimal skin Work function preclude splashes,
Optional immersion, or the potential for
• Gloves protection
unexpected inhalation of any
• Outer chemical-resistant disposable boots (required if chemicals
leather boots are worn) Only boots may be contaminated
• Hard hat
• Face shield
62 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
TABLE 6.12 Use of EPA Ensembles • change in work task that will reduce contact with haz-
ardous materials
Level A Highest level of respiratory, skin, eye, and
mucous membrane protection. Generally PPE USE
used where extremely hazardous substances PPE can offer the highest degree of protection only if
are known to be present in high atmospheric it is used properly. This section covers the following
concentrations, where Level B splash gear
aspects of PPE use:
does not offer adequate protection against
any dermally active substances present, or • training
where materials and concentrations are
known. • work mission duration
Level B Highest level of respiratory protection but • personal use factors
lesser level of skin and eye protection. • donning an ensemble
Generally used in situations where the
chemical is known, the atmosphere is oxygen
• respirator fit testing
deficient, no IDLH concentrations of • in-use monitoring
substances that pose a respiratory hazard are
• doffing an ensemble
present, or dermal contact with a hazardous
substance is unlikely. The level of protection • clothing reuse
is normally a minimum used for initial • inspection
response or reconnaissance, unless the
respiratory hazards allow a lower level of • storage
respiratory protection than an SCBA. • maintenance
Level C Generally comprising splash gear and an air-
purifying respirator. Provides adequate Decontamination is covered in Chapter 8. Inadequate
protection when the type of airborne attention to any of these areas could result in clothing
substance is known, its concentration is and equipment that is inappropriate or unsafe for use.
measured, the criteria for using air-purifying
respirators are met, and skin exposure is TRAINING
unlikely. Use of this level of protection
Training in PPE use is required by OSHA regulation 29
requires continuing measurements of air
CFR 1910. Training accomplishes the following:
contaminants to ensure that IDLH
concentrations do not exist and that the • allows the user to become familiar with the equip-
concentrations of the contaminants present
ment in a nonhazardous situation
do not exceed the service limits of the
respirator. • instills user confidence in the equipment
Level D Primarily a work uniform. Should not be worn • increases the efficiency of work operations per-
in any hazardous environment. It is used formed in PPE
when there is no indication of hazardous • may increase the protective efficiency of PPE use
conditions and the work function precludes
contact with any hazardous substance. • reduces maintenance expenses
Training must take place at least annually and
should be completed prior to actual PPE use in a haz-
Reasons to upgrade include the following: ardous environment. At a minimum, the training
• known or suspected presence of dermal chemicals portion of the PPE program should delineate the user’s
responsibilities and explain the following (using both
• occurrence or likely occurrence of detonation or gas classroom and field training when necessary):
emission
• change in work task that will increase contact or • the operation of the selected PPE, including its
potential contact with hazardous materials capabilities and limitations
• request of individual performing task • the nature of the hazards and the consequences of not
using PPE
Reasons to downgrade include the following: • the human factors influencing PPE performance
• new information indicating the situation is less • instruction in inspecting, donning, doffing, checking,
hazardous than originally thought fitting, and use of PPE
• change in site conditions that decreases the hazard • individualized quantitative PPE fitting
TABLE 6.13 Level 1 Personal Protective Clothing and Equipment
Description Protective clothing and equipment designed to provide maximum protection and prevent
contact of skin and body with hazardous substances.
Conditions Site conditions and work function involve high potential for splash, immersion, or exposure to
unexpected vapors, gases, or particulates.
Direct skin and eye contact with hazardous compounds or air contaminants may cause severe
damage and/or irreversible side effects.
Exposures above IDLH and/or threshold limit value (TLV) concentrations may be encountered.
Compounds and/or skin effects suspected or not known.
Emergency entry Suspect highly toxic compounds on-site.
or initial entry— Use viton or butyl rubber.
contaminants Rule out unacceptable protective materials.
unknown Reevaluate protective materials and level of protection as contaminants are identified/classified.
Personal Pressure-demand self-contained breathing apparatus
protective Fully encapsulating chemical-resistant suit (including boots and gloves)
clothing and Coveralls (outer)-chemical-resistant, disposableb
equipmenta Light, loose-fitting cotton underwearb
Gloves
Chemical-resistant outer gloves (intrinsic to suit)
Chemical-resistant outer gloves (worn over glove attached to suit)b
Chemical-resistant inner gloves
Cloth or leather work gloves (disposed of after use)
Boots—chemical-resistant, steel toe and shank (steel metatarsalb); work over or under fully
encapsulating suit (depending on suit construction)
Boot covers—chemical-resistant (disposable)b
Hard hat (under suit)
Two-way radio communication (intrinsically safe)
a
Adapted from EPA recommendations for Level A personal protection.
b
Optional.
TABLE 6.14 Level 2 Personal Protective Clothing and Equipment
Description Protective clothing and equipment designed to minimize or prevent contact of skin and body
surfaces with hazardous substances.
Conditions Direct skin and eye contact with hazardous compounds or air contaminants may cause severe
damage and/or irreversible effects.
Work function precludes exposures of unprotected areas of the face above TLV concentrations.
Concentrations of sun-absorbing compounds less than TLV.
Initial entry— Off-site investigations and observations do not indicate highly toxic waste present.
contaminants Use viton or butyl rubber.
unknown Rule out inappropriate protective material.
Reevaluate protective material and level of protection as wastes are identified/classified.
Personal Protective creams and gelsb
protective Chemical-resistant clothing options
clothing and Hooded chemical-resistant coveralls (disposable)b
equipmenta One-or two-piece chemical splash suit
Hooded chemical-resistant leggings and/or sleeve protectors
Chemical-resistant apronb
Coveralls (outer)b—chemical-resistant, disposableb
Light, loose-fitting cotton underwear
Gloves
Chemical-resistant outer gloves (extended cuff)b
Chemical-resistant inner gloves
Cloth or leather work gloves (disposable of after use)b
Boots—chemical-resistant, steel toe and shank (steel metatarsal)b
Boot covers—chemical-resistant (disposable)b
Hard hat (face shield)b
Two-way radio communication (intrinsically safe)
a
Adapted from EPA recommendations for Level B personal protection.
b
Optional.
64 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
TABLE 6.15 Level 3 Personal Protective Clothing and Equipment
Description Protective clothing and equipment designed to minimize contact with hazardous substances.
Conditions Limited direct skin and eye contact with hazardous compounds or air contaminants will not result
in severe damage and/or irreversible effects.
Work function potential for only minor splashes and excludes total body splashes or immersion.
Concentrations of skin-absorbing compounds less than TLV.
Personal Chemical-resistant clothing
protective Hooded chemical-resistant coveralls (disposable)b
clothing and Hooded two-piece chemical splash suit
equipmenta Chemical-resistant hood and apronc
Leggings and/or sleeve protectorsc
Coveralls (outer)b
Gloves
Chemical-resistant outer gloves
Chemical-resistant inner gloves
Cloth or leather work gloves (disposed of after use)
Boots—chemical-resistant, steel toe and shank (steel metatarsal)b
Boot covers—chemical-resistant (disposable)b
Hard hat
Face shield and/or chemical splash goggles (optional if respirator includes full face piece)c
Escape maskb
Two-way radio communication (intrinsically safe)
a
Adapted from EPA recommendations for Level B personal protection.
b
Optional.
c
Protection from chemical spills or splashes; generally not used for protection from air contaminants.
TABLE 6.16 Level 4 Personal Protective Clothing and Equipment
Description Protective clothing and equipment designed to protect worker from common workplace hazards and
minimize contact with contaminated materials.
Conditions Compounds of concern do not have adverse skin and eye effects.
No hazardous air pollutants measured or anticipated.
Work function precludes splashes, immersion, or potential for unexpected respiratory hazards.
No exposures anticipated above TLV levels.
Personal Coveralls (disposable)b
protective Gloves—cloth or leather, and/or waterproof work gloves
clothing and Boots/shoes—leather or chemical-resistant, steel toe and shank (also metatarsal if protection of top
equipmenta of foot required)
Boot covers—chemical-resistant (disposable)b
Hard hat
Face shield and/or chemical splash goggles (optional if respirator includes full face piece)c
Escape maskb
Two-way radio communication (intrinsically safe)
a
Adapted from EPA recommendations for Level B personal protection.
b
Optional.
c
Protection from chemical spills or splashes; generally not used for protection from air contaminants.
• use of PPE in normal air for a prolonged period and • how to recognize emergencies
wearing PPE in a test atmosphere to evaluate its
effectiveness • emergency procedures and self-rescue in the event of
PPE failure
• the user’s responsibility for decontamination, clean-
ing, maintenance, and repair of PPE • the buddy system
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT 65
• the site emergency plan and the individual’s respon- a matter of concern. Some possible causes of ensemble
sibilities and duties in an emergency penetration follow:
Since PPE use often causes discomfort and incon- • suit valve leakage, particularly under excessively hot
venience, there is a natural resistance to wearing it. The or cold temperatures
major thrust of training must be to make the user aware • suit fastener leakage if the suit is not properly main-
of the need for PPE and to instill the motivation to wear tained or if the fastener becomes loose or brittle at
and maintain it. excessively hot or cold temperatures
• exhalation valve leakage at excessively hot or cold
WORK MISSION DURATION temperatures
Before workers actually begin work in their PPE
ensembles, the anticipated duration of the work mission Also, when considering mission duration, remember
should be established. Several factors limit mission that all CPC has limitations:
length. These include the following:
• No one clothing material is an effective barrier to all
• oxygen/air supply consumption chemicals or all combinations of chemicals.
• suit/ensemble penetration • No material is an effective barrier to prolonged
chemical exposure.
• coolant supply
• Commercially available clothing provides no more
• ambient temperature
than one hour’s protection against certain chemicals
and chemical combinations.
Oxygen/Air Supply Consumption The duration
of the air supply must be considered before planning • Chemical resistance estimates often refer only to
any SCBA-assisted work activity. The anticipated oper- resistance to degradation. Check to find out whether
ating time of an SCBA is clearly indicated on the resistance estimates being used include resistance to
breathing apparatus. Devices that operate for up to four permeation.
hours are available. The designated operating time is
based on a moderate work rate—some lifting, carrying, Coolant Supply The amount of coolant carried
and/or heavy equipment operation. In actual operation, by the wearer significantly influences mission duration.
however, several factors can reduce the rated operating If a coolant (ice or chilled air; see Table 6.8) is neces-
time by up to 50%. When planning an SCBA-assisted sary to keep workers at a comfortable temperature, the
work mission, consider the following variables and coolant supply will affect mission duration. Adequate
adjust work actions and durations accordingly: coolant should be provided to enable workers to com-
plete the mission in comfort. Remote coolant supplies,
• Work rate. The actual in-use duration of SCBAs may such as supplied-air suits or two-stage refrigeration
be reduced by 30% to 50% during strenuous work systems, can extend duration at the expense of a trail-
(e.g., drum handling, major lifting, or any task requir- ing umbilical cord and increased ensemble complexity.
ing repetitive speed of motion).
Ambient Temperature The ambient temperature
• Fitness. Well-conditioned individuals generally use has a major influence on mission duration as it affects
oxygen more efficiently and can extract more oxygen
both the worker and the protective integrity of the
from a given volume of air (particularly when per-
ensemble. Heat stress, which can occur even in relatively
forming strenuous tasks) than unfit individuals,
moderate temperatures, is the greatest immediate
thereby increasing unit duration.
danger to an ensemble-encapsulated worker. Methods
• Body size. Larger individuals generally consume air to monitor for and prevent heat stress are discussed in
at a higher rate than smaller individuals, thereby the final section of this chapter. Hot and cold ambient
decreasing unit duration. temperatures also affect the following:
• Breathing patterns. Quick, shallow, or irregular
breaths use air more rapidly than deep, regularly • valve operation on suits and/or respirators
spaced breaths. Heat-induced anxiety and lack of • the durability and flexibility of suit materials
acclimatization may induce hyperventilation, thereby
• the integrity of suit fasteners
decreasing unit duration.
• the breakthrough and permeation rates of chemicals
Suit/Ensemble Penetration The possibility of • the carbon dioxide scrubber efficiency on closed-
ensemble penetration during the work mission is always circuit SCBAs
66 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
• APR efficiency an encapsulating suit alone. Doing so also increases the
• airborne-contaminant concentration levels, perhaps possibility of suit damage. Therefore, be sure assistance
compromising protection factors on current-use res- is provided for both donning and doffing.
pirators The procedures outlined here for donning a fully
encapsulating SCBA ensemble are for certain types of
All these factors may decrease the duration of protec- suits. These procedures should be modified for the par-
tion provided by a given piece of clothing or respiratory ticular suit or when extra gloves or boots are used.These
equipment. procedures assume that the wearer has previous train-
ing in SCBA use and decontamination procedures.
When donning a suit, use a moderate amount of
PERSONAL USE FACTORS talcum powder to prevent chafing and to increase
Certain personal features may jeopardize worker safety comfort. Talcum powder also will reduce rubber
during equipment use. Prohibit or take precautionary binding. Perform the following procedures in the order
measures as indicated. indicated:
Facial hair and long head hair interfere with respi-
rator fit and visibility. Prohibit any facial hair that passes 1. Inspect the clothing and respiratory equipment
between the face and the sealing surface of the respira- before donning (see the section on inspection later
tor. Even a few days growth of stubble will allow ex- in this chapter).
cessive contaminant penetration. OSHA regulations 2. Adjust the hard hat or headpiece, if worn, to fit your
require removal of facial hair that interferes with respi- head.
rator fit tests. Long head hair must be effectively con- 3. Open the back enclosure (used to change the air),
tained within protective hair coverings. if the suit has one, before donning the suit.
Punctured eardrums allow contaminants to enter 4. Standing or sitting, step into the legs of the suit.
the respiratory tract. Persons with punctured eardrums Ensure proper placement of the feet within the suit,
should not be allowed on-site or should be required to then gather the suit around the waist.
wear only ensembles that enclose the entire head. 5. Put on chemical-resistant steel-toe and -shank
Eyeglasses with conventional earpiece bars may boots over the feet of the suit. Properly attach and
interfere with a proper fit when using a full-face respi- affix the suit’s leg over the top of the boots.
rator. Install a spectacle kit in the face masks of workers a. Put on additional chemical-resistant boots, if
requiring vision correction. required.
Contact lenses may absorb vapors and trap conta- b. If the suit has heavy-soled protective feet,
minants and/or particulates between the lens and the wear leather or short rubber safety boots inside
eye, causing irritation, damage, absorption, and an urge the suit.
to remove the respirator. Prohibit contact lens use on- 6. Put on the air tank and harness assembly of the
site. Install a spectacle kit in the face masks of workers SCBA. Don the face piece and adjust it to be secure
requiring vision correction. but comfortable. Do not connect the breathing
Facial features such as scars, hollow temples, very hose. Open the valve to the air tank.
prominent cheekbones, deep skin creases, dentures, or 7. Perform negative and positive respirator test pro-
missing teeth may interfere with a tight respirator fit. cedures (see the section on respirator fit testing).
Full dentures should be retained when wearing a respi- 8. Depending on the type of suit,
rator. Partial dentures may or may not have to be a. Put on long inner gloves (similar to surgical
removed, depending on the possibility of swallowing gloves).
them. Quarter masks may not fit properly if the wearer b. Secure detachable gloves to the sleeves (if not
has full lower dentures. done prior to donning the suit).
Prohibit gum and tobacco chewing during respira- c. Additional overgloves, worn over attached suit
tor use. gloves, may be donned later.
9. Put the sleeves of the suit over your arms as an
assistant pulls the suit up and over the SCBA. The
DONNING AN ENSEMBLE
assistant can adjust the suit around the SCBA and
The wearer must understand all aspects of ensemble shoulders to ensure unrestricted motion.
operation and its limitations. This is especially impor- 10. Raise the hood over the head carefully so as not to
tant for full-body encapsulating ensembles where dislodge the headpiece or disrupt the seal of the
misuse could result in suffocation. SCBA mask. Adjust the hood for satisfactory
The donning of a fully encapsulating ensemble is a comfort.
relatively simple task, but a routine must be established 11. Begin to secure the suit by closing all fasteners until
and practiced frequently. It is difficult for the user to don there is enough room only to connect the breathing
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT 67
hose. Secure all belts and/or adjustable bands these aerosols are highly irritating to the eyes, skin, and
around the legs, head, and waist. mucous membranes. The advantage of this test is that
12. Connect the breathing hose while opening the main an involuntary reaction (coughing or sneezing) is
valve. induced.The other qualitative fit tests are subjective and
13. Have the assistant ensure proper breathing, then rely on the wearer’s reaction and honesty. BitrexTM mist
make final closure of the suit. is a recently approved substance that has the benefit of
14. Have the assistant check all closures. being readily identified by the user and unpleasant to
15. Have the assistant observe the weaver for a period taste, however, the substance does not have the adverse
of time to make sure he/she is comfortable and psy- health hazard that is associated with irritant smoke.
chologically stable and the equipment is function- Although quantitative fit testing requires expen-
ing properly. sive equipment and is generally performed by manu-
facturers and testing organizations, portable testing
Once the ensemble has been donned, the fit should devices are available. Leakage is expressed as a per-
be evaluated. If it is too small, worker movement is centage of the test atmosphere outside the respirator
restricted, which increases the likelihood of tearing the and is called percent of penetration or simply penetra-
material and may accelerate fatigue. If it is too large, tion. Each test respirator is equipped with a sampling
the possibility of snagging the material is increased, and port to allow continual removal of an air sample from
the worker’s dexterity and coordination may be com- the face piece. The addition of the hole in the face piece
promised. In either case, locate better-fitting clothing for the quantitative test causes the NIOSH certification
prior to site entry. to become voided. Therefore, that test respirator may
only be used for test purposes and may not be used in
the field even if the hole is sealed. Once tested, the face
RESPIRATOR FIT TESTING
piece cannot be worn in service, as the test orifice
The fit or integrity of the face piece affects the respira- negates the approval of the respirator. Quantitative fit
tor’s performance. A secure fit is important with posi- testing is highly recommended for work in highly toxic
tive-pressure equipment and is essential to the safe or IDLH atmospheres.
functioning of negative pressure equipment, such as Each time a negative-pressure respirator is donned
APRs. Most face pieces fit only 60% of the population, for use, negative- and positive-pressure tests should be
thus, each face piece must be tested on the potential performed, if these tests can be performed on that par-
wearer to ensure a tight seal. ticular model. To conduct a negative-pressure test, close
To conduct qualitative fit testing, place the wearer in the inlet valve with the palm of the hand or squeeze the
an enclosed space, such as a plastic bag, and expose the breathing tube so it does not pass air, then gently inhale
user to isoamyl acetate (a low-toxicity substance that for about ten seconds. Any inward rushing of air indi-
tastes like banana oil), a sweet saccharin-water mist, cates a poor fit. This is only a gross determination of fit,
BitrexTM (bitter mist), or an irritant smoke. The wearer for example, a leaking face piece may be drawn tightly
should breathe normally, move the head side to side and to the face to form a good seal, giving a false indication
up and down, talk, perform exercises in an exaggerated of adequate fit. To conduct a positive-pressure test,
imitation of the task(s) to be performed, and then gently exhale (while covering the exhalation valve, if
breathe deeply, as during heavy exertion. If the wearer possible) to ensure that a positive pressure can be built
detects any of the test substance (banana-like smell, up. Failure to build up a positive pressure indicates a
sweet taste, bitter taste; or irritation, coughing, or poor fit. Conduct both tests carefully to prevent dis-
choking, respectively) the fit is inadequate. If the wearer rupting a good fit or damaging the valves.
does not detect any of the test substance,assign the exclu-
sive use of that respirator to the worker or make the
IN-USE MONITORING
worker aware of the model and size respirator known to
provide the user with a proper fit. Conduct periodic During equipment use, encourage workers to report any
checks to ensure that proper fit is maintained. perceived problems or difficulties to their supervisor.
Fit tests have certain weaknesses. Isoamyl acetate These malfunctions include but are not limited to the
is widely used in fit testing of organic vapor APRs, but following:
its odor threshold varies among individuals. Also,
isoamyl acetate can dull the sense of smell, thereby • discomfort
raising the detection threshold to very high levels. • resistance to breathing
Irritant smoke also is used widely for fit testing. The irri- • fatigue due to respirator use
tant, commonly stannic chloride or titanium tetrachlo-
ride, comes in sealed glass tubes that are broken • interference with vision or communication
open at test time. Perform this test with caution, since • restriction of movement
68 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
If an ALR is being used, remove all hazards that provides protection against any contamination still
might endanger the integrity of the air line prior to use. present.
During use, keep air lines as short as possible and keep 5. Follow steps 1 through 9 of the regular doffing pro-
other workers and vehicles away from the area. cedure. The wearer should take extra care to avoid
contaminating the assistant and his/herself.
DOFFING AN ENSEMBLE
CLOTHING REUSE
Exact procedures for removing fully encapsulating
ensembles must be established and followed to prevent Chemicals that have begun to permeate clothing during
contaminant migration from the work area and transfer use may not be removed during decontamination and
of contaminants to the wearer’s body, the doffing assis- may continue to diffuse through the material toward the
tant, and others. The following procedure assumes that inside surface, presenting the hazard of direct skin
appropriate decontamination procedures, commensu- contact to the next person who uses the clothing.
rate with the type(s) and degree of contamination, have Where such hazards may develop, clothing should
already occurred (see Chapter 8, Decontamination). be checked inside and out for discoloration (see the
This procedure also assumes the availability of a suit- next section) or, if possible, by swipe testing for chemi-
ably attired helper. Throughout the procedure, avoid cals before reuse. This is particularly important for full-
any contact with the outside surface of the suit. body encapsulating suits, which are generally subject to
reuse due to their cost. Note that negative (i.e., no chem-
1. Remove any extraneous or disposable clothing, boot ical found) test results do not necessarily preclude the
covers, or gloves. possibility that some absorbed chemical has reached the
2. Have the assistant loosen and remove the steel-toe suit’s interior.
and -shank boots. At present, little documentation exists regarding
3. Have the assistant open the front of the suit to allow clothing reuse. In making a decision on reuse, one must
access to the SCBA regulator. Leave the breathing consider the known permeation rates as well as the
hose attached as long as there is sufficient pressure. toxicity of the contaminant(s). Unless extreme care is
4. Have the assistant open the suit completely, lift the taken to ensure decontamination, the reuse of CPC with
hood over the wearer’s head, and rest the hood on highly toxic chemicals is not advisable.
top of the SCBA tank.
5. The wearer’s arms should be removed from the suit INSPECTION
one at a time. Once the arms are free, have the
An effective PPE inspection program will feature five
assistant lift the suit up and away from the SCBA
different inspections:
backpack, avoiding any contact between the outside
surface of the suit and the wearer’s body. Lay the
• inspection and operational testing of equipment
suit out flat behind the wearer leaving internal
received from the factory or distributor
gloves on.
6. Sitting, if possible, remove both legs from the suit. • inspection of equipment as it is issued to workers
7. Remove internal gloves by rolling them off the hand, • inspection after use or training and prior to
inside out. maintenance
8. Proceed to the clean area and follow the procedure
• periodic inspection of stored equipment
for doffing the SCBA.
9. Remove the wearer’s internal clothing and thor- • periodic inspection when a question arises concern-
oughly cleanse the wearer’s body. ing the appropriateness of the selected equipment or
when problems with similar equipment arise
This procedure assumes that a sufficient air supply
is available, allowing appropriate decontamination Each inspection will cover somewhat different areas in
before removal. However, if the low-pressure warning varying degrees of depth. Detailed inspection proce-
alarm has sounded, signifying that approximately five dures, where appropriate, are usually available from the
minutes of air is remaining, follow this procedure: manufacturer. The inspection checklists provided in
Table 6.17 also may be helpful.
1. Remove disposable clothing. Records must be kept of all inspection procedures.
2. Quickly scrub and hose off the suit, especially around Assign individual identification numbers to all reusable
the entrance/exit zipper. pieces of equipment (respirators may have ID numbers
3. Open the zipper enough to allow access to the regu- already) and maintain records by that number. In con-
lator and breathing hose. junction with each inspection, record as a minimum the
4. Immediately attach an organic vapor, acid gas, dust, ID number, date, inspector, and any unusual conditions
mist, or fume canister to the breathing hose. This or findings. A periodic review of these records may indi-
TABLE 6.17 Personal Protective Equipment Inspection Checklists
Clothing
Before use:
Determine that the construction material is correct for the specified task at hand.
Visually inspect for the following:
Imperfect seams
Nonuniform coatings
Tears
Malfunctioning closures
Hold the material up to light and check for pinholes.
Flex the product and look for the following:
Cracks
Other signs of shelf deterioration
If the product has been used previously, inspect it inside and out for signs of chemical attack:
Discoloration
Swelling
Stiffness
During the work task, inspect periodically for the following:
Evidence of chemical attack such as discoloration, swelling, stiffening, and softening. Keep in mind, however,
that chemical permeation can occur without any visible effects.
Closure
Tears
Punctures
Seam discontinues
Gloves
Before use, pressurize glove to check for pinholes. Either blow into the glove, then roll the gauntlet toward the
fingers, or inflate the glove and hold it underwater. In either case, no air should escape.
Fully Encapsulating Suits
Before use:
Check the operation of the pressure-release valves.
Inspect the fitting of wrists, ankles, and neck.
Check the face shield for cracks, crazing, and fogginess.
Self-Contained Breathing Apparatuses (SCBAs)
Incept SCBAs prior to each use, weekly when in storage, and every time they are cleaned.
Check all connections for tightness.
Check the material for signs of the following:
Pliability
Deterioration
Distortion
Check for proper setting and operations of regulators, gauges, and valves (according to manufacturer’s
recommendations).
Check operation of alarm(s).
Check face shields and lenses for the following:
Cracks
Crazing
Fogginess
Check the air cylinder for full charge and inspect for dents, gouges, or other damage that could cause loss of
cylinder integrity.
Confirm that required hydrostatic tests have been conducted in accordance with intervals prescribed by the
manufacturer.
Air-Line Respirators (ALRs)
Inspect ALRs prior to each use, weekly when in storage, and every time they are cleaned.
Inspect air-lines prior to each use for cracks, kinks, cuts, and fraying and weak areas.
Check proper setting and operation of regulators and valves (according to manufacturer’s recommendations).
Check operation of alarm(s).
Check all connections for tightness.
(continued)
70 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
TABLE 6.17 (Continued)
Check the material for signs of the following:
Pliability
Deterioration
Distortion
Check face shields and lenses for the following:
Cracks
Crazing
Fogginess
Air-Purifying Respirators (APRs)
Inspect APRs before each use to be sure they have been adequately cleaned, after each use, during cleaning, and
monthly if in storage for emergency use.
Check the material for signs of the following:
Pliability
Deterioration
Distortion
Examine cartridges or canisters to ensure that
They contain the proper sorbents
The expiration date has not expired
They have not been opened or used previously
Check face shields and lenses for the following:
Cracks
Crazing
Fogginess
cate an item or type of item with excessive maintenance MAINTENANCE
costs or a particularly high level of downtime.
The technical depth of maintenance procedures varies.
STORAGE Manufacturers frequently restrict the sale of certain
PPE parts to those specially trained, equipped, and
PPC and respirators must be stored properly to prevent authorized to purchase them. Adopt explicit procedures
damage or malfunction due to exposure to dust, mois- to ensure that maintenance is performed only by those
ture, sunlight, damaging chemicals, extreme tempera- having this specialized training and equipment. The fol-
tures, and impact. Procedures must be specified for both lowing classification scheme is often used to divide
preissuance warehousing and, more importantly, postis- maintenance into three levels:
suance (in-use) storage. Many equipment failures can
be directly attributed to improper storage. • Level 1—user or wearer maintenance, requiring a few
common tools or no tools at all
PPC • Level 2—shop maintenance, which can be performed
by the owner’s maintenance shop
• Store contaminated PPC in an area separate from
street clothing. • Level 3—specialized maintenance, which can be
performed only by the factory or an authorized
• Store contaminated PPC in a well-ventilated area repair depot
with good airflow around each item, if possible.
• Do not mix different materials and types of PPC in HEAT STRESS AND OTHER
storage. PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS
Wearing permeation-resistant protective clothing and
Respirators equipment puts a hazardous waste worker at consider-
able risk for developing heat stress (the inability to
• Dismantle, wash, and disinfect SCBAs, ALRs, and release body heat), a condition that can range from tran-
APRs after each use. sient heat fatigue and lowered work tolerance to serious
• Store SCBAs in storage chests supplied by the man- illness or death. A number of interacting factors, includ-
ufacturer. Store APRs individually in their original ing environmental conditions, clothing, work load,
cartons or carrying cases or in heat-sealed or reseal- and individual worker characteristics cause heat stress.
able plastic bags. Because heat stress is probably one of the most
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT 71
common (and potentially serious) illnesses at hazardous Monitor workers wearing semipermeable or imper-
waste sites, regular monitoring and other preventive meable encapsulating ensembles when the ambient
measures are vital. temperature is above 70°F. It also may be necessary
Individuals vary in their susceptibility to heat to monitor them at lower temperatures if the humidity
stress. Factors that may predispose someone to heat is high. (Although no protective ensemble is com-
stress include the following: pletely impermeable, for practical purposes, an outfit
may be considered impermeable when calculating heat
• lack of physical fitness stress risk.)
• lack of acclimatization To monitor workers, measure the following:
• age • Heart rate. Count the radial pulse during a 30-second
• dehydration period immediately following the end of a work
period. If the heart rate exceeds 140 beats per minute
• obesity
at the end of a work period and 100 beats per minute
• alcohol and drug use at the end of a rest period, shorten the next work
• infection cycle by one-third or lengthen the rest period by one-
third. If the heart rate still exceeds 140 beats per
• sunburn
minute at the end of the next work cycle, shorten the
• diarrhea following work cycle by one-third or lengthen the rest
• chronic disease period by one-third.
• Oral temperature. Use a clinical thermometer (3
The amount and type of PPE worn are directly minutes under the tongue) or similar device. If the
related to reduced work tolerance and the risk of heat oral temperature exceeds 99.6°F, shorten the next
stress. Protective clothing and equipment add weight work cycle by one-third or lengthen the rest period
and bulk and diminish or prevent liquid and vapor by one-third. If the oral temperature still exceeds
exchange. This (1) severely reduces the body’s normal 99.6°F at the end of the next work cycle, shorten the
heat exchange mechanisms (evaporation, convection, following work cycle by one-third or lengthen the rest
and radiation) and (2) increases energy expenditure by period by one-third. Do not permit a worker whose
about 1.2% for every kilogram of added weight. (A oral temperature exceeds 100.6°F to wear a semiper-
bulky suit can increase by two to four times the energy meable or impermeable garment.
ordinarily needed to perform a task.)
When selecting PPE, carefully evaluate each item’s • Skin temperature. Measure the medial thigh temper-
ature after the skin temperature reaches its equilib-
health benefit against its potential for increasing the risk
of heat stress. Once you have selected the PPE, deter- rium level (usually after just 10 minutes of work in
mine the optimum length of the work period based on the heat). If the skin temperature exceeds 96.8°F
the following factors: (36°C), a worker will have difficulty maintaining an
acceptable heat balance. Consider the cessation of
• work rate work. If the skin temperature exceeds 98.6°F (37°C),
cease all work.
• ambient temperature and other environmental
factors • Body weight. Measure body weight at the beginning
and end of each workday to see whether enough
• type of protective ensemble fluids are being taken to prevent dehydration. Do not
• individual worker characteristics allow more than a 1.5% body weight loss in a
workday.
MONITORING
The frequency of physiological monitoring de-
Because the occurrence of heat stress depends on a pends on the air temperature adjusted for solar radia-
variety of factors, all workers, even those not wearing tion and the level of physical work (see Table 6.18).
PPE, should be monitored. Energy levels for work rarely exceed 250 kilocalories
For workers wearing permeable clothing (e.g., per hour, except for short bursts of hard labor. The
standard cotton or synthetic work clothes), follow the length of the work cycle will be governed by the fre-
recommendations for monitoring requirements and quency of the required physiological monitoring.
suggested work/rest schedules in Threshold Limit
Values for Heat Stress (ACGIH, 1998). If actual cloth- PREVENTION
ing worn differs from the ACGIH standard ensemble
in insulation value and/or wind and vapor permeability, Proper training and preventive measures will help avert
change the monitoring requirements and work/rest serious illness and loss of work productivity. Preventing
schedules accordingly. heat stress is particularly important because once
72 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
TABLE 6.18 Required Frequency of Physiological Monitoring
Adjusted Temperaturea Semipermeable Ensembleb Impermeable Ensembleb
90°F or above After each 45 minutes of work After each 15 minutes of work
87.5°F–90°F After each 60 minutes of work After each 30 minutes of work
82.5°F–87.5°F After each 90 minutes of work After each 60 minutes of work
77.5°F–82.5°F After each 120 minutes of work After each 90 minutes of work
72.5°F–77.5°F After each 150 minutes of work After each 120 minutes of work
a
Calculate the adjusted air temperature (ta adj) by using this equation: ta adj °F = °F + (13 ¥ % sunshine). Measure
air temperature (ta) with a standard mercury-in-glass thermometer, with the bulb shielded from radiant heat. Esti-
mate % sunshine by judging what percentage of the time the sun is not covered by clouds that are thick enough to
produce a shadow (100% sunshine = no cloud cover and a sharp, distinct shadow; 0% sunshine = no shadows).
b
When semipermeable or impermeable protective clothing is worn open, raise each temperature adjustment in
the left-hand column of the table by about 5% (this increases the threshold for each monitoring time). The exact
adjustment depends on the level of permeability of the clothing or the extent to which an impermeable garment can
be safely opened.
someone suffers from heatstroke or heat exhaustion, Urge workers to drink 8 to 16 ounces of water
that person is predisposed to additional heat injuries. every 15 to 20 minutes.
To avoid heat stress, management should take the Weigh workers before and after work to determine
following steps: whether fluid replacement is adequate.
• See that workers maintain an optimal level of physi-
• Adjust work schedules. Modify work/rest schedules cal fitness.
according to monitoring requirements (generally, for Provide an aerobic and/or other exercise program.
every hour of work, allow 30 minutes of rest). Acclimatize workers to site work conditions: tem-
Mandate work slowdowns as needed. perature, protective clothing, and work load.
Rotate personnel. Alternate job functions to mini- Urge workers to maintain normal weight levels.
mize overstress or overexertion at one task. Discourage smoking and alcohol consumption
Perform work during cooler hours of the day, if during off-hours.
possible. • Provide cooling devices to aid natural body ventilation
• Provide shelter or shaded areas to protect personnel during prolonged work or severe heat exposure:
during rest periods. field showers or hose-down areas to reduce body
temperature and/or cool off protective clothing
• Maintain workers’ body fluids at normal levels. This cooling jackets, vests, or suits (see Table 6.8 for
is necessary to ensure that the cardiovascular system details)
functions adequately. Daily fluid intake must approx- loose-fitting cotton underwear and/or clothing to
imately equal the amount of water lost in sweat (i.e., help absorb moisture and protect skin from
8 ounces of water must be ingested for every 8 ounces direct contact with heat-absorbing protective
of perspiration lost). A worker in an impermeable clothing
ensemble performing a moderately intense task at an
adjusted temperature exceeding 85°F could lose as • Train workers to recognize and treat heat stress. As
much as one quart of sweat per hour (two gallons in part of this training, identify the symptoms of heat
eight hours). The normal thirst mechanism is not stress (see Table 6.19).
sensitive enough to ensure that enough water will
OTHER FACTORS
be drunk to replace lost sweat. When heavy sweating
occurs, encourage the worker to drink more. Use PPE decreases worker performance. The magnitude of
these strategies: this effect varies considerably depending on the indi-
Maintain water temperature at 50°F to 60°F. vidual and the ensemble used. This section discusses the
Provide small disposable cups that hold about 4 demonstrated physiological responses to PPE, the indi-
ounces. vidual human characteristics that play a factor in these
Have workers drink two glasses (16 ounces) of fluid responses, and some of the precautionary and training
(preferably water or dilute drinks) before begin- measures that need to be taken to avoid PPE-induced
ning work. injury.
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT 73
The physiological factors that directly affect a maintain a lower skin and body temperature at a given
worker’s ability to function using PPE include the heat stress than an unacclimatized person. Sweat com-
following: position also becomes more dilute with acclimatization,
so less salt is lost in the sweat.
• physical condition Acclimatization can occur after just a few days of
• level of acclimatization exposure to a hot environment. NIOSH recommends a
progressive six-day acclimatization period for the unac-
• age climatized worker before allowing the individual to do
• gender full work on a hot job. Begin the first day with 50% of
• weight the anticipated work load and exposure time and add
10% each day through day 6. With fit or trained indi-
Physical Condition Physical condition is the viduals, the acclimatization period may be shortened by
most important factor in a person’s ability to endure two or three days.
work. The higher the degree of fitness, the heavier a Enclosed in an impermeable suit, a fit, acclimatized
work load one can safely tolerate. At a given level of individual may actually face a greater danger of heat
work, a fit person, relative to an unfit person, will have exhaustion than an unfit, unacclimatized individual.
This is because the fit, acclimatized individual sweats
• less physiological strain more than an unacclimatized individual. This higher
sweat rate may contribute to rapid dehydration and
• a lower heart rate an earlier onset of heat exhaustion. This can be pre-
• a lower rectal temperature, which indicates less vented by consuming adequate quantities of water.
retained body heat (a rise in internal temperature See the previous section on prevention for additional
precipitates heat injury) information.
• a more efficient sweating mechanism
Age Generally, maximum work capacity declines
• slightly lower air consumption with increasing age, but this is not always the case.
• slightly lower carbon dioxide production Active, well-conditioned seniors often have perfor-
mance capabilities equal to or greater than young,
Level of Acclimatization Acclimatization refers sedentary individuals. Some evidence, such as lower
to the physiological changes occurring within an indi- sweat rates and higher core temperatures, indicates that
vidual that reduce the strain caused by environmental older individuals are less effective in compensating for
heat stress. An acclimatized individual will generally a given heat stress. Older individuals also appear to
have a lower heart rate and body temperature than an become dehydrated more frequently and have a greater
individual who is unaccustomed to working in the heat. risk of heatstroke. At moderate thermal loads, however,
The acclimatized person also begins to sweat sooner the physiological responses of young and old persons
and in higher quantities. This enables the person to are similar and performance is not affected.
TABLE 6.19 Symptoms of Heat Stress
Term Cause Symptom
Heat rash Results from continuous exposure to heat or humid air. —
Heat cramps Caused by heavy sweating with inadequate fluid intake. Muscle spasms, and pain in the
hands, feet, and abdomen
Heat exhaustion Occurs when the body organs attempt to keep the Pale, cool, moist skin
body cool. Heavy sweating
Dizziness
Heatstroke This is the most serious form of heat stress. Red, hot, dry skin
Immediate action must be taken to cool the body Lack of perspiration
before serious injury or death occurs. Nausea
Dizziness and confusion
Strong, rapid pulse
Coma
74 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
Age should not be the sole criterion for judging BIBLIOGRAPHY
whether or not an individual should be subjected to
moderate heat stress. Fitness level is a more important American Conference of Governmental Industrial
factor. Hygienists (ACGIH). Guidelines for the Selection
of Chemical Protective Clothing. Cincinnati:
Gender The literature indicates that females tol- ACGIH, 1987.
erate heat stress at least as well as their male counter- American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Amer-
parts. Generally, a female’s work capacity averages 10% ican National Standard Protective Headwear for
to 30% less than a male’s work capacity. The primary Industrial Workers. Publication No. Z89.11981.
reasons for this are the greater oxygen-carrying capac- New York: ANSI, 1981.
ity and stronger heart of the male. However, a similar —— /ISEA 101. Limited-Use and Disposable Coveralls
situation exists as with aging: not all males have greater —Size and Labeling Requirements. Arlington, VA:
work capacities than all females. Therefore, maximum Industrial Safety Equipment Association, 1996.
performance, rather than gender, is more appropriate in “Approval of Respiratory Protective Devices.” Code of
the selection of workers. Federal Regulations Title 42, Part 84, 1996, pp.
528–593.
Weight The ability of a body to dissipate heat Campbell, C.L., G.P. Noonan, T.R. Marinar, and J.A.
depends on the ratio of its surface area to its mass Stobbe. (1994). “Estimated Workplace Protection
(surface area/weight). Heat loss (dissipation) is a Factors for Positive-Pressure Self-Contained
function of surface area. Heat production is dependent Breathing Apparatus,” Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J.
on mass. Heat balance is determined by the ratio of 55(IIII)(1994): 322–329.
the two. Colton, C.E., and T.J. Nelson. “Respiratory Protection.”
Obese and stocky individuals produce a lot of heat In The Occupational Environment: Its Evaluation
but do not have a proportionately large surface area. and Control. S.R. DiNardi, ed. Fairfax, VA:
Hence, they are not capable of rapidly dissipating the American Industrial Hygiene Association, 1997,
heat they produce and are susceptible to heat illness. In pp. 974–1000.
comparison, thin individuals have less weight and nearly Dukes-Dubos, F.N., and A. Henschel, eds. Proceedings
the same amount of surface area as obese persons and of a NIOSH Workshop on Recommended Heat
are able to dissipate heat much more rapidly. Therefore, Stress Standards. Cincinnati: U.S. Department of
it has been suggested that those exceeding their Health and Human Services, 1980.
optimum weight by 15% or more be excluded from Goldman, R.F. “Heat Stress in Industrial Protective
working in a hot job. The use of height–weight tables Encapsulating Garments.” In Protecting Personnel
are not recommended. More valid procedures are skin- at Hazardous Waste Sites, W.F. Martin and M.
fold measurements, anthropometry, and hydrostatic Gochfeld, eds. Boston, MA: Butterworth–
weighing. Heinemann, 2000.
——. Guidelines for the Selection of Chemical Protective
Clothing. 2d ed. Cincinnati: American Conference
SUMMARY
of Governmental Hygienists, Inc., 1985.
Since engineering controls are not readily implemented Held, B.J., and C.A. Horter. Effectiveness of Self-
at hazardous waste sites, PPE combined with good work Contained Breathing Apparatus in a Fire Environ-
practices is the primary means for minimizing the expo- ment. Livermore, CA: Lawrence Livermore
sure of workers to hazardous chemicals. PPE ranges National Laboratory, n.d.
from respirators to supplied-air systems to gloves to Hyatt, E.C. Respirator Protection Factors. Los Alamos,
full-body encapsulating ensembles. Proper selection of NM: Los Alamos National Laboratory, n.d.
PPE requires careful assessment of the risk hazard. Johnson, J.S., and K.J. Anderson, eds. Chemical Protec-
This assessment includes the chemicals involved, the tive Clothing. American Industrial Hygiene Associ-
skills of the workers, the tasks, and the duration of ation, Fairfax, VA, (Tel 703-849-8888), 1990.
potential exposures. PPE must then be selected on the Mansdorf, S.Z. Chapter 12 in Complete Manual of
basis of its demonstrated performance under such con- Industrial Safety. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-
ditions. With regard to clothing, chemical resistance is a Hall, 1993.
key concern and it must be recognized that there is no Marguglio, B.W. Environmental Management Systems.
universal barrier material. Once PPE has been selected New York: Marcel Dekker, 1991.
and purchased, it should be inspected for construction Myers, W.R., M. Jaraiedi, and L. Hendricks. “Effective-
flaws and function. Workers must be instructed as to the ness of Fit Check Methods on Half-Mask Respira-
use and limitations of PPE. Reuse requires special tors,” Appl. Occup. Environ. Hyg. 10 (1995):
attention to decontamination and storage. 934–942.
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT 75
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Chemical Protective Clothing. 3rd ed. Cincinnati,
(NIOSH). NIOSH Guide to Industrial Respiratory OH: American Conference of Government Indus-
Protection. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 87- trial Hygienists, 1987. Also, National Technical
116, September, 1987. Information Service (NTIS) No. AD-A179164 and
——. Respiratory Protective Devices: Final Rule and No. AD-A179516.
Notice. 42 CFR Part 84, June 8, 1995. Schwope, A.O., and L.I. Janssen. “Personal Protective
——. NIOSH Certified Equipment List. Publica- Equipment.” Chapter 9 in Protecting Personnel
tion No. 87-102. Morgantown, WV: NIOSH, at Hazardous Waste Sites. W.F. Martin and M.
1986. Gochfeld, eds. Boston, MA: Butterworth–
——. NIOSH Guide to the Selection and Use of Partic- Heinemann, 2000.
ulate Respirators Certified Under 42 CFR 84. Tanaka, S., Y. Seki, Y. Nakano, S. Kitamura, M. Shimada,
DHHS/NIOSH Pub. No. 96-101. Washington, DC: and H. Arito. “A Simple Method for Worksite
U.S. Department of Health and Human Ser- Detection of the Breakthrough of Used Respirator
vices/NIOSH, 1996. Cartridges.” (AIHA), 1998. American Industrial
“Respiratory Protection; Final Rule.” Federal Register Hygiene Assoc., Fairfax, VA.
63:5 (January 8, 1998); pp. 1152–1284. ——. Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances
Schwope, A.D., P.P. Costas, J.O. Jackson, and D.J. and Physical Agents in the Workplace Environment.
Weitzman. Guidelines for the Selection of Cincinnati: ACGIH, 1998.
7
SITE CONTROL AND WORK PRACTICES
he purpose of site control is to mini- • Establish work zones.
T mize potential contamination of
workers, protect the public from the
site’s chemical and physical hazards,
facilitate work activities, and prevent vandalism.
Site control is especially important in emergency
• Enforce the buddy system.
• Establish and strictly enforce decontamination
procedures (see Chapter 8).
situations to ensure communication, site access,
• Establish site security measures.
efficient evacuation, and response. This chapter • Set up communication networks.
describes the basic components of a program to
control the activities and movements of people,
• Enforce safe work practices.
materials, and equipment at a hazardous waste • Establish safe drum and container
site. Special attention is given to drum handling, management practices.
sampling, bulking, and equipment use. Engineer-
ing controls are recommended whenever equip- The degree of site control necessary
ment and barriers can separate workers from depends on site characteristics, site size, and
contact with hazardous materials and reduce the the surrounding community. Establish the site
risk of worker exposure. control program in the planning stages of a
Several site control procedures can be project and modify it based on new information
implemented to reduce worker and public and site assessments. Determine the appropri-
exposure to chemical and physical hazards: ate sequence for implementing these measures
on a site-specific basis. In many cases, it will be
• Compile a site map. necessary to implement several measures
• Prepare the site. simultaneously.
SITE MAP • accidents
A site map showing topographic features, predominant • changes in site activities
wind direction, drainage, and the location of buildings, • emergencies
containers, impoundments, pits, ponds, and tanks is
helpful in
• hazards not previously identified
• new materials introduced on the site
• planning activities • vandalism
• assigning personnel • weather conditions
• identifying access routes, evacuation routes, and
problem areas Use overlays to present information without cluttering
• identifying utilities, overhead electrical lines, and the map.
areas where equipment use is restricted based on safe
clearance requirements SITE PREPARATION
• identifying areas of the site that require the use of PPE
Time and effort must be spent in preparing a site for the
• supplementing the daily safety briefings of the cleanup activity and eliminating obvious physical
field teams hazards. This ensures that response operations go
smoothly and worker safety is protected. Site prepara-
Prepare the map prior to site entry and update it tion should meet the needs of the work plan. Table 7.1
throughout the course of site operations to reflect the presents the major steps in site preparation prior to any
following: cleanup activities.
77
78 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
TABLE 7.1 Site Preparation
Construct roadways to provide ease of access and a sound roadbed for heavy equipment and vehicles.
Arrange traffic flow patterns to facilitate efficient operations.
Eliminate physical hazards from the work area as much as possible, including the following:
• ignition sources in flammable hazard areas
• exposed or ungrounded electrical wiring and low overhead wiring that may entangle equipment
• sharp or protruding edges, such as glass, nails, and torn metal, which can puncture protective clothing and
equipment and inflict puncture wounds
• debris, holes, loose steps or flooring, protruding objects, slippery surfaces, or unsecured railings, which can
cause falls, slips, and trips
• unsecured objects, such as bricks and gas cylinders, near the edges of elevated surfaces, such as catwalks,
rooftops, and scaffolding, which can dislodge and fall on workers
• debris and weeds that obstruct visibility
Install skid-resistant strips on slippery surfaces.
Construct operation pads for mobile facilities and temporary structures.
Construct loading docks, processing and staging areas, and decontamination pads.
Provide adequate illumination for work activities. Equip temporary lights with guards to prevent accidental contact
and heavy-duty electric cords with connections and insulation maintained in good condition. Portable electric
lighting shall be operated at a maximum of 12 volts.
Required levels of illumination are listed in Table H-120.1 in 29 CFR 1910.120.
Ground temporary wiring in accordance with the National Electric Code. Sheath or otherwise protect all wiring.
Wherever possible, make any necessary open wiring inaccessible to unauthorized personnel. Splices should have
insulation equal to that of the cable.
SITE WORK ZONES
To reduce the accidental spread of hazardous sub-
stances by workers from the contaminated area to the
clean area, delineate zones where different types of
operations will occur and control the flow of personnel
among the zones. The establishment of work zones will
help to ensure that personnel are properly protected
against the hazards present where they are working,
confine work activities to the appropriate areas, and
locate and evacuate personnel in the event of emer-
gency. In all areas, follow good housekeeping practices
at all times. Uncontrolled hazardous substance sites are
generally divided into three zones:
1. Exclusion zone—the contaminated area.
2. Contamination reduction zone (CRZ)—the area
where decontamination takes place
3. Support zone—the uncontaminated area where
workers should not be exposed to hazardous
conditions
Base delineation of these three zones on sampling and Figure 7.1. A schematic presentation of work zones
monitoring results and on an evaluation of potential
routes and amounts of contaminant dispersion in the
event of a release. Limit movement of personnel
and equipment among these zones through specific
EXCLUSION ZONE
access control points to prevent cross-contamination
from contaminated areas to clean areas. A schematic The exclusion zone is the area where contamination
representation of the layout of work zones is given in does or could occur. The following primary activities are
Figure 7.1. performed in the exclusion zone:
SITE CONTROL AND WORK PRACTICES 79
• site characterization, such as mapping, photograph- tection may be justified based on the degree of hazard
ing, and sampling presented. Specify and mark in each subarea the level
• well installation for groundwater monitoring of personal protection required (see Chapter 6, Per-
sonal Protective Equipment).
• cleanup work, such as drum movement, drum staging, The required level of protection in the exclusion
and material bulking zone varies according to job assignment. For example,
a worker who collects samples from open containers
Establish the outer boundary of the exclusion zone, might require Level B protection, whereas one who
called the hot line, according to the criteria listed in performs walk-through ambient air monitoring might
Table 7.2. Clearly mark it with lines, placards, hazard need only Level C protection. When appropriate,
tape, or signs, or enclose it with physical barriers such assign different levels of protection within the exclusion
as chains, fences, or ropes. Establish access control zone to promote a more flexible, more effective, less
points at the periphery of the exclusion zone to regu- costly operation while still maintaining a high degree
late the flow of personnel and equipment into and out of safety.
of the zone and to help verify that proper procedures
for entering and exiting are followed. If feasible,
establish four access control points. Provide separate CONTAMINATION REDUCTION ZONE
entrances and exits for personnel and equipment. The CRZ is the transition area between the contami-
The exclusion zone can be subdivided into dif- nated area and the clean area. This zone is designed to
ferent areas of contamination based on the known or reduce the probability that the clean support zone will
expected types and degrees of hazard or on the incom- become contaminated or affected by other site hazards.
patibility of waste streams. This allows more flexibil- The distance between the exclusion and support zones,
ity in operations, decontamination procedures, and combined with decontamination, will limit the physical
resources. transfer of hazardous substances on workers and
The personnel requirements in the exclusion zone equipment.
may include the field team leader, the work parties, and Decontamination procedures begin at the hot line,
specialized personnel such as heavy equipment opera- the boundary between the exclusion zone and the CRZ.
tors. Require all personnel within the exclusion zone to Set up at least two lines of decontamination stations—
wear the level of protection described in the site health one for personnel and one for heavy equipment. A large
and safety plan. Within the zone, different levels of pro- operation may require more than two lines. Access into
and out of the CRZ from the exclusion zone is through
access control points—one each for personnel and
TABLE 7.2 Establishing the Hot Line equipment entrance and one each for personnel and
equipment exit, if feasible. The degree of contamination
Visually survey the immediate environs of the site. in the CRZ decreases as one moves from the hot line
Determine the locations of the following: into the support zone, due to the distance and the
hazardous substances decontamination procedures.
drainage, leachate, and spilled material The boundary between the support zone and the
visible discolorations CRZ, called the contamination control line, separates
Evaluate the data from the initial site survey indicating the possibly low contamination area from the clean
the presence of the following: support zone. Access to the CRZ from the support zone
combustible gases is through two access control points—one for personnel
organic and inorganic gases, particulates, or vapors and another for equipment. Require personnel entering
ionizing radiation
the CRZ to wear the protective clothing and equipment
Evaluate the results of soil and water sampling.
Consider the distances needed to prevent an explosion
prescribed for working in the CRZ. When workers
or fire from affecting personnel outside the reenter the support zone, require them to remove any
exclusion zone. protective clothing and equipment worn in the CRZ
Consider the distances that personnel must travel to and have them leave through the personnel exit access
and from the exclusion zone. control point.
Consider the physical area necessary for site The personnel stationed in the CRZ are usually the
operations. SSO, a personnel decontamination station (PDS) oper-
Consider meteorological conditions and the potential ator, and the emergency response personnel. Additional
for contaminants to be blown from the area. personnel may assist the PDS operator by operating a
Secure or mark the hot line. separate mini decontamination system for samples.
Modify its location, if necessary, as more information
The CRZ must be well laid out to facilitate the fol-
becomes available.
lowing activities:
80 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
• decontamination of equipment, PDS operators, per- • visibility—line of sight to all activities in the exclu-
sonnel, and samples sion zone
• emergency response, including transport of injured • wind direction—upwind of the exclusion zone, if
personnel (safety harness, stretcher), first aid equip- possible
ment (bandages, blankets, eyewash, splints, water), • distance—as far away as possible from the exclu-
and containment equipment (absorbent, fire extin- sion zone
guisher)
• equipment resupply, such as air tank changes, protec- THE BUDDY SYSTEM
tive clothing and equipment, sample equipment, One of the most important directives for any type of
and tools fieldwork, but especially vital for work around haz-
• sample packaging and preparation for on-site or off- ardous materials, is never work alone. No one should
site laboratories ever enter a contaminated or otherwise hazardous area
• worker temporary rest area, including toilet facilities, without a buddy who is able to
bench, chair, liquids, and shade (Water and other
• provide the partner with assistance
potable liquids should be clearly marked and stored
properly to ensure that all glasses and cups are clean. • observe the partner for signs of chemical or heat
Locate washing facilities near drinking facilities to exposure
allow employees to wash before drinking. Locate • periodically check the integrity of the partner’s pro-
drinking, washing, and toilet facilities in a safe area tective clothing
where protective clothing can be removed. Inspect
• notify the command post supervisor or others if
and clean facilities regularly.)
emergency help is needed
• drainage of water and other liquids used in the decon-
tamination process The access control point for personnel entrance to
the exclusion zone is a convenient location for enforc-
SUPPORT ZONE ing the buddy system for two reasons: (1) enforcement
The support zone is the location of the administrative is the responsibility of the team leader, who is stationed
and other support functions needed to keep the opera- in the CRZ, and (2) all personnel who enter the con-
tions in the exclusion zone and CRZ running smoothly. taminated area must pass through the control point.
Any function that need not or cannot be performed The buddy system alone may not be sufficient to
in a hazardous or potentially hazardous area is per- ensure that help will be provided in case of an emer-
formed here. The personnel present in the support gency. At all times, workers in the exclusion zone should
zone depend on the functions being performed. At a be in line-of-sight contact or communications contact
minimum, there is the command post supervisor. Others with the command post supervisor or backup person in
may include the project team leader and field team the support zone.
members who are preparing to enter or have returned
SITE SECURITY
from the exclusion zone.
Personnel may wear normal work clothes within Site security is necessary to:
this zone. Potentially contaminated clothing, equipment,
and samples must remain in the CRZ until they are • prevent the exposure of unauthorized, unprotected
decontaminated. people to site hazards
It is the responsibility of support zone personnel to • avoid the increased hazards from vandals or persons
alert the proper agency in the event of an emergency. seeking to dispose of other wastes on the site
Keep all emergency telephone numbers, change for the
telephone (if necessary), evacuation route maps, and
• prevent theft
vehicle keys in the support zone. • avoid interference with safe working procedures
Support facilities, listed in Table 7.3, are located in
the support zone. Consider the following factors when Site security can be maintained during working
locating these facilities: hours as follows:
• accessibility—topography, open space available, loca- • Maintain security in the support zone and at access
tion of highways and railroad tracks, and ease of control points.
access for emergency vehicles • Establish an identification system to identify autho-
• resources—adequate roads, power lines, telephones, rized persons and limitations to their approved
shelter, and water activities.
SITE CONTROL AND WORK PRACTICES 81
TABLE 7.3 Support Zone Activities
Facility Function
Command post Supervision of all field operations and field teams
Maintenance of communications, including emergency lines of communication
Record keeping, including the following:
accident reports
chain-of-custody records
daily logbooks
manifest directories and orders
medical records
personnel training records
site inventories
site safety map
up-to-date safety manuals
up-to-date site safety plans
Interfacing with the public: government agencies, local politicians, medical
personnel, the media, and other interested parties
Monitoring work schedules and weather changes
Maintenance of site security operations
Maintenance of sanitary facilities
Medical station First aid administration
Medical emergency response
Medical monitoring activities
Maintenance of sanitary facilities
Equipment and supply centers Supply, maintenance, and repair of communication, respiratory, and sampling
equipment
Maintenance and repair of vehicles
Replacement of expendable supplies
Storage of monitoring equipment and supplies here or in an on-site field
laboratory
Administration Sample shipment
Interfacing with home office
Maintenance of emergency telephone numbers, evacuation route maps, and
vehicle keys
Coordination with transporters, disposal sites, and appropriate federal, state,
and local regulatory agencies
Field laboratory Coordination and processing of environmental and hazardous samples
Packaging of materials for analysis following the decontamination of the
outside of the sample containers (This packaging also can be done in a
designated location in the contamination reduction zone. Keep shipping
papers and chain-of-custody files in the command post office.)
Maintenance of sampling plans and procedures for quick reference
Maintenance and storage of laboratory notebooks in designated locations in the
laboratory while in use (Keep notebooks in the command post office when
not in use.)
• Assign enforcement authority for entry and exit entering the site. Have trained site personnel accom-
requirements. pany visitors at all times and provide them with the
• Erect a fence or other physical barrier around the site. appropriate PPE.
• If the site is not fenced in, post signs around the Site security can be maintained during off-duty
perimeter and hire guards to patrol it. hours as follows:
• Have the project team leader approve all visitors to • If possible, assign trained, in-house technicians for
the site. Make sure they have a valid purpose for site surveillance. Such personnel should receive
82 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
detailed training concerning site hazards, the nature TABLE 7.4 Internal Communication
of the work, and respiratory protection and should
be qualified to provide support in the event of an Devices Example Emergency Signals
emergency.
• If necessary, hire private security guards to patrol the Radio*—citizens Establish code words
site boundary. Such personnel should be provided band or FM
a general overview of site hazards and work areas.
Noisemaker—bell, Three short blasts, pause, three
In the event that a guard suspects or observes a
air horn, megaphone, short blasts: given from
problem, the guard can refer to written instructions
or whistle downrange = assistance; given
identifying contacts to be notified and evacuation from command post = evacuate
procedures. Under no circumstance should a private area
security guard enter a posted hazard area or directly
handle any hazardous materials that may be released. Visual signal—flag Hand signals: clutching throat =
hand signals, lights, personal distress; arm waved in
• Coordinate security procedures with public enforce- or signal board a circle overhead given from
ment agencies, such as the local police and fire depart- downrange = need assistance;
ments, if the site presents a significant risk to local arm waved in a circle over
health and safety. head given from command
post = evacuate area
• Lock the equipment behind a fence.
• Remove the equipment from the site every day if the *All radios used in the exclusion zone and contami-
site is not fenced. nation reduction zones must be intrinsically safe and not
capable of sparking. Look for the Underwriters’ Labora-
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS tories (UL) green dot.
Use internal communication among the work zones to
• alert team members to emergencies
Check all communication systems daily to make sure
• pass along safety information, such as the amount of they are operating.
remaining air time Use external communication between on-site and
• communicate changes in work scope off-site personnel to
• maintain site control
• coordinate emergency response
Verbal communication at a site can be impeded by • report to management
background noise and the use of PPE. For example, • maintain contact with essential off-site personnel
speech transmission through a respirator can be poor,
and hearing can be impaired by protective hoods and The primary means of external communication are
respirator airflow. For effective communication, com- telephone and radio. If telephone lines are not installed
mands must be prearranged and should include audio at a site, be sure all team members know the location
and visual cues to help convey the message in situations of the nearest telephone. Make sure the correct change
where voice communication alone is not adequate. and necessary telephone numbers are readily available
Both a primary and a backup system are necessary. in the support zone.
Common communication devices are listed in Table 7.4.
Establish a set of signals for use only during emergen-
SAFE WORK PRACTICES
cies. Sample emergency signals for each type of com-
munication device also are given in Table 7.4. To maintain a strong safety awareness and enforce
Effective communication requires the identifica- safe procedures at a site, develop a list of standing
tion of individual workers so that commands can be orders stating the practices that must be followed and
addressed to the right worker. Mark the worker’s name those that must never occur in the contaminated
on the PPE or, for long-distance identification, add color areas. Develop a separate set of standing orders for the
coding, numbers, or symbols. Flags may be used to help CRZ and exclusion zone if the hazards are sufficiently
locate personnel in areas where visibility is poor due to different. An example of standing orders is given in
obstructions such as accumulated drums, equipment, Table 7.5. To ensure that everyone who enters the
and waste piles. site is aware of these orders and that a high degree of
All communication devices used in a potentially familiarity with their content is maintained, the list
explosive atmosphere must be inherently spark-free. should be:
SITE CONTROL AND WORK PRACTICES 83
TABLE 7.5 Example Set of Standing Orders include emergency shutoffs, rollover protection, seat
belts, safety harnesses, and backup warning lights and
For personnel entering the contamination zone: audio devices.
No smoking, eating, or drinking in this zone. • Provide and enforce warning signs such as “Unlawful
Sign in at the entrance access control point before to operate this equipment within 10 feet of all power
entering this zone. lines” on equipment such as cranes, derricks, and
Sign out at the exit access control point before
power shovels. Also post equipment restriction areas
leaving this zone.
where utilities and overhead electrical lines are
For personnel entering the exclusion zone: marked on the site safety map.
No smoking, eating, or drinking in this zone.
Sign in at the entrance access control point before • Use intrinsically safe (nonsparking) tools.
entering this zone. • In hydraulic power tools, use fire-resistant fluid that
Sign out at the exit access control point before is capable of retaining its operating characteristics at
leaving this zone. the most extreme temperatures.
Always have your buddy with you in this zone.
Wear your SCBA in this zone. • Use three-wire grounded extension cords with
If you discover any signs of radioactivity, explosivity, portable electric tools and appliances. Use ground-
or unusual conditions such as dead animals at the fault circuit interrupters on unprotected circuits to
site, exit immediately and report this finding to protect against line-to-ground short circuits.
your supervisor.
• At the start of each workday, inspect brakes,
hydraulic lines, light signals, fire extinguishers, fluid
levels, steering, and splash protection.
• distributed to everyone who enters the site • Keep all nonessential personnel out of the work area.
• posted conspicuously at the command post • Prohibit loose-fitting clothing, loose long hair, and
• posted conspicuously at the entrance access control jewelry around moving machinery.
points into the CRZ and/or the exclusion zone • Keep the cab free of all nonessential items and secure
• reviewed by the field team leader or project team all loose items.
leader with the field crew at the beginning of each • Do not exceed the rated load capacity of a vehicle.
workday to inform them of any new standing orders
• Instruct equipment operators to report to their super-
resulting from a change in site conditions or work
visor any abnormalities, such as equipment failure,
activities
oozing liquids, or unusual odors.
Also prepare and post conspicuously an employee • When an equipment operator must negotiate in tight
material safety data sheet (MSDS) or EPA hazardous quarters or is backing up, provide a second person to
substance data sheet that lists the names and properties act as a guide to direct the movement of the equip-
of chemicals present on-site. Brief employees at the ment and restrict the entry of persons or equipment
beginning of the project and all new employees on into the area required for equipment clearance.
the chemical information. Hold daily or weekly safety • Equip all on-site internal combustion engines with
review meetings as needed for all employees. spark arresters that meet requirements for hazardous
Working with tools and heavy equipment is a major atmospheres. Refuel in safe areas. Do not fuel engines
hazard at sites. Injuries can result from equipment while the vehicle is running.
hitting or running over personnel, flying objects, hot
objects, and damage to protective equipment such as
• Prohibit ignition sources near a fuel area.
ALRs. The following precautions will help prevent • Lower all blades and buckets to the ground and set
these hazards: parking brakes before shutting off the vehicle.
• Inspect all tools and moving equipment regularly
• Train personnel in operating procedures for each to ensure that parts are secured and intact with no
piece of equipment and develop an awareness of the evidence of cracks or weakness, that the equipment
equipment’s weak points and frequency of failure, as turns smoothly with no evidence of wobble, and that
well as how to inspect it for safety of operation. it is operating according to the manufacturer’s speci-
• Install adequate on-site roads, signs, lights, and fications. Promptly repair or replace any defective
devices. items. Keep a repair log.
• Install appropriate equipment guards and engineer- • Store tools in clean, secure areas so that they will not
ing controls on tools and equipment. These would be damaged, lost, or stolen.
84 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
HANDLING DRUMS AND OTHER CONTAINERS TABLE 7.6 Drum Types and Their
Associated Hazards
Accidents occur frequently during handling of drums
and other containers of hazardous wastes. Hazards that
may be encountered include explosions, fires, violent Polyethylene or Often contains strong acids
PVC-lined drums or bases. If the lining is
chemical reactions, toxic vapors, corrosive materials,
punctured, the substance
and other physical injuries resulting from working usually corrodes the steel
around heavy equipment and deteriorated drums and quickly, resulting in a
containers. While these hazards are always present, significant leak or spill.
workers are at an increased risk when working in the
Exotic metal drums Very expensive drums that
immediate vicinity of damaged or deteriorating drums
(e.g., aluminum, usually contain an extremely
and containers, opening and collecting waste samples
nickel, or stainless dangerous material.
from drums and containers, removing waste materials steel)
for treatment or repackaging, overpacking drums, reor-
ganizing and staging materials, and loading materials for Single-walled drums These drums have fittings for
transport to off-site facilities. Proper work practices, used as pressure both product filling and
vessels placement of an inert gas,
such as minimizing handling and using equipment and
such as nitrogen. May contain
procedures that isolate workers from hazardous sub- reactive, flammable, or
stances, can minimize the risk to site personnel. explosive substances.
OSHA regulations (29 CFR 1910 and 1926) estab-
lish general requirements for maintaining chemical and Laboratory packs Used for disposal of expired
chemicals and processed
container-handling equipment and storing, containing,
samples from university
and handling chemicals and containers. Specific require-
laboratories, hospitals, and
ments for handling drums and containers during clean- similar institutions.
up operations at hazardous waste sites are established Many of these bottles contain
in 29 CFR 1910.120(j). EPA hazardous waste regula- incompatible materials and
tions (40 CFR 264 and 265) stipulate requirements for are not packed in absorbent
types of containers, maintenance of containers and con- material. They may contain
tainment structures, and design and maintenance radioisotopes or shock-
of storage areas. DoT regulations in 49 CFR establish sensitive, highly volatile,
requirements applicable to all shipments of hazardous corrosive, or toxic exotic
wastes and hazardous materials. Consistent with DoT chemicals.
Laboratory packs are the primary
regulations, the EPA regulations under 40 CFR 263
ignition source for fires at
establish specific requirements for hazardous waste
most hazardous waste sites.
transporters.
INSPECTING DRUMS
TABLE 7.7 Information Provided by
The appropriate procedures for handling drums depend Drumhead Configuration
on the drum contents. Thus, prior to any handling, visu-
ally inspect the drums to gain as much information as Configuration Information
possible about their contents. Look for:
• symbols, words, or other marks on the drum indicat- Whole lid removal Designed to contain solid material.
ing that its contents are hazardous (e.g., radioactive, Has a bung Designed to contain a liquid.
explosive, corrosive, toxic, flammable) Contains a liner May contain a highly corrosive or
• symbols, words, or other marks on a drum indicating otherwise hazardous material.
that it contains discarded laboratory chemicals,
reagents, or other potentially dangerous materials in
small-volume individual containers Conditions in the immediate vicinity of the drums
• signs of deterioration, such as corrosion, rust, and may provide information about drum contents and their
leaks associated hazards. Monitor around the drums using a
• signs that the drum is under pressure, such as swelling gamma radiation detector, drum surface wipe samples,
and bulging organic vapor analyzer, and combustible gas meter
(check instruments).
• drum type (see Table 7.6) Use the results of this survey to classify the drums
• configuration of the drumhead (see Table 7.7) into preliminary hazard categories such as the following:
SITE CONTROL AND WORK PRACTICES 85
• radioactive entire volume of liquid. If the drum contents spill, use
• leaking/deteriorated personnel trained in spill-response procedures to isolate
and contain the spill.
• bulging Several types of equipment can be used to move
• explosive/shock-sensitive drums: a drum grappler attached to a hydraulic excava-
• contains small-volume individual containers of labo- tor; a small front-end loader, which can be either loaded
ratory wastes or other dangerous materials manually or equipped with a bucket sling; a rough-
terrain forklift; a roller conveyer equipped with solid
Assume that unlabeled drums contain hazardous rollers; and drum carts designed specifically for drum
materials until their contents are characterized. Bear in handling. If conditions permit, drums may be moved
mind that drums are frequently mislabeled, particularly manually.
drums that have been reused. Thus, a drum’s label may The drum grappler is the preferred piece of equip-
not accurately describe its contents. ment for drum handling. It keeps the operator removed
If buried drums are suspected, use ground-pene- from the drum so that there is less likelihood of injury
trating systems, such as electromagnetic waves, electri- if the drum detonates or ruptures. If a drum is leaking,
cal resistivity, ground-penetrating radar, magnetometry, the operator can stop the leak by rotating the drum and
and metal detection, to estimate the location and depth immediately placing it in an overpack container. In case
of the drums. of an explosion, grappler claws help protect the opera-
tor by partially deflecting the force of the explosion.
PLANNING DRUM HANDLING Use the following procedures to maximize worker
safety during drum handling and movement:
Because drum handling is fraught with danger, every
step of the operation should be carefully planned, based • Train personnel in proper lifting and moving tech-
on all the information available at the time. Use the niques to prevent back injuries.
results of the preliminary inspection to determine (1) • Make sure the vehicle selected has a sufficient rated
any hazards present and the appropriate response, and load capacity to handle the anticipated loads and that
(2) which drums need to be moved before being opened it can operate smoothly on the available road surface.
and sampled. Develop a preliminary plan specifying the
extent of handling necessary, the personnel selected for • Air-condition the cabs of vehicles to increase opera-
the job, and the most appropriate procedures based on tor efficiency. Protect the operator with heavy splash
the hazards associated with the probable drum contents shields.
as determined by visual inspection. Revise this plan as • Supply operators with respiratory protective equip-
new information is obtained during drum handling. ment—either an SCBA equipped with an air-line
regulator and reserve tank or an ALR and bail-out
HANDLING DRUMS bottle.This improves operator efficiency and provides
The purpose of handling drums is to (1) respond to any protection in case the operator must abandon the
obvious problems that might impair worker safety, such equipment.
as radioactivity, leakage, or the presence of explosive • Have overpack containers ready before any attempt
substances; (2) unstack and orient drums for sampling; is made to move drums.
and (3) if necessary, organize drums into different areas • Before moving anything, determine the most appro-
on-site to facilitate characterization and remedial action priate sequence in which the various drums and other
(see the section on staging later in this chapter). Han- containers should be moved. For example, small con-
dling may or may not be necessary depending on how tainers may have to be removed first to permit heavy
the drums are positioned. equipment to enter the area and move the drums.
Since accidents occur frequently during handling,
particularly initial handling, handle only if necessary. • Do not move drums unless they are intact and tightly
Prior to handling, warn all personnel about the hazards sealed.
of handling and instruct them to minimize handling as • Ensure that operators have a clear view of the
much as possible and to avoid unnecessary handling. roadway when carrying drums. Where necessary, have
In all phases of handling, be alert for new informa- ground workers available to guide the operator’s
tion about hazards to site personnel. Respond to these movement.
hazards before continuing with more routine handling
operations. Keep a spill control kit containing an ade- Drums Containing Radioactive Waste If a con-
quate volume of absorbent and overpack drums near tainer is labeled radioactive or radiation levels in a
areas where minor spills may occur. Where major spills drum exceed background levels, immediately contact
may occur, construct a berm adequate to contain the the state radiation officer and obtain the services of a
86 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
qualified radiation health physicist to evaluate the times contain shock-sensitive materials. Consider such
potential hazards and appropriate storage and manage- containers to hold shock-sensitive wastes until they are
ment requirements. Measure radiation levels to identify otherwise characterized. See Special Case Problems, the
hazard areas (i.e., areas where radiation levels last section of this chapter, for more details concerning
exceed background levels) and restrict all access to management of laboratory packs. If handling of shock-
those areas. sensitive wastes is required, the proper procedures are
Do not handle suspected radioactive materials or as follows:
enter restricted areas until radiation hazards have been
fully characterized, appropriate health and safety pro- • Prior to handling or transporting lab packs, remove
cedures have been developed, and necessary equipment any nonessential personnel to a safe distance. Use a
and supplies are obtained. Personnel handling sus- grappler unit constructed for explosive containment
pected radioactive materials must be properly trained for initial handling of such drums.
and under the direction of a qualified radiation health • Palletize the drums prior to transport. Secure them to
physicist. the pallets.
• Maintain continuous contact with the SSO and/or the
Drums That May Contain Explosive or Shock-
site control center until the handling operation is
Sensitive Waste If a drum is suspected of containing
complete.
explosive or shock-sensitive waste as determined by
visual inspection, seek specialized assistance before • If the lab pack is open, have a chemist inspect and
handling it. If handling is necessary, do so with extreme classify the individual bottles without opening them
caution. (see Special Case Problems for more details).
Leaking, Open, and Deteriorated Drums and Con-
• When handling shock-sensitive materials, all non-
tainers When handling leaking, open, and deterio-
essential personnel must be evacuated from the
rated drums and containers, one should:
affected area.
• All material handling equipment must have explosive • Provide appropriate lids or covers for open drums
containment devices or protective shields to protect and containers that are otherwise in sound condition.
operators from explosions.
• If a drum or container of liquids cannot be moved
• Use a grappler unit constructed for explosive con- without rupture, immediately transfer its contents
tainment for initial handling of drums. to an overpack container using intrinsically safe
• Palletize the drums prior to transport. Secure them to equipment.
the pallets. • Using a drum grappler, immediately place the fol-
• Use an audible siren signal system, similar to that lowing types of drums in overpack containers:
used in conventional blasting operations, to signal leaking drums containing sludge or semisolids
the commencement and completion of handling damaged open drums containing liquid or solid
activities. wastes
deteriorated drums that can be moved without
• Maintain continuous contact with the SSO and/or the rupture
site control center until the operation is complete.
• If the quantity of materials or the number of
Pressurized Drums Pressurized drums are ex- containers subject to transfer or overpacking neces-
tremely hazardous. Wherever possible, do not move sitates a prolonged activity, isolated holes and leaks
drums that may be under internal pressure, as evidenced in otherwise sound containers or drums should be
by bulging or swelling. Cool the drum, if possible, to patched.
relieve some of the internal pressure. If a pressurized • Construct containment barriers and provide a means
drum has to be moved, handle it with a grappler unit for collecting leaking materials.
constructed for explosive containment. Either move the
bulged drum only as far as necessary to allow seating on Buried Drums When handling buried drums, one
firm ground or carefully overpack it. Exercise extreme should:
caution when working with or adjacent to potentially
pressurized drums. • Prior to initiating subsurface excavation, use ground-
penetrating systems to estimate the location and
Laboratory Waste Packs Drums containing pack- depth of the drums (see Inspection).
aged laboratory wastes are one of the primary ignition • Remove the soil with great caution to minimize the
sources for fires at hazardous waste sites. They some- potential for drum rupture.
SITE CONTROL AND WORK PRACTICES 87
• Maintain a high degree of safety control during using devices such as a pneumatic impact wrench or
excavation. hydraulic penetration device. If pressure must be
• Have available provisions for extinguishing chemical relieved manually, place a barrier (such as Plexiglas)
fires. between the worker and the container to deflect any
gas, liquid, or solid that may be expelled as the
• Be aware of discolored soil that may indicate leaking opening is loosened.
drums.
• Enter exotic metal drums through the bung. Enter
OPENING DRUMS AND CONTAINERS drums lined with polyethylene or polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) through the bung by removal or drilling. Exer-
Drums are usually opened and sampled in place during cise extreme caution when manipulating these
site investigations. However, remedial and emergency containers.
operations may require a separate drum-opening area
(see Staging Drum Movement). Procedures for opening • Do not open or sample individual drums in labora-
drums are the same regardless of where they are tory packs. (For more details, see Special Case
opened. To enhance the efficiency and safety of drum- Problems.)
opening personnel, institute the following procedures: • Reseal open bungs and drill openings as soon as
possible with new bungs or plugs to avoid explosions
• If an ALR protection system is used, place a bank of and/or vapor generation. If an open drum cannot
air cylinders outside the work area and supply air to be resealed, place the drum in an overpack con-
the operators via air lines and escape tanks. This tainer. Plug any openings in pressurized drums
enables workers to operate in relative comfort for with pressure-venting caps set to a 5-pounds-per-
extended periods of time. square-inch (psi) release to allow venting of vapor
• Protect personnel by keeping them at a safe distance pressure.
from the drums being opened. If personnel must be • Decontaminate equipment after each use to avoid
located near the drums, place shielding materials, mixing of incompatible wastes.
such as Plexiglas, between them and the drums to
protect them from sudden releases of pressure and
materials. Locate controls for opening, monitoring, SAMPLING DRUM CONTENTS
and fire-suppression equipment behind the shielding. Drum sampling can be one of the most hazardous activ-
• Place personal monitors on workers who are opening ities because it often involves direct contact with
drums. unidentified wastes. Prior to collecting any sample,
• If possible, monitor personnel continuously during develop a sampling plan which will:
opening. Place the sensors of monitoring equipment
such as colorimetic tubes, dosimeters, explosion • Research background information about the
meters, organic vapor analyzers, and oxygen meters as waste.
close as possible to the source of the contaminants • Determine which drums should be sampled.
(i.e., at the drum opening). Monitor for alpha and beta • Select the appropriate sampling device(s) and
radiation during opening to ensure that these hazards, container(s).
which are undetectable when enclosed in a sealed
metal container, are detected as soon as possible. • Develop a written sampling plan that includes
the number, volume, and location of samples to
• Use the following remote-controlled devices for be taken.
opening drums:
a pneumatically operated impact wrench to • Develop SOPs for opening drums, sampling, and
remove drum bungs sampled packaging and transportation. For guidance
hydraulically or pneumatically operated drill in designing proper samplings procedures, refer to the
piercers EPA manual Samplers and Sampling Procedures for
a backhoe equipped with bronze spikes for pene- Hazardous Waste Streams.
trating drum tops in large-scale operations • Have a trained health and safety professional deter-
• Do not use picks, chisels, or firearms to open drums. mine, based on information about the wastes and site
conditions, the appropriate personal protection to be
• Hang or balance the drum-opening equipment to used during sampling, decontamination, and packag-
minimize worker exertion. ing of the sample.
• If the container shows signs of swelling or bulging,
perform all steps slowly. Relieve excess pressure prior When manually sampling from a drum, use the
to opening and, if possible, from a remote location following techniques:
88 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
• Keep sampling personnel at a safe distance while con- involves a tradeoff between the increased hazards asso-
tainers are being opened. Sample only after opening ciated with drum movement and the decreased hazards
operations are complete. associated with the enhanced organization and accessi-
• Do not lean over other containers to reach into the bility of the waste materials.
drum being sampled unless it is absolutely necessary. The number of staging areas needed depends on
site-specific circumstances, such as the scope of the
• Cover container tops with plastic sheeting or other operation, the accessibility of drums in their original
suitable uncontaminated material to avoid excessive positions, and the perceived hazards. Investigation
contact with them. usually involves little, if any, staging. Remedial and
• Never stand on drums or other containers. This is emergency operations can involve extensive staging.
extremely dangerous. Use mobile steps or another The extent of staging must be determined individually
platform to achieve the height necessary to take for each site and should be kept to a minimum. Up to
samples. four separate staging areas have been used:
• Obtain samples with glass rods or vacuum pumps. Do • Locate an opening area, where containers are
not use contaminated items such as discarded rags. opened, sampled, and resealed, a safe distance from
Such items may contaminate the sample and may not the original waste disposal or storage site and from
be compatible with the waste in the drum. all staging areas to prevent a chain reaction in case of
• Do not draw samples into a pipette with your mouth. fire and explosion.
• During large-scale remedial or emergency tasks, a
CHARACTERIZING WASTES separate sampling area may be set up at some dis-
tance from the opening area to reduce the number of
The goal of characterization is to obtain the data nec- people present in the opening area and to limit poten-
essary to determine how to package and transport tial casualties in case of an explosion.
the wastes for treatment and/or disposal. If wastes
are bulked, they must be characterized to determine • Drums are temporarily stored in a third staging area,
whether they can be safely combined with other wastes also known as a holding area, after sampling and
(see Bulking). As a first step in obtaining these data, use pending characterization of their contents. Do not
standard tests to classify the wastes into general cate- place unsealed drums with unknown contents in the
gories, including autoreactives, water reactives, inor- second staging area in case they contain incompati-
ganic acids, organic acids, heavy metals, pesticides, ble materials. (Either remove the contents or
cyanides, inorganic oxidizers, and organic oxidizers (this overpack the drum.)
is called fingerprinting). In some cases, further analysis • In a final staging area, also known as a bulking area,
should be conducted to identify the materials more substances that have been characterized are bulked
precisely. for transport to treatment or disposal facilities.
Whenever possible, characterize materials using Locate the final staging area as close as possible to
an on-site laboratory. This provides data as rapidly the site’s exit.
as possible and minimizes the time lag before appro- Grade the area and cover it with plastic sheets.
priate action can be taken to handle any hazardous Construct approximately one-foot-high (0.3-meter-
materials. Also, it precludes any potential problems high) dikes around the entire area.
associated with transporting samples to an off-site lab- Segregate drums according to their basic chemical
oratory (e.g., sample packaging, waste incompatibility, categories (acids, heavy metals, pesticides, etc.)
fume generation). as determined by characterization. Construct
If samples must be analyzed off-site, package separate areas for each type of waste present to
samples on-site in accordance with DoT regulations (49 preclude the possibility of mixing incompatible
CFR) and ship them to the laboratory for analysis. chemicals when bulking.
In all staging areas, stage the drums two-wide in
STAGING DRUM MOVEMENT two rows per area and space these rows 7 to 8 feet (2 to
Although every attempt should be made to minimize 2.5 meters) apart to enable movement of drum-handling
container handling, containers sometimes must be equipment and facilitate visual inspection and monitor-
staged (i.e., moved in an organized manner to predes- ing of drum conditions. Similar practices should be used
ignated areas) to facilitate characterization and reme- for staging other types of containers.
dial action and to protect them from potentially
BULKING WASTES
hazardous site conditions (e.g., movement of heavy
equipment or high temperatures that might cause Wastes that have been characterized are often mixed
explosion, ignition, or pressure buildup). Staging together and placed in bulk containers such as tanks or
SITE CONTROL AND WORK PRACTICES 89
vacuum trucks for shipment to treatment or disposal windows rolled up and the air conditioner off. Mini-
facilities. This increases the efficiency of transportation. mize the time that drivers spend in hazardous areas.
Bulking should be performed only after thorough waste • Outfit the drivers with appropriate PPE.
characterization by trained and experienced personnel.
The preliminary tests described in the section on • If drums are shipped, tightly seal them prior to
characterization provide only a general indication of loading. Overpack leaking or deteriorated drums
the nature of the individual wastes. In most cases, prior to shipment. Make sure truck beds and walls are
you should conduct additional sampling and analysis to clean and smooth to prevent damage to drums. Do
further characterize the wastes and run compatibility not double-stack drums. Secure drums to prevent
tests in which small quantities of different wastes shifting during transport.
are mixed together under controlled conditions and • Make sure the drums are properly labeled according
observed for signs of incompatibility, such as vapor gen- to EPA and DoT requirements.
eration and heat of reaction. Bulking is performed at • Keep bulk solids at least 6 inches (15 centimeters)
the final staging area using the following procedures: below the top of the container. Cover loads with a
layer of clean soil or foam and/or a tarp. Secure the
• Inspect each tank trailer and remove any residual load to prevent shifting or release during transport.
materials from the trailer prior to transferring any Any free liquids, including rainfall, should be pumped
bulked materials. This will prevent reactions between off of solidified wastes prior to shipment.
incompatible chemicals.
• Placard vehicles for the material being hauled.
• To move hazardous liquids, use pumps that are safety
rated and that have a safety relief valve with a splash • Prepare and provide drivers with a manifest meeting
shield. Make sure the pump hoses, casings, fittings, federal and state requirements.
and gaskets are compatible with the material being • Weigh vehicles periodically to ensure that vehicle and
pumped. road weight limits are not exceeded.
• Inspect hose lines before beginning work to ensure • Decontaminate the vehicle’s tires prior to their
that all lines, fittings, and valves are intact and have leaving the site to ensure that contamination is not
no weak spots. carried onto public roads.
• Take special precautions when handling hoses, as they • Monitor the vehicles periodically to ensure that they
often contain residual material that can splash or spill are not releasing dust or vapor off-site.
on personnel operating the hoses. Protect personnel • Develop procedures for responding quickly to off-
against accidental splashing. Protect lines from vehic- site vehicle breakdowns and accidents to ensure
ular and pedestrian traffic. minimum public impact.
• Store flammable liquids in containers approved by • Review drivers’ PPE (if any) and question their spill-
OSHA and the National Fire Prevention Associa- response procedures. Provide drivers with an emer-
tion (NFPA). gency phone list.
SHIPPING WASTES
SPECIAL CASE PROBLEMS
Shipping materials to off-site treatment, storage, or
disposal facilities involves the entry of waste-hauling LABORATORY PACKS
vehicles into the site. Use the following guidelines to Because of their potenial for containing hazardous
enhance the safety of these operations: wastes, laboratory packs require special handling and
care. The following list includes procedures for handling
• Locate the final staging (bulking) area as close as pos- laboratory packs:
sible to the site exit.
• Prepare a circulation plan that minimizes conflict • Once a lab pack has been opened, have a chemist
between cleanup teams and waste haulers. Install inspect and classify the containers within it without
traffic signs, lights, and other control devices as opening them. The inspection should be completed
necessary. according to the scheme outlined in Table 7.8. This
scheme is used by most facilities accepting such
• Provide an adequate area for haulers to turn around. wastes and allows for the safest segregation of the lab
Where necessary, build or improve on-site roads. pack’s contents.
• Equip vehicles with backup lights and bells. • If radioactive contents are suspected (e.g., some con-
• Stage haulers in a safe area until the wastes are ready tainers are labeled radioactive or are heavily
to load. Make sure the drivers stay in the cab with the shielded, or radiation levels from a drum exceed
90 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
TABLE 7.8 Lab Pack Content Classification • If crystalline material is noted at the neck of any
System for Disposal bottle, handle it as a shock-sensitive waste due to the
potential presence of picric acid or another similar
Category material. Pack these bottles, no more than five to a
Number Type Examples drum, with vermiculite and ship them to a disposal
facility. Label the drums appropriately and store them
1 Inorganic acids Hydrochloric acid remotely and securely.
Sulfuric acid
2 Inorganic bases Sodium hydroxide TANKS AND VAULTS
Potassium
hydroxide When working with tanks and vaults, the following
3 Strong oxidizing Ammonium nitrate safety precautions should be observed:
agents Barium nitrate
Sodium chlorate • In general, when opening a tank or vault, follow the
Sodium peroxide same procedures as for opening a sealed drum. If nec-
4 Strong reducing Sodium thiosulfate essary, vent excess pressure if volatile substances are
agents Oxalic acid stored. Place deflecting shields between the worker
Sodium sulphite and the opening to protect the worker from possible
5 Anhydrous organics Tetraethyl lead
detonation of the materials and to prevent direct con-
and organometallics Phenylmercuric
chloride
tamination by materials forced out by pressure.
6 Anhydrous inorganics Potassium hydride • Guard manholes or access portals to prevent
and metal hydrides Sodium hydride personnel from falling into a tank (29 DFR 1910,
Sodium metal Subpart B.).
Potassium
7 Toxic agents Polychlorinated • Identify the contents through sampling and analysis.
biphenyls (PCBs) If characterization indicates that the contents can be
Insectides safely moved with the available equipment, pump
Carcinogens them into a trailer for transportation to a disposal or
8 Flammable organics Hexane recycling facility.
Toluene
• Purge the tank or vault with an inert gas, then remove
Acetone
9 Inorganics Potassium chloride
the tank or vault for scrap.
Sodium carbonate • If it is necessary to enter a tank or vault for any
10 Inorganic cyanides Potassium cyanides reason (e.g., to clean off solid materials or sludge on
Sodium cyanides the bottom or sides), a confined-space entry proce-
Copper cyanides dure must be established in the site safety and health
11 Organic cyanides Cyanoacetamide plan. The procedure should include the following
12 Toxic metals Arsenic
precautions:
Cadmium
Lead
Prior to entry, ventilate the site thoroughly.
Disconnect any connecting pipelines and pumps.
Prior to entry, take air samples to ensure that safe
background), immediately close and isolate the lab entry can be achieved based on adequate levels
pack and establish a restricted perimeter based on of oxygen, air mixtures are not flammable, and
radiation measurements. workers can be adequately protected from any
hazardous vapors that may be present.
• Contact the state radiation officer and obtain the ser- Equip the entry team and a safety observer with
vices of a qualified health physicist to evaluate the safety harnesses, ropes, SCBAs, and appropriate
potential radiation hazards and appropriate storage CPC.
and management requirements. Establish lifeline signals prior to entry so that
• Do not handle suspected radioactive materials or workers and the safety observer can communi-
enter restricted radiation storage areas until hazards cate by tugs on the rope.
have been fully characterized, appropriate health and Have an additional person available in the imme-
safety precautions have been developed, and the nec- diate area to call for outside assistance and, if
essary equipment and supplies are obtained. Person- needed, to provide support to the safety
nel handling suspected radioactive materials must be observer.
properly trained and under the direction of a quali- Do not allow anyone to enter a tank or vault if the
fied radiation health physicist. size of the opening requires the person to
SITE CONTROL AND WORK PRACTICES 91
squeeze through, as the worker will not be able • Drowning is a very real danger for workers wear-
to exit quickly in an emergency. ing PPE because the weight of the equipment
increases an individual’s overall density and severely
VACUUM TRUCKS impairs swimming ability. Where there is a danger
The following safety precautions apply to the use of of drowning, provide necessary safety gear such as
vacuum trucks: lifeboats, tag lines, railings, nets, safety belts, and
flotation gear.
• Sample from the top of the vehicle. • Wherever possible, stay on shore. Avoid going out
• If possible, use mobile steps, powered platforms, or over the water.
suitable scaffolding consistent with OSHA require- • If possible, use a vertical extended platform consis-
ments in 29 CFR 1910, Subparts D and F. Avoid tent with 29 CFR 1910, Subparts D and F.
climbing up the ladder and walking across the tank
catwalk. BIBLIOGRAPHY
• If the truck must be climbed, raise and lower equip- Bierlein, L. Red Book on Transportation of Hazardous
ment and samples of carriers to enable workers to use Materials. 2d ed. New York: Van Nostrand
two hands while climbing. Reinhold, 1987.
• Wear appropriate protective clothing and equipment “Establishing Work Zones at Uncontrolled Hazardous
when opening the hatch. Waste Sites.” Office of Solid Waste and Emergency
• If it is necessary to sample from the drain spigot, take Response, U.S. EPA, Pub. #9285.2-06FS, April,
steps to prevent spraying of excessive substances. 1991.
Have all personnel stand off to the side. Have sorbent Green, M., and A. Turck. Safety in Working with Chem-
materials on hand in the event of a spill. icals. New York: Macmillan Publ. Co., 1978.
Mayhew, J.J., G.M. Sodear, and D.W. Carroll. A
ELEVATED TANKS Hazardous Waste Site Management Plan. Washing-
ton, DC: Chemical Manufacturers Association,
In general, observe the safety precautions described for Inc., 1982.
vacuum trucks. In addition, follow these procedures: Priester, L.E., and L.P. Wallace. “Engineering Controls
and Site Layout.” Chapter 8 in Protecting Person-
• Use a safety line and harness. nel at Hazardous Waste Sites. 3rd ed. W.F. Martin,
• Maintain ladders and railings in accordance with and M. Gochfeld, eds. Boston: Butterworth–
OSHA requirements (29 CFR 1910, Subpart D). Heinemann, 2000.
U.S. Coast Guard Department of Transportation
COMPRESSED-GAS CYLINDERS (DoT). Response Methods Handbook of Chemical
Hazards Response Information System (CHRIS).
When handling compressed-gas cylinders, the following
Washington, DC: DoT, 1978.
safety precautions should be observed:
U.S. EPA, PB9285.2-04A. “Standard Operating Guide
• Obtain expert assistance in moving and disposing of (SOG) for Establishing Work Zones.” Draft. Office
compressed-gas cylinders. of Emergency and Remedial Response, U.S. EPA,
Pub.#9285.2-04A, September, 1992.
• Handle compressed-gas cylinders with extreme
U.S. EPA, PB 92-963414. “Standard Operating Safety
caution.
Guides.” Office of Emergency and Remedial
• The rupture of a cylinder may result in an explo- Response, U.S. EPA, Pub.#9285.1-03, June, 1992.
sion, and the cylinder may become a dangerous U.S. EPA, PB 91-921283. “Survey of Materials-Handling
projectile. Technologies Used at Hazardous Waste Sites.”
• Record the identification numbers on the cylinders to Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory, Office of
aid in characterizing their contents. Research and Development, U.S. EPA, EPA/540/2-
91/010, June, 1991.
PONDS AND LAGOONS Waxman, M.F. Hazardous Waste Site Operations. New
York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, 1996.
When working around or in ponds or lagoons, the fol-
lowing safety precautions should be followed:
8
DECONTAMINATION
econtamination—the process of materials into clean areas, and it helps to
D removing and neutralizing contami-
nants that have accumulated on per-
sonnel and equipment—is critical to
health and safety at hazardous waste sites.
Decontamination protects workers from haz-
prevent mixing of incompatible chemicals. This
chapter describes the types of contamination
that workers may encounter at a waste site, the
factors that influence the extent of contamination,
and methods for preventing or reducing contami-
ardous substances that may contaminate and nation. In addition, this chapter provides general
eventually permeate the personal protective guidelines for designing and selecting deconta-
equipment (PPE), tools, vehicles, and other mination procedures at a site, and it presents a
equipment used on-site. It also protects all site decision logic for evaluating the health and
personnel by minimizing the transfer of harmful safety aspects of decontamination methods.
DECONTAMINATION PLAN the potential for contamination. Prepare training mate-
rials and train all site personnel regarding the impor-
A decontamination plan must be developed and set up
tance of minimizing contact. Enforce the appropriate
before any personnel or equipment enter areas where
practices and procedures throughout site operations.
the potential for exposure to hazardous substances
Use of engineering controls, proper use of PPE, and
exists. All aspects of the decontamination plan must
simple direct work practices can significantly reduce
be organized and documented in a written form and
contamination; making decontamination easier and
should:
more effective.
• Establish methods and procedures to minimize Engineering controls should be routinely inspected
worker contact with contaminants during the and repaired. In general, all fasteners on PPE should be
removal of PPE. used (i.e., zippers fully closed, all buttons buttoned, all
• Establish procedures to prevent contamination of snaps snapped). Gloves and boots should be tucked
clean areas. under and taped to the cuffs of the arms and legs of
outer clothing, and hoods (if not attached) should be
• Determine appropriate decontamination methods. taped to the outside of the collar. This prevents con-
• Determine the number and layout of decontamina- taminants from running inside the gloves, boots, and
tion stations. jackets or suit.
• Identify incompatible wastes requiring separate Examples of SOPs that can minimize contamina-
decontamination stations. tion and decontamination are:
• Determine the decontamination equipment needed. • Stress work practices that minimize contact with haz-
• Establish methods for disposing of clothing and ardous substances (e.g., do not walk through areas of
equipment that are not completely decontaminated. obvious contamination; avoid directly touching or
handling potentially hazardous substances).
• Establish the target level of decontamination (a quick
test of the final rinse solution may be used to deter- • Training workers using written procedures for
mine the effectiveness of the decontamination). donning and doffing PPE and prominently post them
at entry points and exits from contamination areas.
The plan should be revised whenever the type of
protective clothing or equipment changes, the site con- • Using the buddy system to inspect and verify the con-
ditions change, or the site hazards are reassessed based dition and monitor the use of PPE.
on new information. • Using remote sampling, handling, and container-
opening techniques (e.g., drum grapplers, pneumatic
PREVENTING CONTAMINATION impact wrenches).
The first step in decontamination planning is to estab- • Bag monitoring and sampling instruments, leaving
lish SOPs that minimize contact with wastes and thus openings in the bags for sample ports and sensors to
93
94 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
minimize direct contact of instrument surface with the skin surface, such as cuts or scratches, will increase
contaminants. the potential for chemicals or infectious agents to
• Wearing disposable outer garments and using dis- enter the body. Particular care should be taken to cover
posable equipment where appropriate. and protect any damaged skin areas.
• Covering equipment and tools with plastic coatings DECONTAMINATION METHODS
that can be removed during decontamination.
All personnel, clothing, equipment, and samples leaving
• Encasing or covering the source of contaminants with the contaminated area of a site (generally referred to as
plastic sheets or overpack containers. the exclusion zone) must be decontaminated to remove
any harmful chemicals or infectious organisms that
TYPES OF CONTAMINATION may have adhered. Decontamination methods either (1)
Contamination of PPE can, based on the location of physically remove contaminants by one of several
contaminants, be categorized as either surface contam- processes, (2) inactivate contaminants by chemical
ination, permeated contamination (i.e., the diffusion of detoxification or disinfection/sterilization, or (3) remove
molecules from one substance into another) or pene- contaminants by a combination of both physical and
tration contamination. Surface contaminants are usu- chemical means.
ally easier to detect and remove than contaminants that Because of the potential hazards associated with
have permeated the PPE. options such as high-pressure washes, some of the more
If contamination permeates PPE materials and is aggressive decontamination procedures are not suitable
not removed by decontamination, contaminants may be for decontamination of clothing, hand-held equipment,
gradually released to the inside or outside surfaces, and personnel. In addition, the need for PPE to protect
where they may cause an unexpected exposure. Pene- workers from hazards associated with the equipment
tration contamination occurs when there are openings and chemicals used in decontamination should be con-
in PPE, such as cuts, punctures, inadequately protected sidered when selecting a particular decontamination
zippers, button holes, stretched or torn seams, or open procedure. Various types of decontamination methods
areas between two garments (e.g., between cuffs and are listed in Table 8.1.
gloves).
PHYSICAL REMOVAL
Five major factors affect the extent of permeation:
In many cases, gross contamination can be removed
• Contact time. The longer a contaminant is in contact by physical means involving dislodging/displacement,
with an object, the greater the probability and extent rinsing, wiping, and evaporation. Use of disposable cov-
of permeation. For this reason, minimizing contact erings can simplify surface removal. Contaminants that
time is one of the most important objectives of a can be removed by physical means can be categorized
decontamination program. as follows:
• Concentration. Molecules flow from areas of high
concentration to areas of low concentration. As con- • Loose contaminants. Dusts and vapors that cling to
centrations of wastes increase, the potential for per- equipment and workers or become trapped in small
meation of PPE increases. openings, such as the weave of fabrics, can be
removed with water or a liquid rinse. Removal of
• Temperature. An increase in temperature generally electrostatically attached materials can be facilitated
increases the permeation rate of contaminants. by coating the clothing or equipment with antistatic
• Size of contaminant and pore spaces in materials. solutions. These are available commercially as wash
Materials with larger pore spaces or weaves will gen- additives or antistatic sprays.
erally allow easier and more rapid permeation of con- • Adhering contaminants. Some contaminants adhere
tamination. Similarly, chemicals that have smaller by forces other than electrostatic attraction.Adhesive
molecular structures will permeate more readily qualities vary greatly with the specific contaminants
through the available spaces. and the temperature. For example, contaminants
• Physical state of wastes. As a rule, gases and low- such as glue, cement, resin, and mud have much
viscosity liquids tend to permeate more readily than greater adhesive properties than elemental mercury
high-viscosity liquids or solids. and consequently are difficult to remove by physical
means. Physical removal methods for gross con-
Inspect all PPE prior to each use and monitor its taminants include scraping, brushing, and wiping.
condition during use. This will minimize workers’ expo- Removal of adhesive contaminants can be enhanced
sures by unexpected direct contact with hazardous through methods such as solidifying, freezing (e.g.,
materials due to penetration. Similarly, any injuries to using dry ice or ice water), adsorption or absorption
DECONTAMINATION 95
TABLE 8.1 Common Decontamination Methods
Buildings
and Heavy
Decontamination Method Personnel PPE Equipment
1. Contaminant Removal
Scrubbing/scraping with brushes, scrapers, sponges, etc. (commonly used in X X X
combination with solvent cleaning solutions)
Water rinse (pressurized or gravity flow) X X X
Pressurized wash X X
Steam jets (commonly used with solvent cleaning solutions) X
Evaporation/vaporization (e.g., hot air drying) X X
Chemical leaching (e.g., dry cleaning or Freon cleaning) X
Solvent extraction liquid or vapor phase X
2. Detoxification
Oxidation/reduction (e.g., bleach or sulfur dioxide, respectively) X X
Neutralization X X
Thermal desorption X X
Thermal degradation/destruction X
3. Physical Removal or Sealing of Contaminated Surfaces and Materials
Abrasive blasting, scarification, grinding and planing, spalling, vibratory X
finishing, high-pressure water or steam
Disposal of permeated materials (e.g., seats, floor mats, clothing, coatings, X X
disposable coveralls)
Sealing or encapsulation X
4. Disinfection/Sterilization (Infectious Wastes)
Steam sterilization X X
Dry heat sterilization X X
Irradiation (e.g., UV) X X
Chemical disinfection X X X
(e.g., with powdered lime or kitty litter), or melting tant when decontaminating PPE made of organic
(changing high-viscosity solids to lower-viscosity materials that could be damaged or dissolved by
liquids). organic solvents. In addition, care must be taken in
• Volatile liquids. Volatile liquid contaminants can be selecting, using, and disposing of any organic solvents
removed from protective clothing or equipment by that may be flammable or potentially toxic. Organic
evaporation followed by a water rinse. Evaporation solvents include alcohols, ethers, ketones, aromatics,
of volatile liquids can be enhanced by using steam straight-chain alkanes, and common petroleum prod-
jets. With any evaporation or vaporization process, ucts. Halogenated solvents, such as carbon tetrachlo-
care must be taken to prevent worker inhalation of ride, are incompatible with PPE and are toxic. They
the vaporized chemicals. should be used only for decontamination in cases
where other cleaning agents will not remove the con-
CHEMICAL REMOVAL taminant. Increased area or local ventilation is often
required. Secondary decontamination to remove
Physical removal of gross contamination should be fol- residues of the decontamination solvent may also be
lowed by a wash/rinse process using cleaning solutions. required. Table 8.2 provides a general guide to the
These cleaning solutions normally work by one or more solubility of several contaminant categories in four
of the following methods: types of solvents: water, dilute acids, dilute bases, and
• Solubilization. Chemical removal of surface contam- organic solvents.
inants by dissolving them in a soluble solution (e.g., • Surfactants. Surfactants augment physical cleaning
dissolving oils using a solvent). Solvents must be methods by reducing surface tension and adhesion
chemically compatible with the contaminants and the between contaminants and the surface being cleaned
equipment being cleaned. This is particularly impor- and by preventing redeposit of the contaminants.
96 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
TABLE 8.2 General Guide to Solubility of EFFECTIVENESS TESTING
Contaminants in Four Solvent Types
Decontamination methods vary in their effectiveness
for removing different substances. The effectiveness of
Solvent Contaminant any decontamination method should be assessed at the
beginning of a program and periodically throughout its
Water Dissolves low-chain hydrocarbons, life. If contaminated materials are not being removed or
inorganics, salts, some organic are penetrating PPE, the decontamination program
acids, and other polar compounds must be revised. The following methods may be useful
Dilute acid Dissolves caustic (basic) com- in assessing the effectiveness of decontamination.
pounds, amines, hydrazines, and
metal salts VISUAL TESTING
Dilute base Dissolves acidic compounds, The ability to immediately determine effectiveness of
phenols, thiols, and some nitro and decontamination is limited. Direct reading instruments
sulfonic compounds can be used to verify gross decontamination, but are
Organic solvents Dissolves nonpolar compounds often not sensitive enough to detect low-level contami-
such as other organics nation that can still pose a threat to worker safety and
Warning: Solvents may damage health. In some cases, effectiveness can be estimated by
some types of PPE fabrics and visual observation.
materials
• Natural light. Discoloration, stains, corrosive effects,
visible dirt, or alterations in clothing fabric may
indicate that contaminants have not been removed.
Household detergents are among the most common However, not all contaminants leave visible traces.
surfactants. Some detergents can be used with organic Many contaminants can permeate clothing unnoticed.
solvents to improve the dissolving and dispersal of
contaminants into the solvent.
• Ultraviolet (UV) light. Certain contaminants, such as
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, which are common
• Solidification. Solidifying liquid or gel contaminants in many refined oils and solvent wastes, fluoresce and
can enhance their physical removal. The mechanisms can be visually detected when exposed to UV light.
of solidification are (1) moisture removal through the Ultraviolet light can be used to observe contamination
use of absorbents such as ground clay or powdered of skin, clothing, and equipment. However, certain
lime, (2) chemical reactions via polymerization cata- areas of the skin may fluoresce naturally, thereby
lysts and chemical reagents, and (3) freezing using reducing the reliability of the test. In addition, use
ice water. of UV light can increase the risk of skin cancer and
• Rinsing. Rinsing removes contaminants through dilu- eye damage. Therefore, a qualified health care profes-
tion, physical attraction, and solubilization. Multiple sional must assess the benefits and risks associated
rinses with clean solutions remove more contami- with UV light prior to its use at a waste site.
nants than a single rinse with the same volume of
solution. Continuous rinsing will remove even more SWIPE SAMPLING
contaminants than multiple rinses. Swipe testing provides information on the effectiveness
• Disinfection/sterilization. Chemical disinfectants are of decontamination. In this procedure, a cloth or paper
the most practical means of disinfecting/sterilizing patch (swipe) is wiped over the surface of the poten-
infectious agents because standard sterilization tech- tially contaminated object and then analyzed in a
niques are impractical for large equipment and for laboratory. Both the inner and outer surfaces of PPE
personal protective clothing and equipment. should be tested. Skin also may be tested using swipe
samples.
Many factors, such as cost, availability, and ease of
implementation, influence the selection of a decontam- RINSE SOLUTION ANALYSIS
ination method. From a health and safety standpoint, Another way to test the effectiveness of decontamina-
two key questions must be addressed: tion procedures is to analyze for contamination left in
the cleaning solutions. Field test kits or pH paper
• Is the decontamination method effective for the spe- allow these analyses to be performed in real time. Ele-
cific substances present? vated levels of contaminants in the final rinse solution
• Does the method itself pose any unacceptable health may suggest that additional cleaning and rinsing are
or safety hazards? needed.
DECONTAMINATION 97
PERMEATION TESTING The chemical and physical compatibility of the
decontamination solutions and other materials must be
Permeation testing for the presence of chemical con-
determined before they are used. Any method that
taminants requires that pieces of the protective gar-
permeates, degrades, damages, or otherwise impairs the
ments be sent to a laboratory for analysis.
safe functioning of the PPE is considered incompatible
and should not be used. If a method does pose a direct
SWAB SAMPLING health hazard, measures must be taken (e.g., wear a res-
pirator if using a solution that produces hazardous
To assess the effectiveness of disinfection, swab samples
vapors) to protect both decontamination personnel and
can be taken from contaminated surfaces and sent to a
the workers being decontaminated.
testing laboratory for analysis. Concentrations of active
infectious organisms also can be measured in the spent
solutions to determine whether sufficient levels of LEVELS OF DECONTAMINATION
active disinfectants were used. The solutions should be Several site-specific factors determine the levels and
tested periodically to ensure that the concentration of types of decontamination procedures required at a site.
disinfectant is satisfactory. If tests indicate that contam- Some of these factors include:
inants are not being removed from the surface or are
permeating clothing, consider whether more extensive • the chemical, physical, and toxicological properties of
decontamination methods are needed or protective the wastes
measures should be changed (e.g., use less-permeable
materials or disposable outer garments). Use pH paper
• the pathogenicity of infectious wastes
by dipping it into the wash and/or rinse solution or • the amount, location, and containment of contami-
wiping it across any moist surface that may be contam- nants
inated. The results are immediate and can be compared • the potential for and location of exposure based on
to the pH scale on the container. assigned worker duties, activities, and functions
• the potential for wastes to permeate, degrade, or
RADIATION SURVEYS penetrate materials used for protective clothing and
If radioactive wastes are present, surface friskers and equipment, vehicles, tools, and buildings and other
personnel contamination monitors are used to survey structures
personnel out of a radiation contamination area. Labo- • the proximity of incompatible wastes
ratory analysis of swipes taken from surfaces of equip- • the reasons for leaving or removing equipment from
ment and bags/containers of radioactive wastes are the site
required prior to their release from the contamination
reduction zone. Consult a health physicist or trained • the methods available for protecting workers during
radiation control technician to determine and verify decontamination
proper procedures and equipment. • the impact of the decontamination process and com-
pounds on worker safety and health
HEALTH AND SAFETY HAZARDS
DECONTAMINATION FACILITY DESIGN
Although decontamination is performed to protect
health and safety, the decontamination process can, At a hazardous waste site, decontamination facilities
under certain circumstances, pose additional hazards. should be located in the contamination reduction zone
Decontamination methods may be: (CRZ)—that is, in the transition area between the con-
tamination zone (often called the exclusion zone) and
• incompatible with the hazardous substances being the clean zone (often called the support zone). See
removed (i.e., a cleaning solution may react with con- further discussions in Chapter 7, Site Control and Work
taminants to produce an explosion, heat, or toxic Practices.
products) Decontamination procedures must provide an
organized process by which levels of contamination are
• incompatible with the clothing or equipment being reduced. The decontamination process should consist of
decontaminated (e.g., some organic solvents will a series of procedures performed in a specific sequence.
solubilize the fabrics from which protective clothing For example, outer, more heavily contaminated items
is made) (such as boots and gloves) should be decontaminated
• pose a direct health hazard to workers (e.g., vapors and removed first, followed by inner, less-contaminated
from chemical decontamination solutions may be items (such as jackets and pants). Each procedure
hazardous if inhaled, or they may be flammable) should be performed at a separate station to prevent
98 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
cross-contamination. The sequence of stations is called TABLE 8.3 Recommended Supplies for
the decontamination line. Separate decontamination Decontamination of Personnel,
lines may be required if incompatible wastes are Clothing, and Equipment
being handled at different work locations in the exclu-
sion zone. Drop cloths (plastic or other suitable material) for
Stations should be separated physically to prevent heavily contaminated equipment and outer protective
cross-contamination and should be arranged in order of clothing such as overboots, outer pair of gloves,
decreasing contamination, preferably in a straight line. monitoring equipment, drum wrenches, etc.
Separate flow patterns and stations should be provided Disposal collection containers (drums or suitable lined
trash cans) for disposable clothing and heavily
to isolate workers from different contamination zones
contaminated PPE.
containing incompatible wastes. Entry and exit points Storage containers for contaminated wash and rinse
should be conspicuously marked and the entry to the solutions.
CRZ from the exclusion zone should be separate from Lined box with absorbents for collection and control of
the entry to the exclusion zone from the CRZ. Dress- wastes from scraping, wiping, or rinsing off gross
ing stations for entry to the CRZ should be separate contamination.
from redressing areas for exit from the CRZ. Personnel Wash tubs of sufficient size to enable workers to place
who wish to enter clean areas of the decontamination booted foot in and wash off contaminants (without
facility, such as locker rooms, should be completely drains unless connected to a suitable collection tank
decontaminated. or treatment system).
The doffing station for respiratory protective Rinse tubs of sufficient size to enable workers to place
booted foot in and to hold the solution used to rinse
equipment should always occur after the garments
the wash solutions and contaminants after washing
are removed to maximize respiratory protection while (without drains unless connected to a suitable
decontaminating. collection tank or treatment system).
For further information on decontamination Wash solutions pretested against contaminants for
procedures for typical PPE levels see Appendix I, effectiveness and compatibility.
Decontamination Procedures for Three Typical Levels Rinse solutions (also pretested) to remove or neu-
of Protection and Chapter 6, Personal Protective tralize contaminants and rinse off residues of wash
Equipment. solutions.
Long-handled, soft-bristled brushes to help wash and
rinse off contaminants.
DECONTAMINATION EQUIPMENT SELECTION Lockers and cabinets for storage of decontaminated
clothing and equipment.
Table 8.3 lists recommended equipment for decon-
Plastic sheeting, sealed pads with drains, or other
tamination of personnel and protective clothing and appropriate method for containing and collecting
equipment. In selecting decontamination equipment, contaminated wash and rinse water spilled during
consider whether the equipment itself can be decon- decontamination.
taminated for reuse or can be easily disposed. Table 8.4 Shower facilities for full-body wash or, at a minimum,
lists recommended equipment for decontamination of personal wash sinks (with drains connected to
heavy equipment and vehicles. Note that other types of collection tank or appropriate treatment system).
equipment not listed in Tables 8.3 and 8.4 may be appro- Soap or wash solution, wash cloths, and towels for
priate in certain situations. personnel showering.
Clean clothing and personal item storage lockers
and/or closets.
DISPOSAL METHODS
All equipment used for decontamination must be
properly disposed. Buckets, brushes, clothing, tools,
and other contaminated equipment should be collected,
PERSONNEL PROTECTION
placed in appropriate containers, and labeled. Also, all
spent cleaning solutions should be collected and prop- Decontamination workers who come in contact with
erly disposed. Disposable PPE, clothing, and coverings personnel and equipment which are leaving the exclu-
that cannot be adequately decontaminated should be sion zone require more protection from contaminants
placed in appropriate containers for disposal. than decontamination workers assigned to the previous
All decontamination wastes should be evaluated station in the decontamination line. In some cases,
and characterized to determine appropriate disposal decontamination personnel should wear the same
options in accordance with the EPA’s hazardous waste levels of PPE as workers in the exclusion zone. In other
regulations in 40 CFR 261, 265, 264, and 278 and any cases, decontamination personnel may be sufficiently
applicable state and local regulations. protected by wearing protection that is one level lower
DECONTAMINATION 99
TABLE 8.4 Recommended Supplies for lished. In an emergency, the primary concern is to
Large Equipment and prevent the loss of life or severe injury to site person-
Vehicle Decontamination nel. If immediate medical treatment is required to save
a life, decontamination should be delayed until the
Containers for gross contamination involving removal victim is stabilized. If decontamination can be per-
of wastes and contaminated soils caught in tires and formed without interfering with essential lifesaving
the underside of vehicles or equipment. techniques or first aid, or if a worker has been contam-
Pads for collection of contaminated wash and rinse inated with an extremely toxic or corrosive material that
solutions with drains or sumps connected to storage could cause severe injury or loss of life, decontamina-
tanks or approved treatment system.
tion must be performed immediately. At a minimum,
Shovels, rods, and long-handled brushes for dislodging
and removing wastes and contaminated soils caught
cutting off or removing outer clothing, hats, boots/shoes
in tires and the underside of vehicles or equipment. and gloves will remove the majority of contamination.
Pressurized water and/or steam sprayer(s) for pressure If an emergency due to a heat-related illness develops,
washing, steam cleaning, and rinsing (particularly the victim’s PPE should be removed as soon as possible
hard-to-reach areas). to reduce heat stress.
Spray booths, curtains, or enclosures to contain During an emergency, provisions must be made to
splashes from pressurized sprays used to dislodge notify and protect medical personnel and arrange for
materials and clean hard-to-reach areas. the collection and disposal of contaminated clothing
Long-handled brushes for general cleaning of exterior. and equipment.
Wash solutions pretested against contaminants for
effectiveness and compatibility.
Rinse solutions (also pretested) to remove or neu- BIBLIOGRAPHY
tralize contaminants and rinse off residues of wash
solutions. Esposito, M.P., J.L. McArdle, A.H. Crone, J.S. Greber,
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operator areas inside the vehicle and equipment. and C.D. McCandlish. Guide for Decontaminating
Brooms and brushes for cleaning operator areas inside Buildings, Structures, and Equipment at Super-
the vehicles and equipment. fund Sites. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
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rinse and wash solutions and damaged or heavily March 1985.
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of Fire Fighters’ Protective Clothing with
Trichlorotrifluoroethane.” Workshop Proceedings:
PCB By-Product Formation, Palo Alto, CA,
(e.g., wearing Level C protection while decontaminat- December 4–6, 1984.
ing workers who are wearing Level B protection). Lillie, T.H., R.E. Hampson, Y.A. Nishioka, and M.A.
The required level of protection varies with the Hamilton. “Effectiveness of Detergent and Deter-
type of decontamination equipment used. For example, gent Plus Bleach for Decontaminating Pesticide
workers using a steam jet may need a different type of Applicator Clothing.” Bulletin of Environmental
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may generate harmful vapors. Appropriate equipment the Proceedings of 1984 Hazardous Material Spills
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9
SPILLS AND SITE EMERGENCIES
he nature of work at hazardous waste attempting to remove injured workers may
T sites makes emergencies a continual
possibility, no matter how infrequently
they may occur. Emergencies happen
quickly and unexpectedly and require an im-
mediate response. At a hazardous waste site,
themselves become victims. This variability
means that advance planning, including antic-
ipation of different emergency scenarios and
thorough preparation for contingencies, is
essential to protect worker and community
an emergency may be as limited as a worker health and safety.
experiencing heat stress or as vast as an ex- This chapter outlines important factors to be
plosion that spreads toxic fumes throughout a considered when planning for and responding to
community. Any hazard on-site can precipitate emergencies. It defines the nature of site emer-
an emergency. Chemicals, biological agents, gencies, lists the types of emergencies that
radiation, or physical hazards may act alone or in may occur, and outlines an emergency con-
concert to create explosions, fires, spills, toxic tingency plan and its components, which
atmospheres, or other dangerous and harmful include personnel roles, lines of authority,
situations. Table 9.1 lists common causes of site training, communication systems, site mapping,
emergencies. site security and control, refuges, evacuation
Site emergencies are characterized by their routes, decontamination, a medical program,
potential for complexity. Uncontrolled toxic step-by-step emergency response procedures,
chemicals may be numerous and unidentified, documentation, and reporting to outside agen-
and their effects may be synergistic. Hazards cies. Backup information is detailed in other
may potentiate one another, for example, a chapters.
flammable spill feeding a fire. Rescue personnel
PLANNING TABLE 9.1 Causes of Emergencies at Hazardous
Waste Sites
When an emergency occurs, decisive action is required.
Rapidly made choices may have far-reaching and
long-term consequences. Delays of minutes can create Worker Related
Minor accidents (slips, trips, falls)
life-threatening situations. Personnel must be ready to
Chemical exposure
rescue or respond immediately, and equipment must
Medical problems (heat stress, heatstroke, cold
be on hand and in good working order. To handle exposure, aggravation of preexisting conditions)
emergencies effectively, planning is essential. For this Personal protective equipment failure (air source
purpose, a contingency plan must be developed. Under failure, tearing or permeation of protective clothing,
Superfund regulations (40 CFR 300.41, 42, 43), contin- face piece fogging)
gency (emergency) response plans are required at sites Physical injury (from hot or flying objects, loose
where Superfund work is being conducted. clothing entangling in machinery, serious falls)
A contingency plan is a written document that Electrocution (exposure, burns, shock, possible death)
sets forth comprehensive policies and procedures
for emergency response. It should incorporate the Waste Related
following items: Fire
Explosion
• personnel Leak
roles Release of toxic vapors
lines of authority Incompatible reaction
Collapse of containers
training
Deflagration
communication
101
102 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
• site and define their roles. All personnel, whether directly
safe distances involved in an emergency response or not, should know
mapping their responsibilities in an emergency. They also must
security and control know the names of those in authority and the extent of
refuges that authority.
evacuation routes and procedures
decontamination stations Leader In an emergency situation, one person
• emergency medical treatment and first aid must be able to assume total control and decision-
making responsibility on-site. The leader must
• PPE and emergency equipment
• emergency alerting and response procedures • be identified in the emergency response plan (for
• documentation procedures example, the project team leader, site safety officer
(SSO), or field team leader)
• emergency recognition and prevention
• reporting
• be backed up by a specified alternate or alternates
• critique of response and follow-up • have authority to resolve all disputes about health
and safety requirements and precautions
Overall, a contingency plan should • be authorized to seek and purchase supplies as
necessary
• be designed as a discrete section of the site safety plan
• have authority over everyone entering the site, includ-
• be compatible and integrated with the pollution ing contractors, field investigation teams (FITs),
responses, disaster, fire, and emergency plans of local, technical assistance teams (TATs), fire departments,
state, and federal agencies and police
• be rehearsed regularly using drills and mock situa- • have the clear support of management
tions
• be reviewed periodically in response to new or chang- Teams Although individuals (for example, the
ing site conditions or information SSO) may perform certain tasks in emergencies, in
most cases teams provide greater efficiency and safety.
Situation-specific contingency plans should be out- Teams composed of on-site personnel may be created
lined at the time of the emergency before an investiga- for specific emergency purposes, such as decontam-
tion or response. No one should attempt an emergency ination, rescue, and entry. Other options include the
response or rescue until backup personnel and evacua- following:
tion routes are identified.
• Emergency response teams can be used during a par-
PERSONNEL ticularly dangerous operation or at large sites with
This category includes not only on-site and off-site per- multiple work parties in the exclusion zone.Their sole
sonnel with specific emergency response roles but also function is to remain near hazardous work areas, par-
others who may be on-site, such as contractors, other tially dressed in protective gear, ready for full suiting
agency representatives, and visitors. Emergency person- and immediate rescue of any endangered worker.
nel and their responsibilities are covered in detail in This is an expensive option but may be justified in
Chapter 3 as part of the overall organizational structure. some situations.
This information is summarized in Table 9.2. • Emergency support personnel can be used at any size
Emergency personnel may be deployed in a variety site. Each work team is provided with a special
of ways. Depending on the nature and scope of the backup member who handles general safety and
emergency, the size of the site, and the number of per- emergency support. This person
sonnel, the emergency response cadre might include is alert for hazards
individuals, small or large teams, or a number of inter- enforces SOPs
acting teams. Although deployment is determined on a monitors the air
site-by-site basis, general guidelines and recommenda- has veto authority over any proposed action
tions are given here. inspects emergency and protective equipment
is certified in first aid and cardiopulmonary resus-
ON-SITE PERSONNEL
citation (SPR) procedures
The contingency plan should identify all individuals and is familiar with site accident history, wastes to be
teams who will participate in an emergency response handled, and changes in equipment or work plans
SPILLS AND SITE EMERGENCIES 103
TABLE 9.2 Personnel Involved in Emergency Response
Site safety officer
Has authority to stop work if any operation threatens the health or safety of workers or the public
Knows emergency procedures, evacuation routes, and the telephone numbers of the ambulance, medical facility,
poison control center, fire department, and police department
Notifies local police emergency officers
Provides emergency medical care on-site
Command post supervisor
Notifies emergency support personnel by telephone or radio in case rescue operations are required
Assists the site safety officer in a rescue if necessary
Emergency response team
Stands by, partially dressed in protective gear, near the exclusion zone and rescues any workers whose health or
safety is endangered
Includes, in the event of a chemical release, the National Response Center (NRC), which can contact regional
response teams, emergency response teams, or strike teams of the National Strike Force, if necessary
May include state emergency response personnel (varies among states)
Personnel decontamination station operators
Perform emergency decontamination
24-hour medical team
Includes ambulance personnel, personnel at local clinics or hospitals, and physicians
Transports and treats victims
Communication personnel
Include local emergency service networks, which provide communication links for mutual aid
Include civil defense organizations and local radio and television stations, which provide information to the public
during an emergency
Environmental scientists
Predict the immediate and future movement of released hazardous substances through the geologic and
hydrologic environment
Assess the effects of this movement on groundwater and surface water quality
Predict the exposure levels of people and the ecosystem to the materials
Fire fighters
Respond to fires that occur at a site
Rescue victims
Meteorologists
Determine the probable movement of released toxic gases
Estimate the expected concentration of gases in the community and the expected duration of exposure
Public safety personnel
Include the county sheriff, industrial security forces, the National Guard, and the police
Control site access, crowds, and traffic
Public evacuation personnel
Include civil defense organizations, which plan evacuations
Include the National Guard and other military, the Red Cross, the Salvation Army, and municipal transportation
systems, which mobilize transit equipment and assist in evacuations
knows the work crew and its capabilities and can wears PPE and is capable of rescuing an uncon-
recognize personality and attitude changes that scious worker in full gear
may be caused by exposure to wastes
in an emergency, stays out of the hazardous area • Hazard and worker-related emergency teams are
but remains close enough to communicate with two groups with discrete response capabilities—one
workers for hazardous situations, the other for worker
summons aid and gives information to the person injuries. These are two separate categories calling
in charge for different procedures, equipment, and training
104 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
(e.g., containment and fire fighting for hazards versus • make arrangements with the appropriate agencies
rescue and first aid for victims), although there is (e.g., local fire department, state environmental
some overlap and many emergencies combine the agency, EPA regional office) for support
two.
• alert these authorities to the types of emergencies
OFF-SITE PERSONNEL that may arise
These may include individual experts, such as meteo- • determine their estimated response time and
rologists or toxicologists (see Table 9.2 for details), and resources
representatives or groups from local, state, and federal
organizations offering rescue, response, or support (see • identify backup facilities
Table 9.3 for a list of typical organizations). As part of • provide training and information about hazards on-
advance planning, site personnel should site and special procedures for handling them
• make arrangements with individual experts to • establish a contact person and means of notification
provide guidance as needed at each agency
TABLE 9.3 Examples of Agencies and Groups Involved in Emergencies
Agency or Group Rescuea Responseb Supportc
Federal
Army Corps of Engineers X
Bureau of Explosives X
Coast Guardd X X X
Department of Defense X
Department of Justice X
Department of Transportation (DoT) X
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)d X X X
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) X
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) X
National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) X
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) X
State
Civil defense X
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)d X X X
Office of the attorney general X
Department of health X
Local
Ambulance and rescue services X X X
Cleanup contractor X X X
Disposal companies X X
Fire department X X X
Field investigation teams (FITs) X
Hospital X
Police X
Red Cross X
Salvation Army X
Technical assistance teams (TATs) X X X
Transporters X
Utility companies (electric, gas, water, phone) X
a
Rescue = extricating and/or providing on-the-spot emergency treatment to victims.
b
Response = controlling and stabilizing hazardous conditions.
c
Support = providing technical assistance, equipment, and/or resources.
d
This agency provides an on-scene coordinator (OSC), depending on jurisdiction.
SPILLS AND SITE EMERGENCIES 105
LINES OF AUTHORITY of hazardous conditions and exposures. Rapid recogni-
tion of dangerous situations can avert an emergency.
The organizational structure should show a clear chain
Before passing out daily work assignments, hold regular
of command. All workers should know their own posi-
tailgate safety meetings. Discuss the following points:
tion and authority, but the chain of command must be
flexible enough to handle multiple emergencies—for • tasks to be performed
instance, a rescue and a spill response or two rescues
with a fire and spill response. • time constraints (e.g., length of rest breaks and time
for air tank changes)
TRAINING • hazards that may be encountered (including their
effects), how to recognize or monitor them, concen-
Since an immediate, informed response is essential in an
tration limits, and other danger signals
emergency, all site personnel and others entering the
site (visitors, contractors, off-site emergency response • emergency procedures
groups, and other agency representatives) must have
some level of emergency training. Any training program After daily work assignments are completed, hold a
should debriefing session to review the work accomplished and
the problems observed.
• relate directly to potential site-specific situations
COMMUNICATION
• be brief and repeated often
In an emergency, crucial messages must be conveyed
• be realistic and practical quickly and accurately. Site staff must be able to com-
• provide an opportunity for special skills to be prac- municate information such as the location of injured
ticed regularly personnel, orders to evacuate the site, and notice of
• feature frequent drills (e.g., site-specific mock rescue blocked evacuation routes, even through noise and con-
operations) fusion. Outside support sources must be reached, help
obtained, and measures for public notification ensured,
• ensure that training records are maintained in a train- if necessary. To do this, a separate set of internal emer-
ing logbook gency signals should be developed and rehearsed
daily. External communication systems and procedures
Everyone entering the site must be made aware of
should be clear and accessible to all workers.
the hazards and the actions that may trigger them.
Everyone also must know what to do in case of an emer- INTERNAL COMMUNICATION
gency. Visitors should be briefed on basic emergency
procedures, such as decontamination, emergency Internal emergency communication systems are used to
signals, and evacuation routes. alert workers to danger, convey safety information, and
Personnel without defined emergency response maintain site control. Any effective system or combina-
roles (e.g., contractors or federal agency representa- tion of systems may be used. Radios or field telephones
tives) must receive a level of training that includes, at a are often used when work teams are far from the
minimum, the following points: command post. Alarms or short, clear messages can be
conveyed by audible signals (e.g., bullhorns, mega-
• hazard recognition phones, sirens, bells, or whistles) or visual signals (e.g.,
colored flags, flares, lights, or hand and body move-
• site SOPs ments). Every system must have a backup. For example,
• signaling an emergency (the alarm used, how to hand signals may be used as a backup if radio commu-
summon help, what information to give, and whom to nications fail. All internal systems should be
give it to)
• evacuation routes and refuges • clearly understood by all personnel
• the person or station to report to when an alarm • checked and practiced daily
sounds • intrinsically safe (spark-free)
For more details on training, see Chapter 11. A special set of emergency signals also should be
set up. These should be
EMERGENCY RECOGNITION AND PREVENTION
• different from the ordinary signals
On a day-to-day basis, individual personnel should be
alert for indicators of potentially hazardous situations • brief and exact
and for symptoms in themselves and others that warn • limited in number so that they are easily remembered
106 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
TABLE 9.4 Internal Emergency Communication SITE MAPPING
Signals
A site map should be drawn as part of the planning that
can reduce or minimize emergencies. It serves as a
Devices Example Signals graphic record of the locations and types of hazards, a
reference source, and a method of documentation. This
Radio—citizen Established code words map can be a duplicate of the one developed for the
band or FM health and safety plan (see Chapter 3), but it should
Audible signal— One short blast: attention getter focus on areas where emergencies may develop. Use
bull horn, siren, One long blast: evacuate area pins and colored flags to mark changes in personnel
or whistle by nearest emergency exit deployment, hazardous areas, and equipment locations.
Two short blasts: localized The map should highlight the following:
problem (not dangerous to
workers) • hazardous areas—especially potential IDLH condi-
Two long blasts: all clear tions
Visual signals— Hand gripping throat: out of air/ • site terrain—topography, buildings, barriers
hand signals or can’t breathe
whole body Hands on top of head: need • evacuation routes
movements assistance • site accessibility by land, sea, and air
Thumbs up: OK/I’m all right/I
understand
• work crew locations
Thumbs down: no/negative • changes (e.g., work activities, vandalism, or accidents)
Grip partner’s wrist or both
• off-site populations or environments at potential risk
hands around partner’s waist:
leave area immediately
When using the map, consider both the accuracy of the
data and the potential for overestimating or underesti-
mating a hazard.
Use the map for planning and training. Develop
Examples include signals for stop, evacuate, help, and all
potential emergency scenarios, focusing on alternative
clear. Any set of signals may be used to convey these
strategies.
messages as long as all personnel understand their
When an emergency occurs, pinpoint the problem
meaning. See Table 9.4 for examples.
areas and add pertinent information, such as weather
When designing and practicing communication
and wind conditions, temperature, and weather forecast.
systems, remember the following points:
Use the map to design the emergency plan. For
example, the map could be used to
• Background noise on-site will interfere with talking
and listening.
• define zones
• Wearing PPE will impede hearing and limit vision
• determine evacuation routes
(e.g., the ability to recognize hand and body signals).
• identify emergency first aid, decontamination, and
• Inexperienced radio operators may need practice in
command post stations
speaking clearly.
EXTERNAL COMMUNICATION Even if the emergency develops so fast that the
map cannot be used for on-the-spot planning, familiar-
Off-site sources must be contacted to get assistance or ity with it will aid in making informed decisions.
to inform officials about hazardous conditions that may
affect public or environmental safety. The telephone is SAFE DISTANCES AND REFUGES
the most common mode of off-site communication.
SAFE DISTANCES
Phone hookups are considered a necessity at all but the
most remote sites. No single recommendation can be given for safe dis-
All personnel must be familiar with the protocol tances because of the wide variety of hazardous sub-
(phone number or emergency code and contact person) stances and releases found at sites. For example, a small
for contacting public emergency aid teams such as fire chlorine leak may call for an isolation distance of only
departments, ambulance units, and hospitals. If there is 250 feet, while a large leak may require an evacuation
no site telephone system, all personnel must know the area of 21/2 miles or more.
location of the nearest public telephone. A supply of Safe distances can be determined only at the time
change must be available near the phone. of an emergency, based on a combination of site- and
SPILLS AND SITE EMERGENCIES 107
incident-specific factors. However, planning for poten- • a communication system with the command post
tial emergency scenarios will help familiarize personnel • first aid supplies (e.g., eyewash, stretchers, and
with points to consider. To establish safe distances, blankets)
account for the following:
• special monitoring devices (e.g., extra detector tubes
• toxicological properties of the substance and personal monitors)
• physical state of the substance • bolt cutters
• quantity released • fire extinguishers
• rate of release • hand tools
• method of release Other refuges can be set up in the support zone
• vapor pressure of the substance or, in the case of site-wide evacuations, off-site at the
• vapor density of the substance relative to air safe exit destination. These refuges provide for emer-
gency needs, such as first aid for injured personnel;
• wind speed and direction clean, dry clothing and wash water for chemical expo-
• atmospheric stability sure victims; and communications with the command
• altitude of release post. In a site-wide evacuation, they can be used to
house evacuation exit equipment, reducing security
• air temperature and temperature change with problems. Stock these refuges with items such as the
altitude following:
• local topography (e.g., barriers may enhance or retard
a cloud or plume and attenuate a blast) • decontamination supplies
PUBLIC EVACUATION
• oxygen and air
• special testing equipment (e.g., pH and cyanide
If an incident may threaten the health or safety of the paper)
surrounding community, the public will need to be
informed and possibly evacuated. Site management • first aid supplies
should plan for this in coordination with the appropri- • a communication system
ate local, state, and federal groups, such as the civil
defense, county sheriff, local radio and television General rules for designating safe distances and
stations, municipal transportation systems, National refuges include:
Guard, and police.
• Far is better than near.
SAFETY STATIONS
• For lighter-than-air or hot gases or vapors, low is
On-site refuges, also called safety stations, can be set better than high.
up for localized emergencies that do not require site • For heavier-than-air or cold gases or vapors, high is
evacuation. These refuges should be used only for better than low.
emergency response to workers’ brief, essential needs,
such as short rest breaks, strategy meetings, or mild • Upwind is better than downwind.
cases of muscle strain and heat stress. Locate the refuge • Massive shielding is better than flimsy shielding.
in a relatively safe but not necessarily clean area—for
example, along the upwind fence line or in specially SITE SECURITY AND CONTROL
cleared places such as the periphery of an exclusion
zone. In an emergency, as in daily work activities, the site In an emergency, the leader must know who is on-site
is divided into three areas: exclusion (contaminated) and must be able to control entry of personnel into the
zone, contamination reduction (transition) zone (CRZ), hazardous areas to prevent additional injury and expo-
and support (clean) zone. Do not use the refuge for sure. Only necessary rescue and response personnel
clean activities such as eating, drinking, or air changes. should be allowed into the exclusion zone.
The following items are typically located in a refuge One control technique is to set up a checkpoint
area: or series of checkpoints through which all personnel
entering or exiting the site must pass—for example, a
• a clean (if possible, shaded) sitting/resting area support zone checkpoint and an exclusion zone check-
point. Identification or authorization must be presented
• water to a checkpoint control manager, who records each
• a wind indicator person’s
108 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
• name (and affiliation if off-site personnel) line, normally an undesirable location. If this is done,
• status (in or out) workers must know that they are not out until they
reach the designated safety area.
• time of entry
• Run the evacuation routes through the CRZ. Even if
• anticipated exit time there is not enough time to process the evacuees
• zones or areas to be entered through decontamination procedures, there needs to
• team or buddy be a mechanism for accounting for all personnel.
• task being performed • Consider the accessibility of potential routes. Take
into account obstructions such as locked gates,
• location of task trenches, pits, tanks, drums, and other barriers, as well
• PPE worn and air time left as the extra time and equipment needed to maneu-
• rescue and response equipment used ver around or through them.
• Develop two or more routes that lead to safe areas
The emergency area checkpoint control manager and that are separate or remote from each other.
should inform the supervisor if a person remains in the Multiple routes are necessary in case one is blocked
emergency area beyond his anticipated exit time. by a fire, spill, or vapor cloud. These routes must not
In an emergency, it is vital for the leader and rescue overlap because if a common point were to be
personnel to rapidly determine where workers are obstructed by a fire or another emergency, all inter-
located and who may be injured. Each site must have a secting routes would be blocked.
passive locator system—that is, a written record of the • Mark routes daily as being safe or unsafe according
location of all personnel on-site at any time. Any such to wind direction and other factors.
system should be
• Mark evacuation routes with materials such as barri-
• graphic (such as a drawing with a written key) cade tape, flagging, or traffic cones. Equally impor-
tant, mark areas that do not offer a safe escape or that
• roughly drawn to scale, with the scale and visible should not be used in an emergency. These might
landmarks included include low ground, which can fill with gases or
• kept current vapors, or routes blocked by natural barriers such as
• easy to locate cliffs or streams.
• stored outside the exclusion zone • Consider the mobility constraints of personnel
wearing protective clothing and equipment. They will
A good passive locator system is a site map with flags have difficulty crossing even small streams and going
or colored pins identifying each worker. up and down banks.
Active locator systems also can be used. These are Place ladders or scaffolding across any cut or exca-
worn or carried by individual personnel and are acti- vation that is more than 3 feet deep. For long
vated by actions such as flipping a switch, a decrease in cuts, place ladders at least every 25 feet. For sure
air supply, or a fall. They have the advantage of provid- footing, place plywood or planks on top of
ing the precise location of individuals. ladders.
Provide ladders for rapid descent from areas or
structures elevated more than 3 feet.
EVACUATION ROUTES AND PROCEDURES
Use only ladders capable of supporting a 250-
A severe emergency, such as a fire or an explosion, may pound load.
cut workers off from the normal exit near the command Secure ladders and scaffolding to prevent slipping.
post. Therefore, alternate routes for evacuating victims Place standard cleated ramps (chicken board)
and endangered personnel must be established in across ditches and other similar obstacles. Add a
advance, marked, and kept clear. Routes should be railing and toe boards if the board is narrow or
directed (1) from the exclusion zone through an upwind steeply sloped.
CRZ to the support zone and (2) from the support zone Check the toe and body clearance of ladders to
to an off-site location in case conditions necessitate a make sure that personnel wearing PPC and self-
general site evacuation. The following guidelines will contained breathing apparatuses (SCBAs) can
help in establishing safe evacuation routes: use them.
Check the clearance of access ports, such as crawl
• Place the evacuation routes upwind of the exclusion spaces, hatches, manholes, and tunnels to make
zone. At a very large site or one with many obstacles, sure that personnel wearing a protective ensem-
some exits may be placed along the downwind fence ble can get through. In any case, access ports
SPILLS AND SITE EMERGENCIES 109
should be at least 36 inches in diameter if possi- ing and emergency equipment at all times. Consider
ble. (Standard tank manways are smaller.) adopting the following work procedures:
• Make escape routes known to everyone who goes
on-site. • Refuel all heavy equipment when there is still one-
half to one-quarter tank of fuel left.
DECONTAMINATION • Require all equipment repairs to take place at the
time the problem is discovered.
When planning for decontamination in medical emer-
gencies, develop procedures for the following: • Separate two similar pieces of equipment (e.g., two
front-end loaders or a bulldozer and a front-end
• decontaminating the victim loader). Park them in different spots on-site and do
not use them at the same time in a hazardous area
• protecting medical personnel
unless it is absolutely necessary. This will minimize
• disposing of contaminated protective equipment and the possibility of both pieces of equipment being
wash solutions damaged in the same explosion or fire.
See Chapter 8, Decontamination, for details on decon- PPE also should be maintained:
tamination techniques and procedures.
• Refill all empty SCBA tanks and prepare them for
EQUIPMENT emergencies immediately after normal use.
In an emergency, equipment will be necessary to rescue • Stock higher levels of PPE than required for antici-
and treat victims, protect response personnel, and miti- pated hazards (e.g., a Level C site should have Level
gate hazardous conditions on-site (e.g., to contain chem- A and B equipment available for emergencies).
icals or fight fires). Some regular equipment can be used
in emergencies. Because of its high cost, most heavy Basic equipment that should be available at any
equipment (e.g., bulldozers, drum movers, and pumps) site is listed in Table 9.5. Special equipment should be
is used for both regular work assignments and emer- obtained depending on the specific types of emergencies
gencies. Make sure that all equipment is in working that may occur at a site and the capabilities of backup
order, fueled, and available when an emergency occurs. off-site personnel. For example, if the nearest fire depart-
Provide safe and unobstructed access for all fire fight- ment is small and carries only one bucket of foaming
TABLE 9.5 On-Site Equipment and Supplies for Emergency Response
Personal Protection Medical Hazard Mitigation
Escape self-contained breathing Air splints and equipment Fire fighting supplies
apparatus (ESCBA) or SCBA, Antiseptics Spill-containment absorbents
which can be brought to Blankets and oil booms
victims to replace or Decontamination solutions appropriate for Special hazardous-use tools,
supplement their SCBAs on-site chemical hazards such as remote pneumatic
Personal protective equip- Emergency eyewash impact wrenches and spark-
ment and clothing spec- Emergency showers or wash stations less brass wrenches and
ialized for known site hazards Ice picks
Reference books containing basic first aid Containers to hold con-
procedures and information on treatment taminated material
of specific chemical injuries
Resuscitator
Safety harness
Stretchers
Water in portable containers
Wire basket litter (Stokes litter), which can
be used to carry a victim in bad weather
and on difficult terrain, allows easy
decontamination of the victim and is
itself easy to decontaminate
110 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
solution because of its high cost and short shelf-life, a site through the preparation of equipment and personnel
may need to stock a large quantity of foam. for the next emergency.
When determining the type and quantity of special
equipment, consider the following: NOTIFICATION
Alert personnel to the emergency. Sound a site alarm to
• the types of emergencies that may arise (For each
emergency, consider a probable and worst-case
• notify personnel
scenario.)
• the types of hazards to which site personnel may be • stop work activities if necessary
exposed and the appropriate containment, mitigative, • lower background noise to speed communication
and protective measures • begin emergency procedures
• the capabilities and estimated response times of off-
site emergency personnel Notify on-site emergency response personnel
• the number of site personnel who could be victims about the emergency and include essential information:
during an emergency
• what happened
• the probable number of personnel available for
response • where it happened
• to whom it happened
MEDICAL TREATMENT AND FIRST AID
• when it happened
Toxic exposures and hazardous situations that cause
injuries and illnesses vary from site to site. Medical • how it happened
treatment may range from bandaging minor cuts and • the extent of damage
abrasions to lifesaving techniques. In many cases, essen- • what aid is needed
tial medical help may not be immediately available. For
this reason, it is vital to train on-site emergency per- ASSESSMENT
sonnel in on-the-spot treatment techniques, to establish
and maintain telephone contact with medical experts Evaluate available information about the incident and
(e.g., toxicologists), and to develop liaisons with local emergency response capabilities. Determine, to the
hospitals and ambulance services. Guidelines for estab- extent possible, the following:
lishing an emergency medical program are detailed in
Chapter 10. When designing this program, consider • what happened
these essential points: type of incident
cause of incident
• Train an abundance of personnel in emergency treat- extent of hazardous material release and transport
ment such as first aid and CPR. Training should extent of damage to structures, equipment, and
be thorough, frequent, and geared to site-specific terrain
hazards. • casualties
• Establish liaisons with local medical personnel— victims—number, location, and condition
for example, a twenty-four-hour on-call physician, treatment required
medical specialists, a local hospital, an ambulance missing personnel
service, and a poison control center. Inform and
• what could happen
educate these personnel about site-specific hazards so
types of chemicals
that they can provide optimum help if an emergency
on-site potential for fire, explosion, or release of
occurs. Develop procedures for contacting them and
hazardous substances
familiarize all on-site emergency personnel with
location of all personnel on-site relative to haz-
these procedures.
ardous areas
• Set up on-site emergency first aid stations. Make sure potential for danger to off-site population or
they are well supplied and restocked immediately environment
after each emergency.
• what can be done
equipment and personnel resources needed for
EMERGENCY RESPONSE PROCEDURES
victim rescue and hazard mitigation
Response operations usually follow a sequence that number of uninjured personnel available for
starts with notifying personnel of trouble and continues response
SPILLS AND SITE EMERGENCIES 111
resources available on-site transport, determine the level of protection necessary
resources available from outside groups and for transport personnel. Provide them with dispos-
agencies able coveralls, disposable gloves, and supplied air, as
time for outside resources to reach the site necessary, for their protection. If appropriate, have
hazards involved in rescue and response response personnel accompany victims to the medical
facility to advise on decontamination.
RESCUE AND RESPONSE • Evacuate personnel and monitor the situation.
Based on the available information, decide what type of Move on-site personnel to a safe distance upwind
action to take and proceed with the necessary steps, of the incident.
some of which may be done concurrently: Monitor the incident for significant changes. The
hazards may diminish, permitting personnel to
• Enforce the buddy system. Allow no one to enter an reenter the site, or increase and require public
exclusion zone or hazardous area without a partner. evacuation.
At all times, personnel in the exclusion zone should Inform public safety personnel when there is a
be in line-of-sight or communications contact with potential or actual need to evacuate the off-site
the command post supervisor or her designee. population. Do not attempt large-scale public
• Survey casualties. evacuation—this is the responsibility of govern-
Locate all victims and assess their condition. ment authorities (see Table 9.3).
Determine the resources needed for stabilization
and transport. FOLLOW-UP
• Assess existing and potential hazards to site person- Before normal site activities are resumed, personnel
nel and off-site population. Determine must be fully prepared and equipped to handle another
whether and how to respond emergency.
the need for evacuation of on-site personnel and
the off-site population • Restock all equipment and supplies. Replace or
the resources needed for evacuation and response repair damaged equipment. Clean and refuel equip-
• Allocate resources. Allocate on-site personnel and ment for future use.
equipment to rescue and response operations. • Review and revise all aspects of the contingency plan
• Request aid. Contact the required off-site personnel according to new site conditions and lessons learned
or facilities, such as the ambulance service, fire from the emergency response. When reviewing the
department, and police department. information, consider questions such as the following:
What caused the emergency?
• Bring the hazardous situation under complete or
Was it preventable? If so, how?
temporary control. Try to prevent the spread of the
Were inadequate or incorrect orders given or
emergency.
actions taken? Were these the result of bad judg-
• Remove or assist victims from the area. ment, wrong or insufficient information, or poor
• Decontaminate uninjured personnel in the CRZ. If procedures? Can procedures or training be
the emergency makes this area unsafe, establish a new improved?
decontamination area at an appropriate distance. How does the incident affect the site profile? How
Decontaminate victims before or after stabilization are other site cleanup activities affected?
as their medical condition indicates. How is community safety affected?
• Stabilize the situation. Who is liable for damage payments?
Administer any medical procedures that are nec-
essary before the victims can be moved. DOCUMENTATION
Stabilize or permanently fix the hazardous condi- As soon as conditions return to normal, investigate the
tion (e.g., empty filled runoff dikes). incident, putting all findings in writing. This is important
Attend to what caused the emergency and anything in all cases but especially so when the incident has
(e.g., drums or tanks) damaged or endangered by resulted in personal injury, on-site property damage, or
the emergency. damage to the surrounding environment. Documenta-
• Take measures to minimize chemical contamination tion may be used as evidence in future legal action, for
of the transport vehicle and ambulance and hospital assessment of liability by insurance companies, and for
personnel. Adequately protected rescuers should review by government agencies. Methods of documen-
decontaminate the victims before transport. If this is tation can include a written transcript taken from tape
not possible, cover the victims with sheets. Before recordings made during the emergency or a bound field
112 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
TABLE 9.6 Examples of Agencies That Require Reports After Emergencies
Agency Emergency
U.S. Coast Guard Pollution of navigable waterway
U.S. Department of Transportation (DoT) Highway accident involving a chemical spill or discharge
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Chemical spill or discharge
Insurance carriers As required
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Injury or illness
State agencies As required
book (not a loose-leaf notebook) with notes. The docu- National Fire Protection Association. Fire Protection
ment must have the following qualities: Guide on Hazardous Materials. 7th ed. Boston:
National Fire Protection Association, 1978.
• Accuracy. All information must be recorded
National Solid Waste Management Association
objectively.
(NSWMA). Managing Hazardous Waste: Fulfilling
• Authenticity. A chain-of-custody procedure should be the Public Trust. Washington, DC: NSWMA, 1989.
used. Each person making an entry must date and Pastorick, J.P. “Ordinance, Explosive Waste and
sign the document. Keep the number of documenters Unexploded Ordnance.” Chapter 15 in Protecting
to a minimum (to avoid confusion and because they Personnel at Hazardous Waste Sites. 3rd ed. W.F.
may have to give testimony at hearings or in court). Martin and M. Gochfeld, eds. Boston: Butter-
Nothing should be erased. If details change or revi- worth–Heinemann, 2000.
sions are needed, the person making the notation Pire, John C., and B.D. Mavy. “Utilizing State Hazardous
should mark a horizontal line through the old mate- Materials Transportation Data in Hazardous Analy-
rial and initial the change. sis.” Journal of Hazardous Materials 54 (1997).
• Completeness. At a minimum, include the following: Redinger, C.F., and D. Dyjack. “ISO 9000 and 14000
chronological history of the incident for Hazardous Waste Operations.” Chapter 18 in
facts about the incident and when they became Protecting Personnel at Hazardous Waste Sites. 3rd
available ed. W.F. Martin and M. Gochfeld, eds. Boston:
title and names of personnel and composition of Butterworth–Heinemann, 2000.
teams Robinson, J.S., ed. Hazardous Chemicals Spills Cleanup.
decisions made and by whom, orders given (to Parkridge, N.J.: Noyes Data Corporation, 1980.
whom, by whom, and when), and actions taken Sawyer, C.J., and W.F. Martin. “Health and Safety
(who did what, when, where, and how) Plans & Contingency Plans.” Chapter 13 in Pro-
types of samples and test results, air-monitoring tecting Personnel at Hazardous Waste Sites. 3rd
results edition. W.F. Martin and M. Gochfeld, eds. Boston:
possible exposures of site personnel Butterworth-Heinemann, 2000.
history of all injuries or illnesses during or as a U.S. Coast Guard Department of Transportation
result of the emergency (DoT). Chemical Hazards Response Information
(CHRIS). Washington, DC: DoT, 1978.
After an emergency, various agencies and groups U.S. Department of Defense, and U.S. Army. Safe Trans-
will require reports for their own documentation pur- portation of Hazardous Materials. Huntsville, AL:
poses, to support requests for payment, and to provide DoD, 1998.
evidence in case of legal action. See Table 9.6 for a list U.S. Department of Transportation (DoT). Hazardous
of agencies that may require reports. Materials Emergency Response Guide Book. DoT
Publication No. 5800.5. Washington, DC: DoT,
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1990.
Blackman, W.C., Jr. Basic Hazardous Waste Manage- ——. North American Emergency Response Guidebook.
ment. 2nd ed. New York: Lewis Publishers, 1996. Washington, DC: DoT, 1996.
Keller, J.J., & Associates. Drivers’ Pocket Guide to Wentz, Charles A. Hazardous Waste Management. New
Hazardous Materials. Neenah, WI: Keller, J.J. & York: McGraw-Hill, 1989.
Associates, 1993. Zajic, J.E., and W.A. Himmelman. Highly Hazardous
LeFevre, M.J. First Aid Manual for Chemical Accidents. Materials Spills and Emergency Planning. New
2d ed. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1989. York: Marcel-Dekker, l978.
10
MEDICAL MONITORING PROGRAMS
orkers handling hazardous Each site should develop its own medical
W wastes may be exposed to toxic
chemicals, biological hazards,
radiation, or physical dangers.
They may develop heat stress while wearing
PPE or working under temperature extremes, or
monitoring program based on its specific needs,
location, and potential exposures. The program
should be designed by the SSO in conjunction
with an experienced occupational physician or
other qualified occupational health consultant.
they may face life-threatening emergencies such The screening and examination protocols des-
as explosions and fires. All these factors can cribed here provide general outlines of a sample
interact to create psychological and physiological medical monitoring program.
stress. Therefore, a medical program is essential The ideal director of a site medical program
to assess and monitor workers’ health and is a board-certified occupational medicine
fitness both prior to employment and during the physician or a doctor who has had extensive
course of work, to provide emergency and other experience in occupational health services. If an
treatment as needed, and to keep accurate re- occupational physician is not available, consider
cords for future reference. Information from a using one of the following:
site medical monitoring program also may be
used to conduct future epidemiological studies; • a capable primary care physician with an
to adjudicate claims and determine benefits; to interest in the program
provide evidence in litigation; and to report
workers’ medical conditions to federal, state,
• a group of local physicians to give the
examinations, with review and/or overall
and local agencies, as required by law.
direction by an occupational medicine
This chapter presents general guidelines for
consultant
a medical program for personnel at hazardous
waste sites. In addition, it supplies a table of
common toxins found at uncontrolled waste A site medical program should provide the
sites with recommended medical monitoring following components:
procedures and a sample occupational medical
history form. • preemployment screening
The recommendations in this chapter • periodic monitoring
assume that workers will have adequate
protection from exposures through admin- • termination examination
istrative and engineering controls and appropriate • emergency treatment
PPE and decontamination procedures. Medical
monitoring should be used only as a backup to
• episodic treatment
other controls. • record keeping
PROGRAM REVIEW AND EVALUATION aerobics), proper diet, and avoidance of alcohol and
drug abuse. In particular, management should
An effective medical monitoring program depends
on active worker involvement. See Table 10.l for an • require prospective employees to provide a complete
outline of a recommended medical program. In addi- and detailed occupational and medical history
tion, management must have a firm commitment to
worker health and safety and must express this not only • require workers to report any exposures, regardless
by medical monitoring and treatment but also through of degree
management directives and informal encouragement • require workers to bring any unusual physical or
to maintain good health through exercise (such as psychological conditions to the doctor’s attention
113
114 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
TABLE 10.1 Recommended Medical Program
Component Recommended Optional
Preassignment screening Medical history Baseline monitoring for specific
Occupational history exposures
Physical examination Other routine baseline tests
Determination of fitness to work wearing Freezing preemployment serum
protective equipment specimen for later testing
Periodic monitoring Yearly medical occupational history and Yearly testing with routine
physical examination; testing based on medical tests
examination results and exposures
More frequent testing based on exposures
to specific hazards
Emergency treatment Provide emergency first aid on-site
Develop liaison with local hospital and
medical specialists
Arrange for transport of victims
Transfer medical records; give details of
incident and medical history to next care
provider
Nonemergency treatment Develop mechanism for evaluation of
possible site-related illness and episodic
health care
Program record keeping Maintain and provide access to medical
and review records in accordance with OSHA
regulations
Report and record occupational injuries and
illnesses
Review site safety plan regularly to determine
whether additional testing is needed
Review program periodically; focus on
current site hazards, exposures, and
industrial hygiene standards
Post yearly summary of occupational
illnesses and injuries
(employee training must emphasize that vague dis- Specific testing protocols should be established in
turbances or apparently minor complaints, such as coordination with the physician being consulted for
skin irritation or headaches, may be precursors of a the medical monitoring services. Table 10.2 provides
low-level exposure response or other illness.) examples of tests frequently performed by occupational
• promote positive attitudes toward health mainte- physicians in establishing baseline medical profiles.
nance and discourage inappropriate worker biases, Standard occupational medical tests were devel-
such as the idea that acknowledging and seeking oped in factories and other enclosed industrial environ-
treatment for health problems is weak or cowardly ments. They were based on the presence of specific
identifiable toxic chemicals and the possibility of a sig-
nificant degree of exposure. Some of these tests may not
MONITORING
be totally appropriate for hazardous waste sites, since
A hazardous waste site medical monitoring program is available data suggest that site workers have low-level
designed for field workers who may be exposed to toxic exposure to many chemicals concurrently, as well as
substances on a regular basis. Designing such a program brief high-level exposure to some chemicals.
is difficult because information about exposures and The recommendations in this chapter are based
risks for these workers is limited. The design of tests and on known health risks for hazardous waste workers,
frequency of monitoring will be dependent on the a review of available data on their exposures, and an
potential hazardous exposures on each work site. assessment of several established medical monitoring
MEDICAL MONITORING PROGRAMS 115
TABLE 10.2 Tests Frequently Performed by Occupational Physicians
Function Test Example
Liver
General Blood tests Total protein, albumin, globulin, total bilirubin (direct bilirubin if total is
elevated)
Obstruction Blood test Alkaline phosphatase
Cell injury Blood tests Gamma glutamyl transpeptidase (GGTP), lactic dehydrogenase (LDH), serum
glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT), serum glutamic-pyruvic
transaminase (SGPT)
Kidney Blood tests Blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine, uric acid
Multiple systems Urinalysis Including color; appearance; specific gravity; pH; qualitative glucose, protein,
and organs bile, and acetone; occult blood; microscopic examination of centrifuged
sediment
Blood-forming Blood tests Complete blood count (CBC) with differential and platelet evaluation,
function including white cell count (WBC), red cell count (RBC), hemoglobin (HGB),
hematocrit or packed cell volume (HCT), desired erythrocyte indices;
reticulocyte count may be appropriate if there is a likelihood of exposure
to hemolytic chemicals
programs. Because conditions and hazards vary con- • aromatic hydrocarbon solvents
siderably at each site, only general guidelines are given. • asbestos
A medical monitoring program for every employee
is highly desirable. When developing test protocols for • dioxin
a specific site, bear in mind the following points: • halogenated aliphatic hydrocarbon solvents
• heavy metals
• Determine monitoring needs on a case-by-case basis,
• herbicides
taking into account the worker’s medical and occu-
pational history, plus current and potential exposures • organochlorine insecticides
on-site. • organophosphate and carbamate insecticides
• Consider the routine job tasks of each worker. • PCBs
For instance, a heavy-equipment operator exposed
to significant noise levels would require a different
Table 10.3 lists these groups, along with representative
monitoring protocol from a field sample collector
compounds, uses, health effects, and available medical
with minimal noise exposure. An administrator may
monitoring procedures.
need only a preemployment screening for ability to
wear PPE, if this is an occasional requirement rather
than a more comprehensive program. PREEMPLOYMENT SCREENING
• Consider that most testing recommendations, even Preemployment screening has two major functions: (1)
those for specific toxic substances, have not been determination of physical fitness, including the ability to
critically evaluated for efficacy. work while wearing PPE, and (2) provision of baseline
• Take into account that toxicity can vary, not only data for future exposures or injuries.
with the amount and duration of exposure but
also with individual factors such as age, sex, weight,
stress, diet, medications taken, and off-site expo- DETERMINATION OF PHYSICAL FITNESS
sures (e.g., hobbies such as painting or furniture Workers at hazardous waste sites are often required to
refinishing). perform strenuous tasks (e.g., moving 55-gallon drums)
and wear PPE, such as respirators and protective suits,
While it is often impossible to identify every toxic that may cause heat stress and other problems. To
substance that exists at each hazardous waste site, ensure that prospective employees are able to meet
certain groups of toxins are more likely to be present work requirements, the preemployment screening
than others. These include the following: should focus on the following areas:
TABLE 10.3 Common Toxins Found at Hazardous Waste Sites: Health Effects and Medical Monitoring
Target Organs/
Chemical Group Compound Uses Systems Potential Health Effects Medical Monitoring
Aromatic Benzene Commercial solvents Blood All cause: Laboratory tests
hydrocarbon Ethyl benzene and intermediates Bone marrow CNS depression: Complete blood count (CBC)
solvents Toluene for synthesis in Central nervous decreased alertness, Reticulocyte count
Xylene the chemical and system (CNS) headache, sleepiness, Platelet count
pharmaceutical Eyes loss of consciousness Measurement of kidney and
industries Respiratory Defatting dermatitis liver function
system Benzene suppresses bone-
Skin marrow function,
Liver causing blood changes.
Kidneys Chronic exposure can
cause leukemia.
Note: Because other
aromatic hydrocarbons
may be contaminated
with benzene during
distillation, benzene-
related health effects
should be considered
when exposure to any
of these agents is
suspected.
Asbestos Chrysotile A variety of industrial Lungs Chronic effects History and physical examin-
asbestos uses including: Gastrointestinal Lung cancer ation should focus on the
Crocidolite Building system Mesothelioma lungs, heart, and gastro-
asbestos Construction Asbestosis intestinal system.
Amosite Cement work Gastrointestinal Laboratory tests include a stool
asbestos Insulation malignancies guaiac evaluation as a check
Tremolite Fireproofing Asbestos exposure coupled for possible hidden gastro-
Actinolite Pipes and ducts for with cigarette smoking intestinal malignancy.
Anthophyllite water, air, and has been shown to have A high-quality chest X-ray and
chemicals a synergistic effect in pulmonary function test may
Automobile brake the development of lung help to identify long-term
pads and linings cancer and asbestosis. changes (manifest in 10 to
30 years) associated with
asbestos diseases; however,
early identification of low-
dose exposure is unlikely.
Dioxin (see
Herbicides)
Halogenated Carbon tetrachloride Commercial solvents CNS All cause: Occupational/general/medical
aliphatic Chloroform and intermediates Kidneys CNS depression: history emphasizing prior
Ethyl bromide in organic Liver decreased alertness, exposure to these and other
Ethyl chloride synthesis Skin headaches, sleepi- toxic agents
Ethylene dibromide ness, loss of Medical history of liver, kidney,
Ethylene dichloride consciousness CNS, and skin diseases
Methyl chloride Kidney: decreased urine Laboratory testing for liver and
Methyl chloroform flow, swelling (espe- kidney function
Methylene chloride cially around eyes),
Tetrachloroethane anemia
Tetrachloroethylene Liver: fatigue, malaise,
(perchloroethylene) dark urine, liver
Trichloroethylene enlargement, jaundice
Vinyl chloride Vinyl chloride is a known
carcinogen; several
others in this group are
potential carcinogens.
Heavy metals Arsenic Wide variety of Multiple organs All are toxic to the History taking and physical
Beryllium industrial and and systems kidneys. exam should search for
Cadmium commercial uses Blood Each heavy metal has symptom clusters
Chromium Cardiopulmonary its own characteristic associated with specific
Lead Gastrointestinal symptom cluster. For metal exposure (e.g., for
Mercury Kidney example, lead causes lead, look for neurological
Liver decreased mental deficit, anemia, gastro-
Lung ability, weakness intestinal symptoms).
CNS (especially hands), Laboratory tests
Skin numbness of hands Quantitative and qualitative
and feet, headache, measurements of metallic
abdominal cramps, content in blood, urine,
diarrhea, abdominal and tissues (e.g., blood
pain resembling ulcer lead level; urine screen for
symptoms, and arsenic, mercury, chrom-
anemia. ium, cadmium)
Lead also can affect the CBC
blood-forming Reticulocyte count
mechanism, kidneys, Measurement of kidney and
and heart. liver function
Long-term effects also Chest X-ray or pulmonary
vary. function testing to identify
Lead toxicity can cause changes associated with
permanent brain chromium, beryllium, or
damage. cadmium exposure
(continued)
TABLE 10.3 (Continued)
Target Organs/
Chemical Group Compound Uses Systems Potential Health Effects Medical Monitoring
Heavy metals (cont.) Cadimium can cause
chronic lung disease.
Chromium, beryllium,
and cadmium have been
implicated as human
carcinogens.
Herbicides Chlorophenoxy Vegetation Kidney Dioxin causes chloracne History and physical exam
compounds control Liver and may aggravate should focus on the skin and
2,4-dichlorophenoxy- CNS preexisting liver and nerve systems.
acetic acid (2,4-D) Skin kidney diseases. Its Laboratory tests
2,4,5 cancer-causing potential Measurement of liver and
trichlorophenoxyacetic is currently being kidney function
acid (2,4,5-T) investigated.
Dioxin (tetrachloro- Chlorophenoxy com- Urinalysis
dibenzo-p-dioxin, TCDD), pounds cause liver and
which occurs as a trace kidney abnormalities in
contaminant in these laboratory animals. In
compounds, poses the humans, exposure can
most serious health cause weakness or
risk. numbness of the arms
and legs and may result
in long-term nerve
damage.
Organochlorine Chlorinated ethane—DDT Pest control Kidney All cause acute symptoms History and physical exam
insecticides Cyclodienes Liver of apprehension, should focus on the nerve
Aldrin CNS irritability, dizziness, system.
Chlordane disturbed equilibrium, Laboratory tests
Dieldrin tremor, and convulsions. Measurement of kidney and
Endrin Cyclodienes may cause liver function
Chlorocyclohexane: convulsions without CBC for exposure to chlor-
Lindane any other initial ocyclohexanes
symptoms.
Chlorocyclohexanes can
cause anemia.
Cyclodienes and
chlorocyclohexanes
cause liver toxicity
and can cause
permanent kidney
damage, including
tumors. They also cause
cancer in laboratory
animals.
Organophosphate Organophosphates Pest control CNS All cause a chain of Physical exam should focus on
and carbamate Chlorfenvinfos (benzyl Liver internal reactions the nervous system.
insecticides alcohol) Kidney leading to neuromus- Laboratory tests
Diazinon cular blockage. Plasma/RBC cholinesterase
Dichlorovos Depending on the extent levels for recent exposure
Dimethoate of poisoning, acute Measurement of kidney and
Trichlorfon symptoms range from liver function for delayed
Malathion headaches, fatigue, neurotoxicity and other
Methylparathion dizziness, increased effects
Parathion salivation and crying,
Carbamates profuse sweating,
Aldicarb nausea, vomiting,
Baygon cramps, and diarrhea to
Zectran tightness in the chest,
muscle twitching, and
slowing of the
heartbeat.
Severe cases may result
in rapid onset of
unconsciousness and
seizures. A delayed
effect may be weakness
and numbness in the
feet and hands. Long-
term permanent nerve
damage is possible.
Polychlorinated Wide variety of Liver All cause various skin Physical exam should focus
biphenyls industrial uses CNS ailments, including on the skin and liver.
(PCBs) Respiratory chloracne; may Laboratory tests
system cause liver toxicity; Serum PCB levels
Skin carcinogenic to Measurement of liver
animals; cancer- function
causing potential in Triglycerides
humans still being Cholesterol
investigated
120 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
Medical History have had adverse effects on the worker. For this
purpose, medical screening tests and biological moni-
• Make sure the worker fills out the occupational toring tests can be used. At present, there are no
medical history questionnaire. (See Appendix F for a specific guidelines for prescribing these tests. Consider
sample document.) Review the questionnaire before these general recommendations:
seeing the worker. In the examining room, discuss the
questionnaire with the worker, paying special atten- • Develop a battery of tests based on the worker’s past
tion to prior occupational exposures to chemical and occupational and medical history and an assessment
physical hazards. of significant potential exposures.
• Cover past illnesses and chronic diseases, particularly • Use standard established testing for specific toxins
asthma, lung diseases, and cardiovascular disease. in situations where workers may receive significant
• Review symptoms, especially shortness of breath or exposures to these agents. For example, long-term
labored breathing on exertion, other chronic respira- cleanup of a PCB waste facility can be monitored
tory symptoms, chest pain, high blood pressure, and with preemployment and periodic serum PCB
heat intolerance. testing. Standard procedures are available for deter-
mining levels of other substances such as lead,
• Identify individuals who are vulnerable to particular cadmium, arsenic, and organophosphate pesticides.
substances (e.g., someone with a history of severe
asthmatic reaction to a specific chemical). • Where applicable, draw preemployment blood speci-
mens and freeze serum for later testing. PCBs and
Physical Examination some pesticides are examples of agents amenable to
such monitoring.
• Conduct a comprehensive physical exam of all body
SAMPLE PREEMPLOYMENT EXAMINATIONS
organs, focusing on the pulmonary, cardiovascular,
and musculoskeletal systems. An occupational and medical history and a physical
• Note conditions that could increase susceptibility examination are recommended for a preemployment
to heatstroke, such as obesity and lack of physical examination.
exercise.
Occupational and Medical History A complete
• Note conditions that could interfere with respirator medical history should be conducted emphasizing these
use, such as missing or arthritic fingers, facial scars, systems: nerve, skin, lung, blood-forming, cardio-
poor eyesight, or perforated eardrums. vascular, gastrointestinal, ear, nose, reproductive, and
genitourinary.
Ability to Work Wearing PPE
Physical Examination A physical examination
• Disqualify individuals clearly unable to perform should include at least the following points:
based on their medical history and physical exam
(e.g., those with severe lung or heart disease). • height, weight, temperature, pulse, respiration, and
• Provide additional testing for ability to wear PPE blood pressure
(e.g., chest X-ray, pulmonary function testing, elec- • head, nose, and throat
trocardiogram), where necessary.
• eyes—include vision tests that measure refraction,
• Base the determination on the individual worker’s depth perception, and color vision. These tests should
profile: medical history and physical exam, age, pre- be administered by a qualified technician or physi-
vious exposures, and testing. cian. Vision quality is essential to safety, to read
• If wearing a respirator is a job requirement, make instruments and labels accurately, to avoid physical
a written assessment of the worker’s capacity to hazards, and to respond to color-coded labels and
perform while wearing one. Note: The OSHA respi- signals.
rator standard (29 CFR 1910, Part 134) states that no • ears—include audiometric tests performed at 500,
employee be assigned to a task that requires the use 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, and 6000 hertz (Hz) pure tone
of a respirator unless it has been determined that in an approved booth. Tests should be administered
the person is physically able to perform under such by a qualified technician and results read by a certi-
conditions. fied audiologist. The integrity of the eardrum must
be established. Persons with perforated eardrums
BASELINE DATA FOR FUTURE EXPOSURES
who work around hazardous substances risk airborne
Preemployment screening can be used to establish base- chemicals entering the body unless they wear PPE
line data to determine whether subsequent exposures that covers the head. If the eardrum is perforated, the
MEDICAL MONITORING PROGRAMS 121
examining physician should consult the appropriate • other routine baseline profiles depending on the
site personnel. worker’s history and physical exam; these may
• chest (heart and lungs) include tests for liver, kidney, lung, or blood-forming
functions. (See Table l0.2 for examples of tests fre-
• peripheral vascular system quently performed by occupational physicians.)
• abdomen and rectum (including hernia exam)
General tests offered in clinical batteries should
• spine and rest of the musculoskeletal system
probably be omitted in baseline testing. While they can
• genitourinary system serve a nonoccupational preventive medicine function,
• skin they may provide little or no useful information for
worker placement. In addition, they present an
• nerves
increased risk of false positive results. Examples include
tests for calcium, carbon dioxide content, cholesterol,
WORKER’S ABILITY TO PERFORM
WHILE WEARING PPE chloride, glucose, inorganic phosphorus, potassium,
sodium, and triglycerides.
To determine a worker’s ability to perform while All analyses should be performed by a labor-
wearing PPE, additional tests may be necessary. These atory demonstrating satisfactory performance in an
tests might include a chest x-ray, an electro cardiogram, established interlaboratory testing program at least
and a pulmonary function test. equivalent to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC)
program.
Chest X-Ray A 14 ¥ 17-inch posterior/anterior
view is recommended. Lateral or oblique views are MEDICAL MONITORING EXAMINATION
required only if indicated. Services should be provided
PERIODIC SCREENING
by a certified radiology technician, with interpretation
by a certified radiologist. Where available, chest X-rays Periodic medical monitoring examinations should be
taken in the last twelve-month period should be developed and used in conjunction with preemploy-
obtained and used for review. Chest X-rays should not ment screening examinations. An ongoing comparison
be repeated more than once a year, unless otherwise of sequential medical reports with the baseline data is
determined by the examining physician. essential in determining biological trends that may
mark early signs of chronic adverse health effects.
Electrocardiogram (EKG) At least one standard The frequency and content of monitoring will vary
twelve-lead resting EKG is recommended. Interpreta- depending on the nature of the work and exposures.
tion should be done by an internist or cardiologist. A Generally, medical monitoring examinations have been
stress test may be administered at the discretion of the recommended at least yearly. More frequent monitor-
examining physician. ing may be necessary, depending on the extent of poten-
tial or actual exposures, the type of chemicals involved,
Pulmonary Function Testing The following ab- the duration of the work assignment, and the individual
breviations are often used in occupational safety and worker’s profile. For example, workers participating in
health publications: FEF = forced expiratory flow; the cleanup of a PCB-contaminated building were ini-
MMEFR = maximal expiratory flow rate; MVV = tially examined monthly for serum PCB levels. Review
maximal voluntary ventilation; FRC = functional resid- of the data from the first few months revealed no appre-
ual capacity; RV = residual volume; and TLC = total lung ciable evidence of PCB exposure.The frequency of PCB
capacity. Pulmonary function testing should include testing was then reduced.
forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1) and forced Periodic screening should include the following
vital capacity (FVC), with interpretation and compari- elements:
son to normal predicted values for age, height, race, and
sex.Other factors such as FEF,MMEFR,MVV,FRC,RV, • Interval medical history focusing on changes in
and TLC may be included. A permanent record of flow health status, illnesses, and possible work-related
curves should be placed in the worker’s medical chart. symptoms. The examining physician should have
The following items are optional: information about the worker’s interval exposure
history, including exposure monitoring done at the
• specific baseline monitoring to establish data relating job site, supplemented by a worker-reported expo-
to a particular toxin when there is a likelihood of sure history and general information on possible
potential on-site exposure to that toxin exposures at previous sites.
• freezing a serum specimen for later testing in cases • Physical examination
where there are known toxic agents amenable to such • Additional medical testing, depending on available
testing exposure information, medical history, and examina-
122 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
tion results. Testing should be specific for the possible • Train a team of site personnel in emergency first
medical effects of the worker’s exposure. Multiple aid. This should include a Red Cross or equivalent
testing for a large range of potential exposures is not certified course in CPR and first aid training that
useful and can be counterproductive, since it may emphasizes treatment for explosion and burn
produce false positive results because of chance or injuries, heat stress, and acute chemical toxicity. (See
other factors. Table 10.4 for symptoms of exposure and heat stress
Pulmonary function tests should be administered that indicate potential medical emergencies.)
if the individual has been exposed to irritating • Train personnel in emergency decontamination pro-
or toxic substances or if the individual has cedures in coordination with the emergency response
breathing difficulties, especially when wearing a plan. (See Chapter 9 for details.)
respirator.
Audiometric tests are recommended annually for
personnel subject to high noise exposures (an
eight-hour, time-weighted average of 85dBA or TABLE 10.4 Signs and Systems of Chemical
more, where dBA = decibels on the A-weighted Exposure and Heat Stress That
scale), those required to wear hearing protec- Indicate Potential Medical
tion, or as otherwise indicated. Emergencies
Vision tests are recommended annually to check
for vision degradation. Type of Hazard Signs and Symptoms
Blood and urine tests are recommended for
workers subject to exposure to heavy metals and
Chemical hazard Behavioral changes
toxic substances.
Breathing difficulties
Changes in complexion or skin
SAMPLE MEDICAL MONITORING EXAMINATION color
Coordination difficulties
The basic medical monitoring examination is the same
Coughing
as the preemployment screening, modified according to Dizziness
current conditions, such as changes in the worker’s Drooling
symptoms, site hazards, or exposures. See the section on Diarrhea
Sample Preemployment Examinations earlier in this Fatigue
chapter for details. Irritability
Irritation of eyes, nose, respiratory
TERMINATION EXAMINATION tract, skin, or throat
Light-headedness
At the end of employment at a hazardous waste site, Nausea
all personnel should have a medical examination as Sneezing
described in the previous two sections. If the last exam- Sweating
ination (prescreening or monitoring) has been done Tearing
within six months, a termination exam is not medically Tightness in the chest
indicated. Heat exhaustion Clammy skin
Confusion
EMERGENCY TREATMENT Dizziness
Fainting
Provisions for emergency treatment and acute non- Fatigue
emergency treatment should be made at each site. Light-headedness
Preplanning is vital. Nausea
When developing plans, procedures, and equip- Rapid pulse
ment lists, consider the range of actual and potential Slurred speech
hazards specific to the site: chemical, physical (such as Profuse sweating
heat and/or cold stress, falls, and trips), and biological Heatstroke Confusion
(animal bites and plant poisoning, as well as hazardous Convulsions
biological wastes). Take into account that not only Hot skin, high temperature (yet
site workers but also contractors, visitors, and other may feel chilled)
agency personnel (particularly fire fighters) may require Incoherent speech
emergency treatment. Staggering gait
Unconsciousness
The following are recommended guidelines for
Sweating stops
establishing an emergency treatment program:
MEDICAL MONITORING PROGRAMS 123
• Predesignate roles and responsibilities to be assumed emergency, fire, and police services
by personnel in an emergency. poison control hot line
• Establish an on-site emergency first aid station • Provide maps and directions.
capable of providing (1) stabilization for patients • Make sure that all personnel know the way to the
requiring off-site treatment and (2) general first aid nearest medical facility.
(e.g., minor cuts, sprains, and abrasions).
Locate the station in the clean area adjacent to the • Designate a radio for emergency use.
decontamination area to facilitate emergency • Review these procedures daily with all site personnel
decontamination. at safety meetings before beginning the work shift.
Provide a standard first aid kit or equivalent
supplies, plus additional items such as emer- MEDICAL RECORDS
gency/deluge showers, stretchers, portable water, Proper record keeping is essential at hazardous waste
ice, emergency eyewash, decontamination solu- sites because of the nature of the work and risks.
tions, and fire-extinguishing blankets. Employees may work at a large number of geographi-
Restock supplies and equipment immediately after cally separate sites during their careers, and long-term
each use and check them regularly. adverse exposure effects may not manifest for many
• Arrange for a physician who can be paged on a years. Workers should be informed about their expo-
twenty-four-hour basis. sures. Medical testing is important to help them take
• Set up an on-call team of medical specialists for emer- appropriate precautions. Other and subsequent medical
gency consultations (e.g., toxicologist, dermatologist, care providers also should be informed about workers’
hematologist, allergist, ophthalmologist, cardiologist, exposures.
neurologist). OSHA regulations mandate that, unless a specific
occupational safety and health standard provides a dif-
• Establish a protocol for monitoring heat stress. ferent time period, the employer must
• Make plans in advance for emergency transportation
to and treatment at a nearby medical facility. • maintain and preserve medical records on exposed
Educate local emergency transport and hospital workers for thirty years after they leave employment
personnel about possible on-site medical prob- • make available to workers, their authorized repre-
lems: types of hazards and their consequences, sentatives, and OSHA inspection staff the results of
potential for exposure, and scope and function of medical testing and full medical records
the site medical program.
Assist the hospital in developing procedures for • maintain records of occupational injuries and ill-
site-related emergencies.This will help to protect nesses and provide a yearly summary report to
hospital personnel and patients and to minimize OSHA (Form 200)
delays due to concerns about hospital safety or
contamination. In addition, the Privacy Act of 1974 requires that
For specific illnesses or injuries, provide details of workers for whom medical records will be kept read and
the incident and the worker’s past medical sign a statement that explains the authority for collect-
history to the appropriate hospital staff. This is ing information, rules of confidentiality, and the disclo-
especially important when specific medical treat- sure of information. This statement becomes part of
ment is required (e.g., for exposure to cyanide or the worker’s records. The employee may make written
organophosphate pesticides). requests for release of this information. Such requests
also become a permanent part of the record.
Depending on the site’s location and potential
hazards, it may be important to identify additional PROGRAM REVIEW
medical facilities capable of sophisticated response to Regular maintenance and review of medical records
chemical or other exposures. and test results aid medical personnel, site officers, and
parent company and/or agency managers in assessing
• Post conspicuously (with duplicates near the tele- the effectiveness of the health and safety program. The
phones) the names, phone numbers, addresses, and SSO, medical consultant, and/or management represen-
procedures for contacting the following facilities: tative should
on-call physician
medical specialists • evaluate each accident or illness promptly to deter-
ambulance mine the cause and make necessary changes in health
medical facility and safety procedures
124 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
• periodically evaluate the efficacy of specific medical sented at the Expert Panel Meeting, Binghamton,
testing in the context of potential site exposures New York, 1982.
• add or delete medical tests as suggested by current Dinman, B.D. “Medical Aspects of the Occupational
industrial hygiene and environmental data Environment.” In The Industrial Environment: Its
Evaluation and Control. National Institute for
• review potential exposures and safety plans at new Occupational Safety and Health, 1973.
sites to determine whether additional testing is Goldman, R.F. “Heat Stresss in Industrial Garments”
required Chapter 10 in Protecting Personnel at Hazardous
• review emergency treatment procedures used Waste Sites. 3rd ed. W.F. Martin and M. Gochfeld,
eds. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2000.
Arrangements should be made for episodic, Melius, J.M., and M. Gochfeld. “Medical Surveillance”
nonemergency medical care for hazardous waste In Protecting Personnel at Hazardous Waste Sites.
workers. In conjunction with the medical monitoring 3rd ed. W.F. Martin and M. Gochfeld, eds. Boston:
program, off-site medical care should ensure that Butterworth-Heinemann, 2000.
any potential job-related symptoms or illnesses are Melius, J.M., and W.E. Halperin. “Medical Screening of
evaluated in the context of the worker’s exposure. Workers at Hazardous Waste Disposal Sites.” In
Off-site medical personnel also should investigate and Hazardous Waste Disposal: Assessing the Problem.
treat non-job-related illnesses that may put the worker J. Highland, ed. Ann Arbor, MI: Ann Arbor Science
at risk because of task requirements (e.g., a bad cold or Publishers, 1982.
flu that might interfere with respirator use). Arrange for National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
treating physicians to have access to the worker’s (NIOSH). Occupational Safety and Health Guid-
medical records. Keep a copy of the worker’s medical ance Manual for Hazardous Waste Site Activities.
records at the site (with provisions for security and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
confidentiality) and, when appropriate, at a nearby Publication No. 85115. Washington, DC: GPO,
hospital. October 1985.
——. Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. Publication
No. 97-140. U.S. Department of Health and Human
BIBLIOGRAPHY Services (DHHS). Washington, DC: DHHS, June
Chase, K. “Medical Surveillance of Cleanup Workers at 1997.
the Binghamton State Office Building.” Paper pre-
11
TRAINING
nyone who enters a hazardous waste • provide the knowledge and skills necessary to
A site must be able to recognize and
understand the potential health and
safety hazards associated with the
cleanup of the site. Personnel working on the site
must be thoroughly familiar with work practices
perform the work with minimal risk to worker
health and safety
• ensure that workers are aware of the use and
limitations of safety equipment
and procedures contained in the site safety plan • ensure that workers can safely avoid or
(see Chapter 3, Planning and Organization). Site escape from hazardous situations that may
workers must be trained to work safely wherever occur.
there is a reasonable possibility of employee
exposure to safety or health hazards. The minimum content of the training pro-
The training program for hazardous waste gram may be found in 29 CFR 1910. Workers
site activities should: may not participate in or supervise field activities
until they have been trained to a level required
• ensure that workers are aware of the potential by their job function and responsibility.
hazards they may encounter
TRAINING PROGRAMS (v) Safe use of engineering controls and equipment
on the site;
OSHA regulation 29 CFR 1910.120 identifies the
(vi) Medical surveillance requirements, including
hazardous waste worker and the type of training as
recognition of symptoms and signs which might indicate
follows:
overexposure to hazards; and
(e) Training—(1) General (i) All employees working on
(3) Initial training. (i) General site workers (such
site (such as but not limited to equipment operators,
as equipment operators, general laborers and supervi-
general laborers and others) exposed to hazardous sub-
sory personnel) engaged in hazardous substance
stances, health hazards, or safety hazards and their super-
removal or other activities which expose or potentially
visors and management responsible for the site shall
expose workers to hazardous substances and health
receive training meeting the requirements of this para-
hazards shall receive a minimum of 40 hours of instruc-
graph before they are permitted to engage in hazardous
tion off the site, and a minimum of three days actual
waste operations that could expose them to hazardous
field experience under the direct supervision of a
substances, safety, or health hazards, and they shall
trained, experienced supervisor.
receive review training as specified in this paragraph.
(ii) Workers on site only occasionally for a specific
(ii) Employees shall not be permitted to participate
limited task (such as, but not limited to, ground water
in or supervise field activities until they have been
monitoring, land surveying, or geophysical surveying)
trained to a level required by their job function and
and who are unlikely to be exposed over permissible
responsibility.
exposure limits and published exposure limits shall
(2) Elements to be covered. The training shall thor- receive a minimum of 24 hours of instruction off the site,
oughly cover the following: and the minimum of one day actual field experience
(i) Names of personnel and alternates responsible under the direct supervision of a trained, experienced
for site safety and health; supervisor.
(ii) Safety, health and other hazards present on the (iii) Workers regularly on site who work in areas
site; which have been monitored and fully characterized
(iii) Use of personal protective equipment; indicating that exposures are under permissible expo-
(iv) Work practices by which the employee can sure limits and published exposure limits where respi-
minimize risks from hazards; rators are not necessary, and the characterization
125
126 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
indicates that there are no health hazards or the possi- shall receive eight hours of refresher training annually
bility of an emergency developing, shall receive a on the items specified in paragraph (e)(2) and/or (e)(4)
minimum of 24 hours of instruction off the site and the of this section, any critique of incidents that have
minimum of one day actual field experience under the occurred in the past year that can serve as training
direct supervision of a trained, experienced supervisor. examples of related work, and other relevant topics.
(iv) Workers with 24 hours of training who are
covered by paragraphs (e)(3)(ii) and (e)(3)(iii) of this (9) Equivalent training. Employers who can show
section, and who become general site workers or who by documentation or certification that an employee’s
are required to wear respirators, shall have the addi- work experience and/or training has resulted in training
tional 16 hours and two days of training necessary to equivalent to that training required in paragraphs (e)(1)
total the training specified in paragraph (e)(3)(i). through (e)(4) of this section shall not be required to
provide the initial training requirements of those para-
(4) Management and supervisor training. On-site graphs to such employees. However, certified employ-
management and supervisors directly responsible for, ees or employees with equivalent training new to a site
or who supervise employees engaged in hazardous shall receive appropriate, site-specific training before
waste operations shall receive 40 hours initial training, site entry and have appropriate supervised field experi-
and three days of supervised field experience (the train- ence at the new site. Equivalent training includes any
ing may be reduced to 24 hours and one day if the only academic training or the training that existing employ-
area of their responsibility is employees covered by ees might have already received from actual hazardous
paragraphs (e)(3)(ii) and (e)(3)(iii) and at least eight waste site work experience.
additional hours of specialized training at the time of
job assignment on such topics as, but not limited to, the
employer’s safety and health program and the asso- CONTENT OF TRAINING PROGRAM
ciated employee training program, personal protective
equipment program, spill containment program, and The training program must contain fundamental infor-
health hazard monitoring procedure and techniques. mation such as effects and risks of safety and health
hazards, as well as site-specific information such as the
(5) Qualifications for trainers. Trainers shall be names of site personnel in charge. Table 11.1 lists the
qualified to instruct employees about the subject matter course content proposed by OSHA for workers at haz-
that is being presented in training. Such trainers shall ardous waste cleanup projects and RCRA treatment
have satisfactorily completed a training program for storage and disposal (TSD) facilities.
teaching the subjects they are expected to teach, or they
shall have the academic credentials and instructional
experience necessary for teaching the subjects. Instruc- ORGANIZATIONS OFFERING
tors shall demonstrate competent instructional skills TRAINING PROGRAMS
and knowledge of the applicable subject matter.
A wide variety of hazardous waste training programs
(6) Training certification. Employees and supervi- have been developed by other government and indus-
sors that have received and successfully completed the trial organizations in the United States.
training and field experience specified in paragraphs Many of these programs are available to the public
(e)(1) through (e)(4) of this section shall be certified by for a registration fee. Table 11.2 indicates how four
their instructor or the head instructor and trained super- training organizations in different locations have met
visor as having successfully completed the necessary the forty-hour course requirements, with variations in
training. A written certificate shall be given to each the time and emphasis placed in subject/topics.
person so certified. Any person who has not been so Many other approaches can be used to meet the
certified or who does not meet the requirements of OSHA and EPA training requirements. One example is
paragraph (e)(9) of this section shall be prohibited from using the Health and Safety Plan as the training course
engaging in hazardous waste operations. manual. The HASP must contain the OSHA-required
content as well as the safety plan.
(7) Emergency response. Employees who are
engaged in responding to hazardous emergency situa-
tions at hazardous waste cleanup sites that may expose
them to hazardous substances shall be trained in how to TYPES OF TRAINING
respond to such expected emergencies. GENERAL SITE WORKERS
(8) Refresher training. Employees specified in General site workers, including equipment operators,
paragraph (e)(1) of this section, and managers and general laborers, technicians, and other supervised per-
supervisors specified in paragraph (e)(4) of this section, sonnel, should have training that provides an overview
TABLE 11.1 Proposed Content of Training Course
40-hr 24-hr 16-hr 8-hr*
1 Overview of the applicable paragraphs of 29 CFR 1910.120 and the elements X X
of an employer’s effective occupational safety and health program.
2 Effect of chemical exposures to hazardous substances (i.e., toxicity, X X X
carcinogens, irritants, sensitizers, etc.).
3 Effects of biological and radiological exposures. X X
4 Fire and explosion hazards (i.e., flammable and combustible liquids, X X X
reactive materials).
5 General safety hazards, including electrical hazards, powered equipment X X X
hazards, walking-working surface hazards and those hazards associated
with hot and cold temperature extremes.
6 Confined space, tank, and vault hazards and entry procedures. X X X
7 Names of personnel and alternates, where appropriate, responsible for X X
site safety and health at the site.
8 Specific safety, health, and other hazards that are to be addressed at a X X
site and in the site safety and health plan.
9 Use of personal protective equipment and the implementation of the X X
personal protective equipment program.
10 Work practices that will minimize employee risk from site hazards. X X
11 Safe use of engineering controls and equipment and any new relevant X X
technology or procedure.
12 Content of the medical surveillance program and requirements, including X X
the recognition of signs and symptoms of overexposure to hazardous
substances.
13 The contents of an effective site safety and health plan. X X
14 Use of monitoring equipment with “hands-on” experience and the X X X
implementation of the employee and site monitoring program.
15 Implementation and use of the informational program. X X
16 Drum and container handling procedures and the elements of a spill X X X
containment program.
17 Selection and use of material handling equipment. X X
18 Methods for assessment of risk and handling of radioactive wastes. X X
19 Methods for handling shock-sensitive wastes. X X
20 Laboratory waste pack handling procedures. X X
21 Container sampling procedures and safeguards. X X
22 Safe preparation procedures for shipping and transport of containers. X X
23 Decontamination program and procedures. X X X
24 Emergency response plan and procedures including first aid. X X
25 Safe site illumination levels. X X
26 Site sanitation procedures and equipment for employee needs. X X
27 Review of the applicable appendices to 29 CFR 1910.120. X X X
28 Overview and explanation of OSHA’s hazard communication standard X X X
(29 CFR 1910.120).
29 Sources of reference, additional information, and efficient use of relevant X X X
manuals and hazard coding systems.
30 Principles of toxicology and biological monitoring. X X
31 Rights and responsibilities of employees and employers under OSHA X X
and CERCLA.
32 “Hands-on” field exercises and demonstration. X X
33 Review of employer’s training program and personnel responsible for that X
program.
34 Final examination. X X X
35 Management of hazardous wastes and their disposal. X
36 Federal, state, and local agencies to be contacted in the event of a X
release of hazardous substances.
37 Management of emergency procedures in the event of a release of X
hazardous substances.
*Eight-hour course for managers.
Source: From OSHA Hazardous Waste Training 29 CFR 1910.120.
128 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
TABLE 11.2 The Forty-Hour Course Requirements of Four Training Organizations in Different Locations
Subject Florida Michigan South Carolina NIOSH, EPA Pilot Course
Administration, registration, and exams 3 2 3 2
Introduction/history 2 1 2 1
Superfund, DoT, and RCRA regulations 2 2 3 1
Chemistry 2 2 1 4
Information gathering 1 1 1 2
Toxicology and risk assessment 2 1 1 2
Confined spaces and lock out–tag out 1 1 1 1
Bio hazards 1 1 1 1
Health effects and symptom recognition 1 2 1 2
Hazard recognition 2 3 2 4
Site safety plans 4 2 3 1
Work practices 3 3 2 1
Engineering controls 2 3 2 2
Decontamination 2 2 3 1
Personal protective equipment 2 2 3 1
Medical surveillance 1 1 1 1
Air monitoring and sampling 2 3 1 3
Workers community right-to-know MSDS 1 1 1 1
Total hours 40 40 40 40
of the site, specific hazards and their risks, hazard recog- receive the same training as the general site workers for
nition, and how to properly use the engineered controls whom they are responsible. They also need additional
and other means of controlling the site’s hazards and training to enhance their ability to provide guidance and
risks. General site workers should receive close super- make informed decisions. This training should include
vision from a trained, experienced supervisor at least supervisory skills, planning and management of site
during the first twenty-four hours following training. cleanup operations, and techniques to communicate
Some employees require additional follow-up training with the press and community.
to develop good work practices on new tasks. Daily
safety reviews just prior to commencing site work for HEALTH AND SAFETY STAFF
the shift is a good way to give refresher training, make
sure that everyone understands the tasks for the day, Those with specific responsibilities for health and safety
and inform workers of any new conditions on the site. guidance on-site should be familiar with the training
A few general site workers who may occasionally provided to general site workers and their supervisors
supervise others or must deal with special hazards and should receive advanced training in hazardous sub-
should receive additional training in the following areas: stance health and safety sampling, monitoring, surveil-
lance, evaluation, and control procedures.
• site surveillance
• management of hazardous wastes and their disposal ON-SITE EMERGENCY PERSONNEL
• use and decontamination of fully encapsulating pro- Those who have emergency roles in addition to their
tective clothing and equipment ordinary duties must have a thorough grounding in
emergency response. Training should be directly related
• federal, state, and local agencies to be contacted in
to their specific roles and should include subjects such
the event of a release of hazardous substances man-
as the following:
agement of emergency procedures in the event of a
release of hazardous substances • emergency chain of command
ON-SITE MANAGEMENT AND SUPERVISORS • communication methods and signals
On-site management and supervisors, such as team • how to call for help
leaders, who are responsible for directing others should • emergency equipment and its use
TRAINING 129
• emergency evacuation while wearing PPE RECORD OF TRAINING
• removing injured personnel from enclosed spaces A record of training should be maintained to confirm
• off-site support and how to use it that every person assigned to a task has had adequate
training for that task and that every employee’s train-
ing is up to date. It is very important to document that
These personnel should obtain certification in first aid
the training is effective. Performance measurements
and CPR and practice treatment techniques regularly,
prior to site entry are good personnel management and
with an emphasis on (1) recognizing and treating
protection against future liability.
chemical and physical injuries and (2) recognizing and
treating heat and cold stress. BIBLIOGRAPHY
“Accreditation of Training Programs for Hazardous
OFF-SITE EMERGENCY PERSONNEL Waste Operations.” Federal Register 55, no. 18 (26
Off-site emergency personnel include, for example, local January 1990).
fire fighters and ambulance crews, who often provide Blackman, W.C., Jr. Basic Hazardous Waste Manage-
front-line response and run the risk of acute hazard ment. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Lewis Publishers,
exposure equal to that of any on-site worker. These per- 1996.
sonnel must be trained to recognize and deal effectively Fournier, S. Hazardous Waste: Training Manual for
with on-site hazards. Lack of training may lead to their Supervisors. Business Legal Reports, 1985.
inadvertently worsening an emergency by improper Keller, J.J., and Associates, Inc. Hazard Communication
actions (e.g., spraying water on a water-reactive chemi- Guide. Neenah, WI: J.J. Keller & Associates, Inc.,
cal and causing an explosion). Inadequate knowledge of 1987.
the on-site emergency chain of command may cause Payne, J.L., and C.B. Strong. “Taking Technology Off the
confusion and delays. Site management should, at a Shelf: Texas A & M’s Hazardous Material Control
minimum, supplement off-site personnel emergency Program.” Paper presented at the Conference on
training with the following information: Hazardous Material Spills, Louisville, KY, May
1980.
Martin, W.F., and R.C. Montogomery. “Training.” In
• site-specific hazards
Protecting Personnel at Hazardous Waste Sites.
• appropriate response techniques W.F. Martin, and M. Gochfeld, eds. Boston:
• site emergency procedures Butterworth–Heinemann, 2000.
Shaye, M.K. Hazardous Waste Workers Health & Safety
• decontamination procedures
Training Requirements & 29 CFR 1910.120.
Detroit: Spill Control Association, 1988.
VISITORS
Swiss, J.J., W.S. Davis, and R.G. Simmons. “On-Scene
Visitors to the site, including elected and appointed Response Training Program.” Paper presented
officials, reporters, and senior-level management, at the Conference on Hazardous Material Spills,
should receive a safety briefing. These visitors should Milwaukee, April 1982.
not be permitted in the exclusion zone (see Chapter 7) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Training Course
unless they have been trained, fit-tested, and medically Catalogue—EPA. GPO Publication No. 91072969.
approved for respirator use. An observation tower in Cincinnati: EPA, June 1990.
the clean zone reduces the need for visitors to enter the Waxman, M. “Hazardous Waste Site Operations.” New
contaminated area. York: John Wiley & Sons, 1996.
12
MONITORING WELL SAFETY AT HAZARDOUS SITES
he installation and sampling of ground- than the federal government’s. Most states also
T water monitoring wells is one of the
few methods of characterizing the
subsurface environment at hazardous
sites. The drilling and installation of monitoring
wells became common practice in the late
have a licensing or registration program that
regulates drilling, construction, abandonment,
and reporting of water and/or monitoring wells
activities.
The primary goal in monitoring well con-
1960s and proliferated in the 1970s, with struction is to obtain samples representative of
exponential growth through today. It is now site-specific subsurface conditions. Cross-
estimated that there are more than 37,000 contamination is a major concern in collecting
monitoring wells installed annually in the United groundwater samples. In a regulatory environ-
States. As the extent of the groundwater con- ment that sets toxicological-based standards in
tamination problem in the United States parts per trillion concentrations, cleanliness akin
became better understood, regulatory re- to surgical procedures is sometimes required.
quirements became the primary driver in Some sites with highly toxic contaminants in
monitoring well installation, sampling, testing, their soils, soil gas, and/or groundwater may
and data analysis. Some states have taken require specialized personal protective
primacy or control over federal program(s) and, equipment (PPE) and procedures.
in selected areas, adopted regulations stricter
DRILLING HAZARDS or snow while wearing a range of work clothing and per-
sonal protective equipment. The most common prob-
There are numerous hazards associated with the drilling
lems include hearing impairment, burns, cuts, slips/falls,
of a borehole for the installation of a monitoring well.
and back strains. Most lethal accidents on drill rigs
The proper development of a health and safety plan
involve drill rig masts coming in contact with overhead
(HASP) can minimize many of these hazards. All haz-
power lines, or drilling into underground utilities.
ardous waste sites require a HASP in order to be in
compliance with 29 CFR 1910.120. Personnel engaged INCREASED HAZARDS FROM WEARING PPE
in, or directly overseeing, field activities at hazardous
waste sites must complete Hazardous Waste Operations What is unique to drilling monitoring wells is that they
and Emergency Response (HAZWOPER) training, are located at known or potentially contaminated sites.
and have the appropriate medical surveillance before This added dimension increases the potential hazard,
beginning field work. There are numerous hazards asso- not only because of the risk of exposure to toxic
ciated with well drilling, but the greatest dangers at materials, but also due to the added requirement for
drilling sites are associated with the mechanical opera- personal protective equipment. An overview of the
tion of heavy equipment. various levels of PPE required, as well as general
hazards of drilling at waste sites, follows:
MECHANICAL HAZARDS
A number of standard drilling methods are available for • Level D generally includes a field suit (Tyvek cover-
installing monitoring wells. These include auger, cable alls or rain gear), appropriate gloves for handling
tool, air or mud rotary, and coring. Other drilling soil or groundwater, hard hat, eye protection, and
methods that are a takeoff or refinement of these basic steel-toe boots.
approaches are also available.Whatever drilling method • Level C generally includes the addition of a cartridge
is selected, it involves a combination of heavy machin- purifying respirator.
ery, overhead equipment, moving cables, pressurized
hoses, loud compressors and pumps, rotating pipes, • Levels B and A generally increase the respiratory pro-
climbing masts, heavy lifting, and welding. Many times, tection to either a supplied air-line or self-contained
workers are required to complete tasks in the rain, mud, breathing apparatus.
131
132 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
Although each increase in PPE level decreases the the first 5 to 15 feet of the borehole to ensure that there
risk from a chemical hazard, it increases the risk from are no “invisible” buried lines.
other physical hazards. Typically there is a decrease in a
worker’s mobility, reaction time, ability to communicate, CHEMICAL EXPOSURE HAZARDS
and vision, as well as an increase in physical and mental Toxic chemicals found at nearly all waste sites present
stress levels. another hazard. The exposure can result from contact,
In hot or humid weather, PPE increases the like- ingestion, and/or inhalation. Mixtures of chemicals may
lihood of hyperthermia or heat prostration. Workers also increase the mobility of an otherwise immobile
should be required to take frequent rest periods and contaminant.
drink sufficient fluids. Some recommended procedures Several precautions are emphasized at drilling sites
to reduce the potential for heat stress include to reduce exposure via the dermal and ingestion path-
ways, including:
• Acclimating to high humidity and/or heat by begin-
ning with lighter work and shorter work periods
• Set up exclusion and personnel decontamination
during the start-up phase of a project
areas.
• Taking frequent rest breaks
• Minimize the potential for hand-to-mouth transfer
• Removing as much of the PPE as possible to cool of toxic chemicals by not eating, drinking, or taking
down and drink water during rest periods medications within the exclusion or decontamination
• Using air-conditioning to cool down the room or areas.
trailer
• Do not chew gum or use tobacco within the exclusion
EXPLOSION AND FIRE HAZARDS area.
• Wash hands after handling contaminated equipment
Explosive gases are a potential problem at solid and haz-
and before using the restroom.
ardous waste sites. Methane generation at solid waste
landfills is well documented.When drilling in, or adjacent • Do not rub eyes or lick lips.
to, older landfills it is possible to tap gas pockets and • Do not take contaminated clothing to your vehicle or
release trapped methane gas. Numerous cases have home for laundering.
been documented where methane gas from landfills has
• Avoid wearing contact lenses, even under a respira-
migrated off-site to accumulate under slabs, buildings,
tor, as they tend to concentrate organic matter
or in basements, and later exploded. Other gases can be
around the eyes.
explosive when mixed with sufficient oxygen during the
drilling process. The most common problem arises when • Record and report all potential exposures, including
welding in the presence of explosive gases. However, an unusual odors, drill cuttings, or vapors.
unexpected ignition can occur from any spark.The result
is a “blue flash” at the borehole, which can result in burns, HAZARDS OF CONTAINING WASTE
a fire, and/or other accidents. Collection and containment of drill cuttings, drill fluids,
Select industrial, mining, and UST (gas station) sites and decontamination fluids are typically necessary
have other fire and/or explosion hazards. Free-phase when wells are being installed at a site where contami-
product or dissolved product at high concentrations can nation is known or suspected. This typically involves
cause explosive conditions when provided air from the filling and handling drums and tanks. The exposure of a
drilling operation. Some industrial and mining products worker to the waste is typically increased. Handling of
are self-igniting when air is encountered, causing con- drums and other containers is covered in more detail in
siderable potential for fire or explosion when drilling in Chapter 7. Final disposition of these materials may be
this environment. Few industrial sites have as-built plans made following receipt of testing data from the well, or
that provide an accurate location of all underground util- in some cases may require additional sampling of the
ities. Drilling operations on sites as young as three years drummed waste.
old have encountered buried lines or structures. These
structures that were not identified on the plans can
DECONTAMINATION HAZARDS
include pipes carrying flammable fluids, liquids that are
hazardous to the environment, high-pressure liquids or The decontamination of drilling equipment typically
gases, utility lines (power, phone, and sewer), or under- includes steam and/or high-pressure washing of all
ground storage tanks. Drilling through any of these pipes equipment in a contained area. Many times the
can cause significant health and/or safety problems. All contained area consists of plastic sheeting, which
drill sites should be cleared by a utility locator prior to becomes slippery when wet and muddy. Use of this
drilling. When possible, it is good practice to hand auger equipment can cause danger from burns and slips/
MONITORING WELL SAFETY AT HAZARDOUS SITES 133
falls. Chemical decontamination may be required for The primary hazard associated with sampling is
small equipment—for example, the use of acids and/or splash and dermal contact. A sampler will inevitably be
solvents. Chemical decontamination increases the in contact with the groundwater being sampled. The
potential for dermal stress (burns) and respiratory proper PPE should be used both to protect the sampler
exposures. and to avoid contamination of the sample. The use of
gloves and splash protection while at the well is
ENGINEERED CONTROLS TO REDUCE HAZARDS common, not just for personal protection, but to keep
Engineered controls should be used, whenever possible, clothing clean and to make it easier to decontaminate
to prevent the need to upgrade PPE and reduce contact the sampling equipment.
with subsurface vapors/drill cuttings. A common engi- Vapors trapped in the protective casing or within
neering control is the use of industrial fans to dilute the well casing are a concern during the sampling
and remove gaseous contaminants or obnoxious fumes process. Safety measures to minimize these hazards
emanating from a borehole. include well-head monitoring when suspected gases are
present, the judicious implementation of engineering
ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS controls (sample from the downwind side), and/or
wearing appropriate respirators.
Environmental hazards are the “hidden” hazards of
Although not a physical hazard, it is all too
drilling monitoring wells. These may impact the envi-
common for tools and instruments to be accidentally
ronment but not the site worker. One such environ-
dropped down the boring during the sampling process.
mental hazard consists of introducing contaminants to
Occasionally these tools and instruments are recovered.
the subsurface during the drilling process. This may be
They should be treated as contaminated material until
caused by equipment failures (such as a break in a
they have been thoroughly decontaminated.
hydraulic hose) or accidents (such as overfilling a fuel
tank at the drill site). Another hidden environmental
hazard may be “cross-connecting” aquifers via the DECONTAMINATION AND WASTE
HANDLING HAZARDS
drilling and well-construction process. This impact may
take a long time, if ever, to detect. This generally involves washing or steam cleaning, but
may include the use of surfactants, selected solvents,
ACCESS HAZARDS and/or acids for specific applications. Caution should
Locating a monitoring well can cause auto or personnel be used when trying to steam-clean small groundwater
accidents. Most above-grade monitoring wells are at a sampling equipment. The handling and disposal of
height of about two feet and are not painted. These can purge water, solvents, and acids present the same safety
be difficult to see from a vehicle, resulting in running issues as discussed earlier.
off the road while looking, running into buildings or
posts while looking, or running into the monitoring ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS
well itself. Once located, cuts and bruises are typical
The proper construction and long-term stability of most
injuries related to opening “stuck” protective casings.
monitoring wells cannot be verified. Thus, it is possible
Bites and stings are common from critters residing in
that a monitoring well is or can become a rapid pathway
the protective casings. In addition, when opening the
for contaminants to reach an aquifer. In addition,
well cover, there may be respiratory hazards associated
access to a monitoring well by a worker or the public
with vapors emanating from the well head. Whenever
allows direct access to the aquifer, with a potential for
the contaminants are of concern, and the site conditions
direct contamination. In a few extreme cases, early-
warrant, or the HASP requires, a worker should
generation, unmarked, flush-mount protective casings
measure the VOC (volatile organic compounds) vapors
were mistaken for fill ports for fuel tanks, resulting in
and take the appropriate protective action.
significant direct contamination to an aquifer.
SAMPLING PROCEDURES HAZARDS
CONCLUSION
Sampling involves the storage, transport, and use of
equipment and chemicals from the office to the field and Groundwater monitoring is ubiquitous in industrial
from well to well. These must be carefully packed and solid and hazardous materials operations. It is required
transported in a clean, dust-free environment. The need by law at thousands of facilities throughout the United
for cleanliness has been emphasized throughout this States. The nature of the sites being monitored deter-
discussion. Safety and hazardous working conditions mines the level of protection necessary for worker
parallel to those encountered in laboratories often exist. safety. While this can never be reduced to “zero
First aid, eyewash, and decontamination materials exposure” it can and must be managed by taking
should be readily available to field samplers. into consideration site-specific conditions, contami-
134 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
nants of concern, and the goal(s) of the investigation, Freeze, R. A., and J. A. Cherry. Groundwater. Engle-
while remembering the limitations of the trained wood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc, 1979.
worker. Manslansky, S. P., and C. J. Manslansky. Health and
Safety at Hazardous Waste Sites. New York: Van
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Nostrand Reinhold, 1997.
Alder, L., T. W. Bennett, G. Hackett, R. J. Petty, J. H. Martin, W. F., and M. Gochfeld. Protecting Personnel at
Lehr, H. Sedoris, D. M. Nielsen, and J. E. Denne. Hazardous Waste Sites. 3rd ed. Stoneham, MA: But-
Handbook of Suggested Practices for the Design terworth–Heinemann, 2000.
and Installation of Groundwater Monitor Wells. McCray, K. U.S. Groundwater Industry Market Back-
Dublin, OH: National Water Well Association, grounder. Westerville, OH: National Groundwater
1989. Association, 1997.
American Society for Testing and Materials. ASTM Sweet, H. R., and S. Goldman. “Monitoring Well Health
Standards on Environmental Sampling. Pennsylva- and Safety.” Chapter 16 in Protecting Personal at
nia: ASTM, 1995. Hazardous Waste Sites. 3rd ed. W. F. Martin, and
Driscol, F. G. Groundwater and Wells. St. Paul, Minn.: M. Gochfeld, eds. Boston, MA: Butterworth–
Johnson Division, 1986. Heinemann, 2000.
13
HAZARDOUS WASTE TRANSPORTATION SAFETY
ransportation of hazardous waste from tank cars carrying hazardous materials are limited
T the generator or source to intermediate
destinations and to final disposition has
frequently been involved in major threats
to the environment and public safety. In pre-
RCRA (Resource Conservation and Recovery
to 34,500 gallons or 263,000 pounds gross
weight [49 CFR 179].
The highway transport mode is regarded as
the most versatile. Tank trucks can access most
industrial sites and treatment, storage, and dis-
Act) times, small, locally based, solid waste posal facilities (TSDFs), while rail shipping re-
haulers provided immediate and cheap removal quires expensive sidings and is suitable only for
of hazardous waste accumulations on a “no large-quantity shipments. Cargo tanks are the
questions asked” basis. Truckers could remove main carriers of bulk hazardous materials, how-
unwanted wastes and dispose of them without ever, large quantities of hazardous wastes are
permits or manifests. shipped in 55-gallon drums. Cargo tanks are
In the late 1970s to early 1980s, federal usually made of steel or aluminum alloy, but can
regulations started restricting waste disposal be constructed of other materials such as titan-
operations. The RCRA program closed many ium, nickel, or stainless steel. They range in
landfills and municipal dumps that did not meet capacity from about 2000 to 9000 gallons,
minimum EPA pollution control standards. During depending on road weight laws.
this same time, the Department of Transporta- Hazardous materials transportation incidents
tion was tightening its regulations on hazardous tend to be spectacular, dangerous, freakish, and
materials haulers. During the ten- to twenty-year unpredictable. Rail accidents, as noted, involve
period of transition between very limited en- containers of up to 34,500 gallons or 130 tons
forcement of hazardous waste hauling and versus the 9000-gallon/40-ton limits for highway
disposal up to the early 1990s when RCRA was transportation. The greater quantity per container,
fully enforceable, sizable portions of the nation’s chemical incompatibilities between rail tank car
hazardous waste were not tracked. Some shipments, and the difficult accessibility encoun-
haulers outfitted tankers with dumping valves so tered in rural locations lead to unmanageable fires
that liquid waste could be dumped while driving that are frequently allowed to burn themselves
along back roads. Trailers loaded with waste out. Incidents involving truck shipment of hazard-
drums were abandoned in unsecured locations. ous materials, when they occur in urban areas, are
Rural areas and vacant lots were littered with all more likely to endanger human lives and property.
manner of hazardous wastes. By 1989, the National Solid Wastes Management
As the manifest system began to function, Association (NSWMA) stated that trucks traveling
these practices were brought under better over public highways moved 98% of the hazar-
control. Regulatory agencies gained recognition dous waste that is treated off-site. The EPA
and experience, most of the marginal trans- counted 20,800 transporters of hazardous waste
porters were weeded out, and transportation in 1993. Shipments of hazardous waste by inland
became a vital link in the cradle-to-grave man- waterways and by air have been infrequent to
agement strategy. Although illegal transportation date.
activities continue to require the attention of law Enactment of the Hazardous and Solid
enforcement agencies, much of the regulatory Waste Amendments of 1984 (HSWA) brought
focus has shifted to accident prevention, more than 100,000 new small-quantity gen-
emergency response activity, surveillance of erators (SQGs) under regulation. Most of the
import-export activity, and tracking of wastes SQGs have had no alternative to shipment of
from source to ultimate disposition. their hazardous wastes off-site for disposition.
Rail shipments account for about only 8% of Thus, HSWA may have caused some increase in
mile-tonnage of hazardous materials transported transportation of wastes to treatment, storage,
annually, with about 3000 carloads shipped daily. and disposal facilities. The addition of 25 new
The portion of these shipments that contain chemical constituents to Table I, 40 CFR 261.24,
hazardous wastes is not known. Capacities for in 1990, is said to have brought 17,000 new
135
136 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
generators under RCRA regulation. In 1993, the disposition. In general, ever-tightening regulatory
EPA counted 266,000 generators, of which control, liability concerns, and availability of
approximately 240,000 are SQGs [EPA, 1993]. commercial treatment options have tended to
Thus, large numbers of generators must trans- cause more wastes to be shipped off-site for
port hazardous wastes off-site for ultimate treatment.
TRAINING REQUIREMENT • the fire, spill, breakage, or contamination involves
disease-causing agents or radioactive material
This chapter will provide initial training to ensure that
HAZMAT employees are familiar with the general pro- • there is an evacuation of the general public for one
visions of DoT CFR 49 and EPA CFR 40, have knowl- hour or more
edge of specific requirements applicable to functions • the spill exceeds a Superfund reportable quantity
performed, and have knowledge of emergency response
information.
• a life-threatening situation exists [49 CFR 17 l. 15]
In general, the DoT regulations deal with container
The HM 126F HAZMAT employee training
and equipment specifications, packaging, categorization
requirement is prescribed in 49 CFR 172, Subpart H.
of wastes, training, and the determination of proper
The training is required for any employee who performs
shipping descriptions. The EPA regulations provide the
any function having to do with the safety of a hazardous
tracking mechanisms that are intended to maintain the
material shipment (see 49 CFR 171.8 for the definition
cradle-to-grave management system.
of “HAZMAT employee” and “HAZMAT employer”).
The DoT regulations dealing with transportation of
The required training consists of three categories,
hazardous materials are found in 49 CFR 171 through
which are
179 and are referred to as the HM 181, “Performance
Oriented Packaging Standards.” The DoT, as do other
agencies, assigns a “docket number” to new regulatory
• General Awareness/Familiarization Training. The
hazards associated with HAZMAT transportation,
proposals. The proposed regulations are referred to by
the hazard classes of HM 181, and hazard communi-
docket number throughout the promulgation process.
cation requirements.
Upon final publication of the rule package, the DoT
continues to refer to the implemented program by that • Function-Specific Training. The packaging, labeling,
number. Thus, the implementation of the Performance marking, and placarding of hazardous materials ship-
Oriented Packaging Standards continues to be referred ments—that is, the Performance Oriented Packaging
to as HM 181, its original docketnumber. Standards.
The transporter must maintain the emergency • Safety Training. Including the emergency response,
response information contained on the manifest in a personal protective clothing and equipment, and
manner that ensures that it is immediately accessible to methods and procedures for avoiding accidents and
emergency responders. For example, drivers of cargo exposure.
tank vehicles must keep the manifest on the seat adja-
cent to the driver’s seat or in the pocket of the door on The standards also include driver training require-
the driver’s side of the cab. Similar requirements apply ments and specialized training for drivers of vehicles
to train crews and bridge personnel on vessels. If the transporting explosives, radioactive materials, or cryo-
transporter makes use of a transfer facility, the emer- genic gases. The HAZMAT employee must repeat the
gency response information must be maintained in a training at two-year intervals; drivers must be trained
location that is immediately accessible to the personnel annually.
operating the facility.
The DoT immediate notification requirements for
hazardous materials incidents are applicable to dis- EPA-RCRA REGULATIONS FOR HAZARDOUS
charges of hazardous wastes. Notice is given by calling WASTE TRANSPORTERS
the National Response Center, operated by the U.S. The RCRA transporter regulations [40 CFR 263] define
Coast Guard (800-424-8802). Specifically, the National transporter, provide the packing mechanisms that are
Response Center must be notified when: intended to maintain the cradle-to-grave management
systems for hazardous waste management, and impose
• a person is killed or injured to the extent that hospi- cleanup and reporting requirements that apply in the
talization is required event of the discharge of hazardous waste(s) during
• the estimated damage exceeds $50,000 transport.
HAZARDOUS WASTE TRANSPORTATION SAFETY 137
The transporter is defined as any person engaged The transporter is required to deliver the entire
in the off-site transportation of hazardous waste within quantity of waste accepted from either the generator or
the United States if such transportation requires a another transporter to the facility listed on the manifest
manifest. This definition covers transportation by air, or to the alternate facility if one is listed on the mani-
highway, rail, or water. The transporter regulations fest. If the waste cannot be delivered as the manifest
do not apply to the on-site transportation of hazardous directs, the transporter must inform the generator and
waste by generators who have their own treatment receive further instructions. The transporter must have
or disposal facilities, or to TSDFs transporting wastes the owner or operator of the TSDF sign and date the
within a facility [EPA, 1990, p. III-26]. However, both manifest at the time of delivery to the TSDF. The trans-
generator and TSDF owners and operators must avoid porter retains Copy 4 of the manifest and gives the
transporting wastes over public roads that pass through remaining three parts of the manifest to the TSDF
or alongside their facilities. owner or operator. The transporter must retain a copy
Under some circumstances, transporters can of the manifest for three years from the date the haz-
become subject to the generator regulations by import- ardous waste is accepted by the initial transporter.
ing hazardous waste into the United States, by mixing
hazardous wastes of different DoT shipping descrip- CFR 49
tions, or by being responsible for cleanup of a discharge The DoT has regulatory responsibility for safety in the
of hazardous wastes or commercial chemical products domestic transportation of hazardous materials by all
that occurred during transport. In such circumstances, modes except military air. The DoT regulation on the
the transporter must comply with the generator regula- transportation of hazardous materials is published as
tions [40 CFR 263.10]. Code of Federal Regulation (CFR) Title 49, Parts
A transporter may store hazardous wastes at a 100–199.
transfer station for up to ten days without being subject
to additional transporter regulations. If the storage time IATA
exceeds ten days, the transporter becomes a storage
facility and must comply with the regulations pertaining The International Air Transport Association (IATA)
to such a facility, including the requirements for obtain- publishes the “Dangerous Goods Regulations” for the
ing a permit. transportation of hazardous materials by international
All transporters must comply with RCRA Subtitle air. This document says that the successful application
of the regulations is dependent on personnel trained by
C regulations, which require
a properly planned and maintained program. U.S. ship-
• obtaining an EPA identification number pers and certifiers need to study the IATA regulations
since they fully comply with the requirements of Annex
• complying with the manifest system
18 of the Chicago Convention of International Civil
• handling hazardous waste discharges Aviation and the International Civil Air Organization
(ICAO) “Technical Instructions for the Safe Transport
EPA ID NUMBER of Hazardous Goods by Air.” The ICAO Technical
The EPA ID number is essential to the EPA and the Instructions contain detailed technical material needed
primacy states for tracking transporter activity. Without to support the United Nations Committee of Experts’
this unique number, the transporter is forbidden to desire for all nations to use standard regulations for the
handle hazardous waste. Moreover, a transporter may international shipments of dangerous goods.
not accept hazardous waste from an SQG or generator
nor transfer hazardous waste to a TSDF unless they IMDG
have EPA ID numbers. A transporter obtains an ID The International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG)
number by notifying the EPA of hazardous waste activ- Code sets forth description, classification, packaging,
ity using a standard EPA notification form. marking, labeling, placarding, and vessel stowage re-
quirements. It establishes a unified international code
THE MANIFEST for the carriage of dangerous goods at sea. The danger-
The RCRA Subtitle C regulations prohibit transporters ous goods definition includes hazardous waste.
from accepting hazardous waste shipments from ship-
pers without a manifest. The transporter who accepts CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
DURING TRANSPORT
manifested hazardous wastes is required to sign and
date the manifest and return a signed copy to the gen- The proper classification of hazardous materials influ-
erator or previous transporter. The transporter is ences the packaging, hazard markings, shipping paper
responsible for the shipment until the manifest is signed entries, emergency response, and any other instructions
by the owner or operator of the receiving facility. governing the material. With the wide range of haz-
138 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
ardous materials being transported in the United States, 101.3 kPa (14.7 psi) of pressure (a material that has a
it is reasonable to assume that many materials possess boiling point of 20°C (69°F) or less at 101.3 kPa (14.7
similar properties, and thus can safely be packaged and psi)) which is ignitable at 101.3 kPa (14.7 psi) when in
handled in a similar manner. It is, therefore, essential a mixture of 13% or less by volume with air; or has
that the appropriate classification be made, as improper a flammable range at 101.3 kPa (14.7 psi) with air of
classification could result in a dangerous situation. at least 12% regardless of the lower limit. Gases,
The following information should give you a liquefied. Example: petroleum.
general understanding of the DoT hazard classes, so • Division 2.2 (nonflammable, nonpoisonous, com-
that you will be more aware of the dangers that they pressed gas). A nonflammable, nonpoisonous com-
may present and become familiar with the appropriate pressed gas means any material (or mixture) that
terminology. The Department of Transportation divides exerts in the packaging an absolute pressure of
hazardous materials into nine different classes. The 280 kPa (41 psi) at 20°C (68°F), and does not meet the
hazard classifications (classes) and a brief description of definition of Division 2.1 or 2.3. Example: carbon
each class follows. dioxide.
CLASS 1: EXPLOSIVES • Division 2.3 (poisonous gas). Poisonous gas means a
material that is a gas at 20°C (68°F) or less and a pres-
Part 173.50 of CFR title 49 defines an explosive as sure of 101.3 kPa (14.7 psi) (a material which has a
any substance or article, including a device, which is boiling point of 20°C (68°F) or less at 101.3 kPa
designed to function by explosion (i.e., an extremely (14.7 psi)) and which is known to be so toxic to humans
rapid release of gas and heat) or which, by chemical as to pose a hazard to health during transportation or,
reaction within itself, is able to function in a similar in the absence of adequate data on human toxicity, is
manner even if not designed to function by explosion, presumed to be toxic to humans based on tests on lab-
unless the substance or article is otherwise classed oratory animals. Example: methylchlorosilane.
under the provision of CFR 49.
CLASS 3: FLAMMABLE LIQUID
• Division 1.1 consists of explosives that have a mass
explosion hazard. A mass explosion is one which A flammable liquid means any liquid having a flash
affects almost the entire load instantaneously. point of not more than 60.5°C (141°F) with certain
Example: black powder. exceptions listed in CFR 49. Example: benzene.
• Division 1.2 consists of explosives that have a pro-
CLASS 4: FLAMMABLE SOLIDS
jection hazard, but not a mass explosion hazard.
Example: mines. Flammable solids include spontaneously combustible
• Division 1.3 consists of explosives that have a fire material and dangerous-when-wet material.
hazard and either a minor blast hazard or a minor • Division 4.1 (flammable solid). A flammable solid
projection hazard or both, but not a mass explosion means any of the following three types of materials:
hazard. Example: fuses. certain wetted explosives; self-reactive material; and
• Division 1.4 consists of explosive devices that present readily combustible solids. Example: calcium resinate.
a minor explosion hazard. Example: fireworks. • Division 4.2 (spontaneously combustible material).
• Division 1.5 consists of very insensitive explosives. Spontaneously combustible material is either pyro-
This division is comprised of substances that have a phoric or self-heating. A pyrophoric material is
mass explosion hazard, but are so insensitive that a liquid or solid that, even in small quantities and
there is very little probability of initiation or of tran- without an external ignition source, can ignite within
sition from burning to detonation under normal five minutes after coming in contact with air. A self-
conditions of transport. Example: explosive, blasting, heating material is a material that, when in contact
type E. with air and without an energy supply, is liable to
• Division 1.6 consists of extremely insensitive articles self-heat. Example: calcium hydrosulfite.
that do not have a mass explosion hazard. The risk
CLASS 5: OXIDIZERS AND ORGANIC PEROXIDES
from these articles is limited to the explosion of a
single article. Example: articles, explosive, extremely • Division 5.1. An oxidizer is a material that, by yield-
insensitive. ing oxygen, causes or enhances the combustion of
materials. Example: lead dioxide.
CLASS 2: GASES
• Division 5.2 (organic peroxide). Organic peroxide
• Division 2.1 (flammable gas). Flammable gas means means any organic compound containing oxygen (O)
any material that is a gas at 20°C (68°F) or less and in the bivalent-O-O-structure and which may be con-
HAZARDOUS WASTE TRANSPORTATION SAFETY 139
sidered a derivative of hydrogen peroxide, where one definition of different classes, what should be done? For
or more of the hydrogen atoms have been replaced example, if a material has both flammable liquid and
by organic radicals, with certain exceptions. Example: corrosive material (liquid) properties under packing
organic peroxide type B, liquid. group 1, what is its hazard classification? Material not
specifically listed in the Hazardous Materials Table, but
CLASS 6: TOXIC (POISONOUS) MATERIAL AND which meets the definition of more than one hazard
INFECTIOUS SUBSTANCES
class or division, shall be classed according to the
• Division 6.1 (poisonous material). A poisonous mate- highest hazard class of the following hazard classes,
rial means a material, other than a gas, which is which are listed in descending order of hazard:
known to be so toxic to humans as to afford a hazard
to health during transportation, or which, in the • Class 7 (radioactive materials, other than in limited
absence of adequate data on human toxicity, is quantities)
presumed to be toxic to humans. Example: sodium • Division 2.3 (poisonous gases)
cyanide.
• Division 2.1 (flammable gases)
• Division 6.2 (infectious substance). An infectious sub-
stance means a viable microorganism, or its toxin, that • Division 2.2 (nonflammable gases)
causes or may cause disease in humans or animals, • Division 6.1 (poisonous liquids, packing group 1,
and includes those agents listed in CFR 42, part 72.3, poisonous by inhalation only); a material that meets
of the regulations of the Department of Health and the definition of a pyrophoric material. Division 4.2:
Human Services or any other agent that has the A material that meets the definition of a self-reactive
potential to cause severe, disabling, or fatal disease. material
Example: infectious substances affecting humans. • Class 3 (flammable liquids)
CLASS 7: RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL • Class 8 (corrosive materials)
Radioactive material means any material having a spe- • Division 4.1 (flammable solids)
cific activity greater than 0.0002 microcuries per gram. • Division 4.2 (spontaneously combustible materials)
Example: cesium 137. • Division 5.1 (oxidizers)
CLASS 8: CORROSIVE MATERIAL • Division 6.1 (poisonous liquids or solids other than
packing group 1, poisonous-by-inhalation)
A corrosive material is defined as a liquid or solid that
causes visible destruction or irreversible alterations in • Combustible liquids
human skin tissue at the site of contact, or a liquid that • Class 9 (miscellaneous hazardous materials)
has a severe corrosion rate on steel or aluminum when
certain tests are performed. Example: sulfuric acid.
COMPATIBILITY, EMERGENCY RESPONSE,
CLASS 9: MISCELLANEOUS AND THE MSDS
HAZARDOUS MATERIAL
Many hazardous materials become even more danger-
Miscellaneous hazardous material means a material that ous when they are combined with other materials. It is
presents a hazard during transport, but which is not important to know how to store hazardous materials in
included in any other hazard class. This class includes the warehouse. It is also important to know how to seg-
any material that has an anesthetic, noxious, or other regate incompatible hazardous materials in accordance
similar property that could cause extreme annoyance or with the compatibility requirements for each mode of
discomfort to a flight crew member so as to prevent the transportation. Labeling and placarding are of primary
correct performance of assigned duties, or any material importance in determining compatibility. If a package is
that is not included in any other hazard class, but is improperly or incorrectly labeled or placarded, the com-
subject to the requirements of CFR 49 because it meets patibility of that package with others in the load cannot
the definition for an elevated temperature material, a be clearly and correctly determined. Those responsible
hazardous substance, a hazardous waste, or a marine for handling hazardous materials must constantly be
pollutant. Example: ammonium nitrate fertilizers. mindful of the possible hazards involved.
(Note: Refer to CFR 49 for exact definitions.) Labeling and placarding are required to segregate
incompatible hazardous materials in accordance with
CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIAL HAVING MORE the compatibility requirements for each mode of trans-
THAN ONE HAZARD CLASS
portation. Compatibility by motor vehicle and rail (in
If a material or substance is not listed in 172.101 of the the United States) is provided by 49 CFR 174 and
Hazardous Materials Table in CFR 49, but meets the 177.
140 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES response telephone number for use in the event of an
emergency involving the hazardous material. The tele-
The best way to know the emergency response proce-
phone number must be
dures during transportation is to read and understand
the emergency response plan. Remember, no person
may offer for transportation, transfer, store or otherwise • monitored at all times the hazardous material is
handle during transportation a hazardous material being transported, including storage incidental to
unless EMERGENCY RESPONSE INFORMATION transportation
is immediately available and the EMERGENCY • entered on the shipping paper immediately following
RESPONSE TELEPHONE NUMBER is immediately the description of the hazardous material or entered
available to any person who, as a representative of a once on the shipping paper in a clearly visible
federal, state or local government agency, responds to location
an incident involving a hazardous material, or is con-
• the number of the person offering the hazardous
ducting an investigation which involves a hazardous
material for transportation or the number of an
material.
agency or organization capable of, and accepting
As a minimum, an emergency response plan must
responsibility for, providing detailed information
contain information on the following:
concerning the hazardous material.
• the basic description and technical name of the haz-
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEETS
ardous material
• immediate hazards to health The Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) established a Hazard Communication Stan-
• risks of fire or explosion dard under CFR 29, Part 1910.120, to ensure the
• immediate precautions to be taken in the event of an “worker’s right-to-know.” The standard was written in
accident or incident an effort to reduce injuries or illnesses caused to per-
• immediate methods of handling fires sonnel working with or exposed to chemicals. Workers
need to know the chemical hazards they are exposed to
• initial methods for handling spills, leaks, or other in the workplace and the safe practices linked with
releases those chemicals.
• primary first aid measures CFR 29 assists workers in understanding chemical
safety. Employers must meet three requirements in
All information required for hazardous material in communicating chemical identification and hazards:
shipment must be
1. Containers of hazardous materials must be properly
• printed in English labeled.
• available for use away from the package containing 2. Training programs must be established to assist
the hazardous material employees in using chemicals safely and to enable
• presented on a document, other than the shipping them to respond to an emergency by containing or
paper, that includes both the basic description and neutralizing a spill.
technical name of the hazardous material, and the 3. An MSDS must be available at all times.
emergency response information required (e.g., a
material safety data sheet); or related to the infor- An MSDS identifies chemical substances or
mation in a manner that cross-references the descrip- mixtures by trade name and chemical name. It also
tion of the hazardous material on the shipping paper names the hazardous properties of the chemical. An
with the emergency response information contained MSDS contains procedures for safe handling of haz-
in some other document. ardous materials and responding to an emergency,
including first aid procedures. The MSDS is a legal
Each carrier who transports a hazardous material requirement as well as a source of efficient information
shall maintain the emergency response information. in a safety program. One section of the MSDS includes
This information must be immediately available and information on health hazards, spill or leak proce-
accessible in the event of a hazardous material incident. dures, special precautions, and special protection
The DoT booklet, “North American Emergency requirements.
Response Guidebook,” is often used for this emergency A safety training program not only transmits the
response information. potential hazards of chemicals to employees, but also
A person who offers a hazardous material for explains appropriate protective measures against those
transportation must provide a 24-hour emergency risks. The training also emphasizes the recognition of
HAZARDOUS WASTE TRANSPORTATION SAFETY 141
chemicals via their appearance and odor. Safety train- proper shipping names and identification numbers,
ing provides an introduction to protective measures and where assigned, shall be marked for each container
a demonstration of safety equipment. comprising the multipack.
After a hazard communication (HAZCOM) All markings must be clear and durable, and on a
program has been developed, employers must put contrasting background to facilitate reading. Hazardous
the program in writing. The program should include: material packages will be marked with the name and
chemicals in the workplace, work practices, a address of the consignee or consignor. Only authorized
medical program, and a description of container abbreviations, such as “w” for “with” and “w/o” for
labeling. “without,” and “ORM” for “other regulated materials”
Labels identify the hazardous contents of contain- may be used. The following descriptions and uses of
ers and give the name and address of the manufacturer. markings and labels are provided:
Because labels alert handlers to the hazards present,
they are not to be defaced or removed. Proper labeling • This Side Up. Shown as arrows, this marking/label is
ensures the right product is used in the right applica- used for each nonbulk combination package having
tion. The Department of Transportation hazard class inner packages containing liquid hazardous materials.
labels are separate labels used when containers of haz- See CFR 49 for exceptions. Note: CFR 49 refers to
ardous materials are transported. the “This side up” arrows as a mark, IATA refers to
it as a label.
MARKING, LABELING, PLACARDING,
AND FORMS • Marine Pollutant. A hazardous material listed as a
marine pollutant requires a “marine pollutant”
It is most important that personnel handling hazardous marking when shipped by vessel.
materials understand certain facts concerning those
• Inhalation Hazard. Each package containing a mate-
materials. This important information should include,
rial that is poisonous by inhalation shall be marked
but is not limited to, such items as
with the words “Inhalation Hazard.”
• the hazard class
Labeling Labeling is required for hazardous
• the hazard posed by the material material that meets one or more hazardous class defin-
• the proper shipping name of the material itions, in accordance with Column 6 of Table 172.101 of
CFR 49.
When this information is known, safety is enhanced and
the possibility of an incident or spill is greatly reduced. • Additional Labeling Requirements. Each package
In the event of an accident, emergency personnel containing a hazardous material that has a subsidiary
responding to a spill are able to quickly assess the situ- hazard shall be labeled with primary and subsidiary
ation and take appropriate action. This is a significant hazard labels as specified in Column 6 of the Haz-
part of the hazard communication (HAZCOM) re- ardous Materials Table.
quirements when informing the public and potential • No hazard label will be used on a package if the mate-
responders of hazards involved. rial is not hazardous, and no other label that looks
similar to a hazard label should be used.
Marking The following information is general in
nature and requirements may vary somewhat from one • In addition to hazard class labels, there are other
mode of transportation to another. It is recommended labels that give important information about the con-
that you review the latest regulations prior to marking tents of the hazardous material package. The “cargo
hazardous materials for transport. aircraft only” label warns handlers not to place that
Packages containing hazardous materials must be package of hazardous materials on a passenger-
marked with the proper shipping name as determined carrying airplane. There are also requirements for the
from the regulations. The proper shipping name is used use of an “empty” label.
to provide universal understanding of the contents of • Placement of Labels. Labels are generally required to
the package, since it may be different from the item be placed on the surface(s) of the package bearing
nomenclature. For this reason, a four-digit identification the proper shipping name. When more than one haz-
number is applied and located below or beside the iden- ardous material is packaged in a container, more than
tification marking information. Proper shipping names one kind of label may be needed. CFR 49 paragraph
and identification numbers may be found in the Haz- 172.404 states, “When hazardous materials having
ardous Materials Table of Part 172.101 of CFR 49 and different hazard classes are packed within the same
in various international documents (e.g., IMO, ICAO). packaging, or within the same outside container or
When a multipack contains hazardous materials, the overpack, the outside container or overpack must be
142 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
labeled as required for each class of hazardous mate- manifest and the copy attached to the station file man-
rial contained therein.” ifest must have the vertical red-hatch border.Additional
• When two or more different labels are required, they copies may be placed in a waterproof envelope and
must be displayed or affixed next to each other. One attached to the number one piece of the shipment.
hazard label is required on a package for each hazard
COMMERCIAL AIR SHIPMENTS
class, except for radioactive materials, which require
two labels, one on each side of the package. The International Air Transport Association (IATA)
• Radioactive Labels. There are three categories of prescribes a particular format for those hazardous items
radioactive labels: White I (lowest category); Yellow that are subject to their regulations. In addition to a sig-
II; and Yellow III (highest category, most dangerous). nature of certification, the format requires the proper
shipping name; class or division number; UN, NA, or
• Dangerous Placard. If a freight container, railcar, or identification number; packing group; subsidiary risk;
motor vehicle contains two or more classes of quantity and type of packaging; packaging instruction
hazardous materials requiring different placards number used; and authorization documents when
specified in Table 2 of CFR 49, Part 172.504, the required.
“Dangerous” placard may be used in place of the
separate placards specified for each class. DOMESTIC RAIL, HIGHWAY, AND
• When 2268 kg (5000 lbs) or more gross mass of one VESSEL SHIPMENTS
class of hazardous materials is loaded at one loading A certification is required for domestic rail, highway,
facility, the placard for that class must be applied. and vessel shipments. This certification must appear on
the shipping papers and indicate the proper hazard
Where to Place Placards The shipper is respon- class, markings, and labels, and what packaging has been
sible for furnishing the required placard to the carrier. used.A variety of forms may be used as shipping papers.
The placards are required on each end and side of trans-
porting motor vehicles or railcars. Placarding require- INTERNATIONAL WATER SHIPMENTS
ments on freight containers vary according to their size
Another format for certification is prescribed for inter-
and the mode of transportation.
national water shipments of dangerous goods (another
Each placard on a motor vehicle and each placard
name for hazardous materials). These requirements are
on a railcar must be readily visible from the direction
a part of the International Maritime Organization’s
it faces, except from the direction of another motor
(IMO) Dangerous Goods Code.
vehicle or railcar to which the motor vehicle or railcar
is coupled. The requirement to placard the front of a PERFORMANCE-ORIENTED PACKAGING (POP)
motor vehicle may be accomplished by placarding the AND HANDLING REQUIREMENTS
front of the tractor instead of the cargo body to which
it is attached, or one may placard both the truck-tractor Safe packaging and handling practices are two impor-
and the cargo body. Each placard, when practical, must tant functions in the safe movement of hazardous mate-
be located so that dirt or water is not directed to it from rials. Not just any old box or bag will do when the cargo
the wheels of the transport vehicle. is a hazardous material. Proper containers are pre-
scribed and must be used to safely contain hazardous
material, and thus prevent an injury or damage to
CERTIFICATE FORMS
people and property.
Hazardous materials regulations require that most Rough or improper handling may impose greater
shipments be certified by the shipper as being properly stress than the container can withstand and cause even
prepared for shipment and in compliance with the the best container to fail. A general understanding of
appropriate regulations. This certification will take hazardous material container requirements and good
many forms, depending on the mode of transportation handling practices are necessary to ensure incident- and
involved. accident-free shipment to the user.
A shipper’s certification on the “Shipper’s Decla- If a package is suspected of leaking or being seri-
ration for Dangerous Goods” is required for all air ship- ously damaged, it should be reported to the supervisor
ments of hazardous materials. Complete and sign an immediately. The following represents only a few of
original and at least one copy of the certification form. the general packaging requirements that exist for haz-
An original signature is required on the original ardous materials.
Shipper’s Declaration for Dangerous Goods. The origi-
nal certification form is attached to the copy of the man- • Containers should be designed and constructed to
ifest that is placed on the aircraft. Attach a copy to the avoid significant release of the hazardous material
station file manifest.The original attached to the aircraft into the environment.
HAZARDOUS WASTE TRANSPORTATION SAFETY 143
• There must be no mixture of gases that could increase gloves, goggles, and other protective clothing should
heat or pressure that would reduce the effectiveness be available for use in the event of leakage.
of the package. Containers labeled “Empty” must be
entirely free of any hazardous material. Adherence to handling requirements and markings
• Nonbulk packaging must be properly marked and (e.g., This Side Up, Fragile) on hazardous materials con-
meet all specification requirements, including perfor- tainers is absolutely necessary to avoid risk to health
mance testing, when required. and the environment.
• Containers should be made of materials that do not HANDLING HAZARDOUS WASTE DISCHARGES
react with the hazardous material inside.
In the event of a discharge of hazardous waste during
• Containers being reused must have old markings transport, special requirements established by the EPA
removed or obliterated.
and DoT must be followed by the driver/transporter. A
discharge of hazardous waste is defined as “the acci-
GENERAL HANDLING REQUIREMENTS dental or intentional spilling, leaking, pumping, pouring,
• Explosives. Safety in handling explosives and stan- emitting, emptying, or dumping of hazardous waste into
dard operational procedures vary with types of or on any land or water” [40 CFR 260.10].
explosives. EPA and DoT regulations pertaining to hazardous
waste release events include provisions authorizing
• Compressed Gases. These materials, in general, must
federal, state, or local government officials, acting within
be stored in a cool, well-ventilated area away from
the scope of their official duties, to permit the immedi-
fire hazards, sources of heat, ignition, or sparks. Do
ate removal of hazardous wastes by transporters who
not drop, jar, or slide containers.
do not have EPA ID numbers and are without a mani-
• Flammable Liquids. These materials should be stored fest. Within fifteen days following the incident, the
in cool, well-ventilated areas. They must be stored transporter must obtain a temporary ID number and file
away from sources of heat, flames, sparks, com- a report, including a manifest, with the DoT. The EPA
bustible materials or oxidizing agents. Containers has also exempted all persons involved in treatment or
must be kept tightly closed. In the event of leakage containment actions during an immediate response to
or spillage, rubber gloves, goggles, aprons, and respi- the discharge of hazardous wastes or materials from
rators must be used. permitting requirements. All regulations for the final
• Flammable Solids. Spontaneously combustible mate- disposition of wastes must be followed after the emer-
rial and dangerous-when-wet materials must be gency has been concluded.
stored in cool, well-ventilated areas away from mois- EPA regulations similarly require transporters to
ture. They must not be stored near corrosives. All clean up any discharges that occur during transport or
containers must be tightly and securely closed. take actions required or approved by appropriate gov-
ernment officials to mitigate human health or environ-
• Oxidizers and Organic Peroxides. These materials
mental hazards. Such cleanups are characteristically
must be stored in a cool, well-ventilated area away
hazardous, not only to those doing the cleanup work,
from moisture. Do not store near corrosives.
but to nearby residents, to other users of the trans-
• Poisonous (Toxic) Material and Infectious Substances. portation system, and to the environment. It is rarely
Keep cool and away from direct sunlight and high possible to achieve a totally satisfactory cleanup. Liquid
temperatures. Store away from sources of ignition, wastes, liquid-borne solid wastes, and water from fire
oxidizing materials, and acids. Avoid direct contact fighting operations are often dispersed through storm
with the materials. Wear a gas mask or breathing drains and the soil, to the extent that they cannot be
apparatus, as instructed by safety personnel, during retrieved. Atmospheric releases are rarely controlled in
exposure. a timely manner.
• Radioactive Materials. Handling requirements for
these materials can be complex and involved. Per- CONCLUSION
sonnel handling these materials should take precau- Transportation safety is a critical link in the handling
tions to minimize exposure. Containers should not be and disposal of hazardous waste. Transportation regula-
opened except for good reason, and then only under tions include hazardous waste under the broader cate-
the direct supervision of radiological protection gory of hazardous materials.
personnel. Originators or initiators of the shipment of haz-
• Corrosive Materials. Corrosives must be stored in a ardous waste have the responsibility by federal regula-
cool, well-ventilated area away from sources of heat tion to identify and package the material for safe
and oxidizing agents. Gas masks, respirators, rubber transport. This responsibility includes the training of
144 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
all personnel that must handle the hazardous waste. Keller, J.J., and Associates. Drivers’ Pocket Guide to
The selection of qualified transporter, disposal site, Hazardous Materials. Neenah, WI: Keller, J.J., and
and/or ultimate destination must be accomplished with Associates, 1993.
informed employees. Montgomery, R.C., and W.F. Martin. “Transportation
Any handler of hazardous waste must make sure Safety.” Chapter 17 in Protecting Personnel at
that all papers are adequately filled out, containers Hazardous Waste Sites. 3rd ed. W.F. Martin and M.
labeled and marked, MSDS provided, and emergency Gochfeld, eds. Boston: Butterworth–Heinemann,
procedures understood before the trip is started. It is 2000.
the shipper’s responsibility to determine the fitness of a National Solid Waste Management Association
package for the transport use intended. However, each (NSWMA). Managing Hazardous Waste: Fulfilling
person along the way must be trained to recognize the the Public Trust. Washington, DC: NSWMA,
hazards associated with the transportation of hazardous 1989.
waste and be familiar with emergency procedures to Office of Technology Assessment. Transportation of
protect health and environment. Hazardous Materials. Washington, DC: Superinten-
The transportation industry has maintained a good dent of Documents, Government Printing Office,
record in the transporting of hazardous waste, but the 1986.
potential for disaster is still very great. With adequate Perry, D.M., and D.J. Klooster. The Maquiladora Indus-
training, information, and resources, hazardous wastes try: Generation, Transportation and Disposal of
can be transported safely. Hazardous Waste at the California-Baja California,
US-Mexico Border: Second Maquiladora Report.
Los Angeles: School of Public Health, University of
BIBLIOGRAPHY
California, 1992.
Blackman, W.C., Jr. Basic Hazardous Waste Manage- Perry, D.M., R. Sanchez., W. Glaze II, and M. Mazari.
ment. 2nd ed. New York: Lewis Publishers, 1996. “Binational Management of Hazardous Waste: The
——. “Environmental Impacts of Policies Toward the Maquiladora Industry at the US-Mexico Border”
Rail-and-Motor-Freight Industries in the United Environmental Management 14 (4)(1990): 441–450.
States.” Doctoral Dissertation, Graduate School of Pire, J.C., and B.D. Mavy. “Utilizing State Hazardous
Public Affairs, University of Colorado, Denver, Materials Transportation Data in Hazardous
1985. Analysis.” Journal of Hazardous Materials 54
Castillo, V.M., and D. Perry. “Environmental Implica- (1997).
tions of the Free Trade Agreement in the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD)-U.S. Army. Safe
Maquiladora Industry.” Transboundary Resources Transportation of Hazardous Materials. Huntsville,
Report, Summer, 1992. AL: DoD, 1998.
——. Orientation Manual. 1990 Ed. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Transportation (DoT). North Amer-
Superintendent of Documents, Government Print- ican Emergency Response Guidebook. Washington,
ing Office, 1990. DC: DoT, 1996.
——. Catalog Hazardous Waste Database Reports. Wells, J.J. “Hazardous Materials Regulations: How Did
Washington, DC: Solid Waste and Emergency We Get Here? Where Are We Going?” Hazardous
Response, 1993. Materials Controls 6 (2)(1993).
——. Enforcement Accomplishments Report FY 1993. Wentz, C.A. Hazardous Waste Management. New York:
Washington. DC: Office of Enforcement, EPA McGraw-Hill, 1989.
300-R-94–003, 1994. Westat, Inc. National Survey of Hazardous Waste Gen-
ICF, Inc. Assessing the Costs Associated With Truck erators and Treatment Storage and Disposal Facili-
Transportation of Hazardous Wastes. Washington, ties Regulated Under RCRA in 1981. Washington.
DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office
of Solid Waste, 1984. of Solid Waste, 1984.
Appendix A
ABBREVIATIONS
alc alcohol incomp incompatible pph parts per hundred
amorph amorphous inhal inhalation (v/V) (percent)
anhyd anhydrous insol insoluble ppm parts per million (v/V)
aq aqueous intox intoxication ppt parts per trillion (v/V)
atm atmosphere ip intraperitoneal PROP properties
autoign autoignition irr irritant, irritating, psi pounds per square
temp temperature irritation inch
bp boiling point IR infrared PSY psychotropic effects
BPR blood pressure effects IRR irritant effects PUL pulmonary system
b range boiling range (systemic) effects
bz benzene itr intratracheal rbt rabbit
C Centigrade/Celsius iv intravenous refr refractive
carc(s) carcinogen(s) kg kilogram resp respiratory
CARC carcinogenic effects L liter rhomb rhombic
cc cubic centimeter mem membrane S, sec second(s)
CL ceiling concentration min minimum scu subcutaneous
compd(s) compound(s) mg, ug microgram SEV severe irritation
conc concentration, mmol, umol micromole effects
concentrated mg milligram SKN systemic skin effects
contg containing mg/m3 milligrams per cubic slt slight
corr corrosive meter sltly slightly
cryst crystal(s), crystalline mg/L milligrams per liter sol soluble
CUM cumulative effects misc miscible soln solution
CVS cardiovascular effects ml milliliter solv(s) solvent(s)
d density MLD mild irritation effects spont spontaneous(ly)
D day mm millimeter subl sublimes
dba decibel mod moderately susp suspect
decomp decomposition MOD moderate irritation SYS systemic effects
deliq deliquescent effects tre rectal temperature
eth ether mol mole ta ambient air
exper experimental (animal) mp melting point temperature
expl explosive mR miliroentgen ta adj adjusted air
expos exposure mR/hr miliroentgen per hour temperature
eye administration into MSK musculoskeletal effects tech technical
eye (irritant) m, u micron temp temperature
EYE systemic eye effects mumem mucous membrane TER teratogenic effects
F Fahrenheit MUT mutagen TFX toxic effects
fbr fibroblasts mw molecular weight tox toxic, toxicity
flamm flammable N nitrogen uel upper explosive limits
flash p flash point NEO neoplastic effects unk unknown
fp freezing point nonflamm nonflammable UNS toxic effects
GIT gastrointestinal tract NTP National Toxicology unspecified in source
effects Program UV ultraviolent
g/L grams per liter o- ortho vap d vapor density
glac glacial ocu ocular vap press vapor pressure
GLN glandular effects p- para visc viscosity
gran granular effects par parenteral v/V volume per volume
hr hour petr eth petroleum W week(s)
hexag hexagonal pg picogram Y year(s)
hmn human pk peak concentration > greater than
H2 hydrogen pmol picomole equal to or greater
im intramuscular ppb parts per billion (v/V) than
145
Appendix B
ACRONYMS
ACGIH American Conference of Governmental gases and vapors (also applied to the
Industrial Hygienists device)
ALR air-line respirator HR hazard rating
ANSI American National Standards Institute HW hazardous waste
APR air-purifying respirators IARC International Agency for Research on
ASTM American Society for Testing and Cancer
Materials IATA International Air Transport Association
CA carcinogen ICAO International Civil Air Organization
CAA Clean Air Act IDLH immediately dangerous to life or health
CAS Chemical Abstracts Service IMDG international maritime dangerous goods
CC closed cup ISO International Organization for
CDC Centers for Disease Control Standardization
CELDS Computer-Aided Environmental IUPA International Union for Pure and Applied
Legislative Data System Chemistry
CEQ Council on Environmental Quality LEL lower explosive limit
CERCLA Comprehensive Environmental Response, LFL lower flammable limit
Compensation, and Liability Act (also LNAPL light non-aqueous phase liquids
called Superfund) LOAEL lowest-observed adverse effect level
CFR Code of Federal Regulations LOEL lowest-observed effect level
CGI combustible gas indicator MMEFR maximal midexpiratory flow rate
CNS central nervous system MSDS Material Safety Data Sheet
COC Cleveland Open Cup MSHA Mine Safety and Health Administration
CPC chemical protective clothing MVV maximal voluntary ventilation
CPR cardiopulmonary resuscitation NCRP North Carolina Research Park
CRC contamination reduction corridor NEPA National Environmental Protection
CRZ contamination reduction zone Agency
CWA Clean Water Act NEW net explosive weight
DNAPL dense non-aqueous phase liquids NFPA National Fire Protection Agency
DoD Department of Defense NGWA National Groundwater Association
DoE Department of Energy NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety
DoT U.S. Department of Transportation and Health
EKG electrocardiogram NOAEL no observed adverse effect level
EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency NOEL no observed effect level
ESCBA escape-only self-contained breathing NORM naturally occurring radioactive materials
apparatus NRC Nuclear Regulatory Commission
ETA equivocal tumorigenic agent OC open cup
FEF forced expiratory flow OHSMS occupational health and safety
FEMA Federal Emergency Management management
Administration ORM other regulated materials
FEV1 forced expiratory volume in one second OSHA Occupational Safety and Health
FID flame ionization detector Administration
FIFRA Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and OVA organic vapor analyzer
Rodenticide Act PAH polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons
FIT field investigation team PCB polychlorinated biphenyl
FRC functional residual capacity PDS personnel decontamination station
FVC forced vital capacity PEL permissible exposure limit or published
GC gas chromatography exposure limit
GI gastrointestinal PG packing group
GM Geiger-Müller (Geiger Counter) PID photoionization detector
HAZMAT Hazardous Material Response Team PPC personal protective clothing
HAZWOPER Hazardous Waste Operations and PPE personal protective equipment
Emergency Response (training) POP performance-oriented package
HNU name of company that manufactures a type PVC polyvinyl chloride
of photoionizer used to detect organic RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
147
148 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
REL recommended exposure limits TD toxic dose
RV residual volume THR toxic and hazard review
SAP sampling and analysis plan TLC total lung capacity
SARA Superfund Amendments and TLV threshold limit value
Reauthorization Act TLV-C threshold limit value-ceiling
SCBA self-contained breathing apparatus TSCA Toxic Substances Control Act
SMAC23 Sequential Multiple Analyzer Computer TSD transportation, storage, and delivery
SOP standard operating procedure TWA time-weighted average
SQG(s) small quantity generator(s) UEL upper explosive limit
SSO site safety officer ULC Underwriters Laboratory classification
STEL short-term exposure limit UN United Nations
TAT technical assistance team USCG U.S. Coast Guard
Appendix C
CHEMICAL FORMULAS
Ag2O silver oxide F2O fluorine oxide NaOH sodium hydroxide
Al aluminum H2 hydrogen gas NaPCP sodium
AlCl3 aluminum chloride HCHO formaldehyde pentachlorophrenate
BF3 boron trifluoride HCl hydrochloric acid NF3 nitrogen fluoride
B2O3 boron oxide HF hydrofluoric acid NH3 ammonia
BOx boron oxides HgF2 mercuric fluoride NH4+ ammonium radical
Br2 bromine gas HI hydriodic acid NH4NO3 ammonium nitrate
BrF3 bromine trifluoride H2O water NH4OH ammonium hydroxide
CaCl2 calcium chloride H2O2 or hydrogen peroxide N2O4 nitrogen dioxide
Ca(CN)2 calcium cyanide HOOH NOx nitrogen oxides
CaOx calcium oxides HOAc acetic acid NOCl nitrosyl chloride
Ca(OCl)2 calcium oxychloride HOCl hypochlorous acid O2 oxygen gas
CCl4 carbon tetrachloride H2S hydrogen sulfide O3 ozone
CdO cadmium oxide H2SO4 sulfuric acid OF2 oxygen fluoride
Cd(OH)2 cadmium hydroxide H2S2O3 trisulfuric acid OsO4 osmium tetroxide
C6H6 benzene IF7 iodine hepta fluoride PCl3 phosphorus trichloride
CHCL3 chloroform KClO3 potassium chlorate P2O3 phosphorus trioxide
CH3OH methanol K2CrO4 potassium chromate P2O5 phosphorus pentoxide
Cl2 chlorine gas KHC potassium carbide POx phosphorus oxides
CIF3 chlorine trifluoride KOH potassium hydroxide Rb2C2 rubidium carbide
CIO2 chlorine oxide LiH lithium hydride SO2 sulfur dioxide
CN cyanide LiOH lithium hydroxide SiO2 silica
CO carbon monoxide Mg(C2H5)2 magnesium ethyl SO2 sulfur dioxide
CO2 carbon dioxide MgO magnesia SOx sulfur oxides
COCL2 phosgene Na2C2 sodium carbide 2,3,7,8- dioxin
CoOx cobalt oxides NaClO3 sodium perchlorate TCDD
CrO3 chromium trioxide NaK sodium potassium alloy TeO tellurium oxide
Cr2O3 chromium oxide NaN3 sodium nitride Tl(NO3)3 thallium nitrate
CS2 carbon bisulfide NaNO3 sodium nitrate Tl2O thallous oxide
Cs2O cesium oxide Na2O sodium oxide VOx vanadium oxides
CuFeS2 copper iron sulfide Na2O2 sodium peroxide ZnCl2 zinc chloride
EtOH ethanol NaOBr sodium ZnCrO4 zinc chromate
F2 fluorine gas oxybromide ZnCr2O7 zinc dichromate
Fe2O iron oxide NaOCl sodium oxychloride ZnO zinc oxide
149
Appendix D
GLOSSARY
absorbed dose The energy imparted by ionizing radiation per chronic exposure Exposure to a substance over a long period
unit mass of tissue. of time, usually at low doses.
acute exposure Exposure to a substance in a short time span cleanup operation An operation where hazardous substances
and generally at high concentrations. are removed, contained, incinerated, neutralized, stabi-
alpha particle (alpha radiation) A positively charged particle lized, or in any other manner processed or handled with
having a mass and charge equal in magnitude to a helium the ultimate goal of making the site safer for people or
nucleus (two protons and two neutrons). They are the environment.
emitted by certain radioactive materials. They will travel closed-circuit SCBA A type of self-contained breathing
only 10–60 mm through the air before being stopped by apparatus (SCBA) that recycles exhaled air by removing
air molecules. They are most dangerous when they are carbon dioxide and replenishing oxygen. Also called a
inhaled or ingested. rebreather SCBA.
alpha radiation A type of ionizing radiation consisting of colorimetric tube An instrument for the chemical analysis of
alpha particles, which are two protons and two neutrons liquids by comparison of the color of the given liquid with
bound together, with an electrical charge of +2. An alpha standard colors.
particle is equivalent to a helium nucleus. CLO A unit of measure for CPC thermal heating values.
autoreactive A compound that is reactive under normal Based on heat transfer rates through clothing at room
conditions without initiation by heat or other compounds temperature.
or change in conditions. combustible Capable of burning.
becquerel (Bq) A unit of activity equal to one nuclear trans- contamination control line The boundary between the
formation or disintegration per second. The curie, is support zone and the contamination reduction zone.
related to the becquerel according to 1 Ci = 3.7 ¥ 1010 Bq. contamination reduction corridor (CRC) The part of the con-
beta particle (beta radiation) A charged particle emitted tamination reduction zone where the personnel deconta-
from the nucleus of an atom, with a mass and charge mination stations are located.
equal in magnitude to that of the electron. They are faster contamination reduction zone (CRZ) The area on a site
and lighter than alpha particles. where decontamination takes place, preventing cross-
breakthrough time The elapsed time between initial contact contamination from contaminated areas to clean areas.
of the hazardous chemical with the outside surface of continuous-flow respirator A respiratory protection device
protective clothing material and the time at which the that maintains a constant flow of air into the face piece
chemical can be detected at the inside surface of the at all times. Airflow is independent of user respiration.
material by means of the chosen analytic technique. controlled area A defined area in which the occupational
buddy system A system of organizing employees into work exposure of personnel to radiation or radioactive mate-
groups in such a manner that each employee is designated rial is under the supervision of an individual in charge of
to be observed by at least one other employee in the group. radiation protection.
The purpose of the buddy system is to provide rapid crazing The formation of minute cracks (as in the lens of a
assistance to employees in the event of an emergency. face piece).
bulk container A cargo container, such as that attached to a cross-contamination The transfer of a chemical contaminant
tank truck or tank car, used for transporting substances from one person, piece of equipment, or area to another
in large quantities. that was previously not contaminated with that substance.
bung A cap or screw used to cover the small opening in the curie (Ci) See also Becquerel. (a) Formerly, a special unit of
top of a metal drum or barrel. activity. One curie equals 3.7 ¥ 1010 disintegrations per
canister A purifying device for an air-purifying respirator that second exactly or 1 Ci = 3.7 ¥ 1010 Bq. (b) By popular
is held in a harness attached to the body or attached to usage, the quantity of any radioactive material having an
the chin part of a face piece, is connected to the face piece activity of one curie.
by a breathing tube, and removes particulates or specific decay, radioactive A spontaneous nuclear transformation in
chemical gases or vapors from the ambient air as it is which particles or gamma radiation is emitted, or X radi-
inhaled through the canister. ation is emitted following orbital electron capture, or the
carboy A bottle or rectangular container for holding liquids nucleus undergoes spontaneous fission.
with a capacity of approximately 5 to 15 gallons; made of decontamination The removal of hazardous substances from
glass, plastic, or metal and often cushioned in a protective employees and their equipment to the extent necessary
container. to preclude the occurrence of adverse health effects or
cartridge A purifying device for an air-purifying respirator cross-contamination.
that attaches directly to the face piece and removes decontamination line A specific sequence of decontamina-
particulates or specific chemical gases or vapors from the tion stations within the contamination reduction zone for
ambient air as it is inhaled through the cartridge. decontaminating personnel or equipment.
151
152 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
degradation A chemical reaction between chemical and flash point The minimum temperature at which a liquid gives
structural materials (in, for example, protective clothing off enough vapors to form an ignitable mixture with the
or equipment) that results in damage to the structural air near the surface of the liquid.
material. gamma radiation A type of ionizing radiation consisting of
demand respirator A respiratory protection device that high-energy, short wave-length electromagnetic radia-
supplies air or oxygen to the user in response to negative tion. A type of radiation that is released in waves by
pressure created by inhalation. unstable atoms when they stabilize.They are a very strong
dermal Pertaining to skin. (range of energy from 10 keV to 9 MeV) type of electro-
disinfection The application of a chemical that kills bacteria. magnetic wave. Gamma waves have no mass and travel
dose A general form denoting the quantity of radiation even faster than alpha and beta radiation.
or energy absorbed. Most people receive between 150 gamma-ray scintillation detector A gamma-ray detector con-
and 200 millirems a year, and any level less than 5000 sisting of a crystal, such as sodium iodide, thallium-
millirems a year is considered low-level. Scientists have activated, NaI(T1), and a photomultiplier tube housed in
found that radiation doses of over 100,000 millirems will a light-tight container.
usually cause radiation sickness. Doses of over 500,000 grappler An implement used to hold and manipulate objects
millirems, if received in three days or less, will usually kill from a distance.
a person. gray (Gy) The SI unit of absorbed radiation dose, one joule
dosimeter An instrument for measuring doses of radioactiv- per kilogram.
ity or other chemical exposures based on collection media hazardous materials response team (HAZMAT) An orga-
over a period of time. nized group of employees, designated by the employer,
dress-out area A section of the support zone where person- expected to handle and control actual or potential leaks
nel suit up for entry into the exclusion zone. or spills of hazardous substances requiring possible close
emergency response A response effort by employees from approach to the substance.
outside the immediate release area or by other desig- hazardous substance Any substance designated by the
nated responders (e.g., mutual-aid groups or local fire following regulations: Sections 101(14) and 101(33)
departments) to a situation that results, or is likely to of CERCLA; 49 CFR 1172.101.
result, in an uncontrolled release of a hazardous hazardous waste A waste or combination of wastes as defined
substance. in 40 CFR 171.6.
escape-only SCBA (ESCBA) A type of self-contained hazardous waste operation Any operation conducted within
breathing apparatus (SCBA) that is approved for escape the scope of 40 CFR 261.3 or 40 CFR 171.6.
purposes only. It does not carry the safety features nec- health hazard A chemical, mixture of chemicals, or pathogen
essary for longer work periods. for which there is statistically significant evidence based
etiologic agent A microorganism that may cause human on at least one scientific study that acute or chronic health
disease. effects may occur in exposed individuals.
exclusion zone The contaminated area of a site. health physics The science of radiation protection.
explosive A chemical that is capable of burning or bursting hot line The outer boundary of a site’s exclusion zone.
suddenly and violently. health physics The science of radiation protection.
facility Any site, area, building, structure, installation, equip- immediately dangerous to life or health (IDLH) The
ment, pipe or pipeline (including any pipe into a sewer or maximum concentration from which one could escape
publicly owned treatment works), well, pit, pond, lagoon, within thirty minutes without any escape-impairing symp-
impoundment ditch, storage container, motor vehicle, toms or any irreversible health effects.
rolling stock, or aircraft where a hazardous substance has incompatible Incapable of being combined without a danger-
been deposited. ous effect (e.g., descriptive of two or more substances that
filter A purifying device for an air-purifying respirator that produce an unfavorable chemical reaction if they come
removes particulates and/or metal fumes from the in contact).
ambient air as it is inhaled. injection The introduction of chemicals into the body through
flammable Capable of being easily ignited or burning with puncture wounds.
extreme rapidity. ionizing radiation High-energy radiation that causes irradi-
flammable gas Any compressed gas meeting the require- ated substances to form ions, which are electrically
ments for lower flammability limit, flammability limit charged particles.
range, flame projection, or flame propagation criteria as LC50 Abbreviation for the median lethal concentration of a
specified in 49 CFR 173.300(b). substance that will kill 50% of the animals exposed to that
flammable liquid Any liquid having a flash point below 100°F concentration.
as determined by tests listed in 49 CFR 173.115(d). A LD50 Abbreviation for the median lethal dose of a substance
pyrophoric liquid ignites spontaneously in dry or moist that will kill 50% of the animals exposed to that dose.
air at or above 130°F. manifest A list of cargo.
flammable solid Any solid material, other than an explosive, mixed waste Hazardous chemical waste that is also radio-
that can be ignited readily and when ignited burns so active.
vigorously and persistently as to create a serious monitor, radiation A radiation detector that measures the
transportation hazard (49 CFR 173.150). level of ionizing radiation (or quantity of radioactive
APPENDIX D GLOSSARY 153
material). It may also give quantitative information on qualified person A person with specific training, knowledge,
dose or dose rate. The term is frequently prefixed with a and experience in the area for which that person has the
word indicating the purpose of the monitor, such as an responsibility and the authority to control.
area monitor, or air-particle monitor. rad A former unit of absorbed dose 1 rad = 102 Gy = 102 J/kg
monitoring, radiation (radiation protection) The continuing (see gray (Gy)). Radiation energy in the form of electro-
collection and assessment of the pertinent information to magnetic waves.
determine the adequacy of radiation protection practices radiation hazard A situation or condition that could result in
and to indicate potentially significant changes in con- deleterious effects attributable to deliberate, accidental,
ditions or protection performance. occupational, or natural exposure to radiation.
neutron A noncharged particle in the center of the atom. radiation protection All measures concerned with reducing
Together with the proton it forms the nucleus. deleterious effects of radiation to persons or materials
occupational dose (regulatory) Dose (or dose equivalent) (also called radiological protection).
resulting from exposure of an individual to radiation in a radioactive material A material of which one or more con-
restricted area or in the course of employment in which stituents exhibit radioactivity. NOTE: For special pur-
the individual’s duties involve exposure to radiation (see poses such as regulation, this term may be restricted to
10 CFR 20.3). radioactive material with an activity or a specific activity
open-circuit SCBA A self-contained breathing apparatus greater than a specified value.
(SCBA) in which the user exhales air directly into the radioactive waste Unwanted radioactive materials obtained
atmosphere. in the processing or handling of radioactive materials.
overpack (a) An oversized drum into which a leaking reagent A substance used in a chemical reaction to detect,
drum can be placed and sealed. (b) To overpack such a measure, examine, or produce other substances.
drum. redress area A section of the exclusion zone where deconta-
oxygen deficiency The concentration of oxygen by volume minated personnel put on clothing for use in the support
below which atmosphere-supplying respiratory equip- zone.
ment must be provided. It exists in atmospheres where rem A former unit of dose equivalent. The dose equivalent
the percentage of oxygen by volume is less than 19.5 in rems is numerically equal to the absorbed dose in
percent. rads multiplied by the quality factor, the distri-
palletize To place on a pallet or to transport or store by means bution factor, and any other necessary modifying
of a pallet. factors (originally derived from roentgen-equivalent
particulate Formed of separate small, solid pieces. man).
penetration The chemical penetration of protective clothing restricted area Any area to which access is controlled for the
through openings such as seams, buttonholes, zippers, or protection of individuals from exposure to radiation and
breathing air ports. radioactive materials.
percutaneous Effected or performed through the skin. roentgen (R) A unit of exposure: 1 R = 2.58 ¥ 104 C/kg.
permeation Seepage and sorption of a chemical through a scintillation counter A counter in which the light flashes
material (e.g., the material making up protective clothing produced in a scintillation by ionizing radiation are
or equipment). converted into electrical pulses by a photomultiplier
permissible exposure limit (PEL) The exposure, inhala- tube.
tion, or dermal permissible exposure limit specified in self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) A respiratory
29 CFR 1910, G and Z. The OSHA standard for protection device that supplies clean air to the user from
an eight-hour time-weighted average exposure allow- a compressed air source carried by the user.
able for a working lifetime without adverse health sievert (Sv) The special name of the unit of dose equivalent.
effect. It is given numerically by 1 Sv = 1 J ¥ kg-1 (= 100
postemergency response That portion of an emergency rein).
response performed after the immediate threat of a site safety supervisor (SSO) The individual located on a haz-
release has been stabilized or eliminated and cleanup of ardous waste site who is responsible to the employer and
the site has begun. has the authority and knowledge necessary to implement
pressure-demand respirator A respiratory protection device the site safety and health plan and verify compliance with
that supplies air to the user and maintains a slight applicable safety and health requirements.
positive pressure in the face piece at all times. It supplies small-quantity generator A generator of hazardous wastes
additional air in response to the negative pressure created that in any calendar month generates no more than 2205
by inhalation. pounds (1000 kilograms) of hazardous wastes.
protection factor The ratio of the ambient concentration of sorbent material A substance that takes up other materials
an airborne substance to the concentration of the sub- either by absorption or adsorption.
stance inside the respirator at the breathing zone of the staging area An area in which items are arranged in some
wearer. The protection factor is a measure of the degree order.
of protection the respirator offers. standard operating procedure (SOP) Established or pre-
published exposure limit (PEL) The recommended exposure scribed tactical or administrative method to be allowed
limits published in Recommendations of Occupational routinely for the performance of a designated operation
Health Standards (NIOSH 1986). or in a designated situation.
154 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
Superfund A common name for the Comprehensive Envi- swab A piece of cotton or gauze on the end of a slender stick
ronmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act used for obtaining a piece of tissue or secretion for bac-
(CERCLA) of 1980. teriologic examination.
supplied-air respirator A respiratory protection device that swipe A patch of cloth or paper that is wiped over a surface
supplies air to the user from a source that is not worn by and analyzed for the presence of a substance.
the user but is connected to the user by a hose.Also called threshold The intensity or concentration below which a stim-
an air-line respirator. ulus or substance produces a specified effect.
support zone The uncontaminated area of a site where uncontrolled hazardous waste site An area where an
workers will not be exposed to hazardous conditions. accumulation of hazardous waste creates a threat to
surfactant A contamination agent that reduces adhesion the health and safety of individuals, the environment, or
forces between contaminants and the surfaces being both.
cleaned.
Appendix E
SAMPLE SITE SAFETY PLAN
This appendix provides a generic plan based on a plan devel- Response COMDTINST—M 16465.30). This generic plan can
oped by the U.S. Coast Guard for responding to hazardous be adapted for designing a site safety plan for hazardous waste
chemical releases (U.S. Coast Guard, Policy Guidance for site cleanup operations. It is not all-inclusive and should be
Response to Hazardous Chemical Releases, USCG Pollution used only as a guide, not a standard.
155
156 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
FEDERAL AGENCY REPS (i.e., EPA, NIOSH)
A. SITE DESCRIPTION
Date Location
Area affected
STATE AGENCY REPS
Surrounding population
Topography
Weather conditions
LOCAL AGENCY REPS
Additional information
CONTRACTOR(S)
B. ENTRY OBJECTIVES—The objective of the initial entry to the
All personnel arriving or departing the site should log in and out with the record
contaminated area is to (describes actions, tasks to be accomplished; i.e.,
keeper. All activities on-site must be cleared through the project team leader.
identify contaminated soil; monitor conditions, etc.)
D. ON-SITE CONTROL
(Name of individual or agency) has been designated to coordinate access
control and security on-site. A safe perimeter has been established at (distance
C. ON-SITE ORGANIZATION AND COORDINATION—The following or description of controlled area)
personnel are designated to carry out the stated job functions on-site. (Note:
one person may carry out more than one job function.)
No unauthorized person should be within this area.
PROJECT TEAM LEADER
SCIENTIFIC ADVISOR The on-site command post and staging area have been established at
SITE SAFETY OFFICER
PUBLIC INFORMATION OFFICER
SECURITY OFFICER The prevailing wind conditions are . This location is
RECORD KEEPER upwind from the exclusion zone.
FINANCIAL OFFICER
Control boundaries have been established, and the exclusion zone (the
FIELD TEAM LEADER
contaminated area), hot line, contamination reduction zone, and support zone
FIELD TEAM MEMBERS
(clean area) have been identified and designated as follows: (describe
boundaries and/or attach map of controlled area)
These boundaries are identified by: (marking of zones, i.e., red boundary tape—
hot line; traffic cones—support zone; etc.)
E. HAZARD EVALUATION The following protective clothing materials are required for the involved
The following substance(s) are known or suspected to be on-site. The primary substances:
hazards of each are identified. Substance Material
Substances Involved Concentrations (if known) Primary Hazards
(chemical name) (material name, e.g., Viton)
(chemical name) (e.g., toxic on
inhalation)
If air-purifying respirators are authorized, (name of filtering medium) is the
The following additional hazards are expected on-site: (i.e., slippery ground, appropriate canister for use with the involved substances and concentrations. A
uneven terrain, etc.) competent individual has determined that all criteria for using this type of
Hazardous substance information form(s) for the involved substance(s) have respiratory protection have been met.
been completed and are attached.
NO CHANGES TO THE SPECIFIED LEVELS OF PROTECTION SHALL
F. PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT BE MADE WITHOUT THE APPROVAL OF THE SITE SAFETY OFFICER
Based on evaluation of potential hazards, the following levels of personal AND THE PROJECT TEAM LEADER.
protection have been designated for the applicable work areas or tasks:
G. ON-SITE WORK PLANS
Location Job Function Level of Protection
Exclusion Zone A B C D Other Work party(s) consisting of persons will perform the following tasks:
A B C D Other Project Team Leader (name) (function)
A B C D Other
A B C D Other
A B C D Other
APPENDIX E SAMPLE SITE SAFETY PLAN
A B C D Other
Work Party #1
Contamination A B C D Other
Reduction Zone A B C D Other
A B C D Other
A B C D Other
A B C D Other Work Party #2
A B C D Other
Specific protective equipment for each level of protection is as follows:
Level A Fully encapsulating suit Level C Splash gear (type)
SCBA Full-face canister resp. Rescue Team
(disposable coveralls) (required for
entries to IDLH
environments)
Level B Splash gear (type) Level D
SCBA Decontamination
Team
157
Other
The work party(s) was briefed on the contents of this plan at .
H. COMMUNICATION PROCEDURES 2. Emergency Medical Care
158 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
Channel has been designated as the radio frequency for personnel in the (names of qualified personnel) are qualified EMTs on-site.
exclusion zone. All other on-site communications will use channel . (medical facility names) , at (address) ,
phone is located minutes from this location.
Personnel in the exclusion zone should remain in constant radio communication (name of person) was contacted at (time) and briefed on
or within sight of the project team leader. Any failure of radio communication the situation, the potential hazards, and the substances involved. A map of
requires an evaluation of whether personnel should leave the exclusion zone. alternative routes to this facility is available at (normally command post).
(Horn blast, siren, etc.) is the emergency signal to indicate that all Local ambulance service is available from at
personnel should leave the exclusion zone. In addition, a loud hailer is available if phone . Their response time is minutes.
required. Whenever possible, arrangements should be made for on-site standby.
The following standard hand signals will be used in case of failure of radio First-aid equipment is available on-site at the following locations:
communications: First-aid kit
Hand gripping throat: Out of air, can’t breathe Emergency eyewash
Grip partner’s wrist or both hands around Leave area immediately Emergency shower
waist: (Other)
Hands on top of head: Need assistance Emergency medical information for substances present:
Thumbs up: OK, I am all right, I understand Substance Exposure Symptoms First-Aid Instructions
Thumbs down: No, negative
Telephone communication to the command post should be established as soon as
practicable. The phone number is .
I. DECONTAMINATION PROCEDURES
Personnel and equipment leaving the exclusion zone shall be thoroughly List of emergency phone numbers:
decontaminated. The standard level decontamination protocol shall be Agency/Facility Phone # Contact
used with the following decontamination stations: (1) Police
(2) (3) (4) (5) Fire
(6) (7) (8) (9) Hospital
(10) Other Airport
Public Health Advisor
Emergency decontamination will include the following stations:
3. Environmental Monitoring
The following decontamination equipment is required: The following environmental monitoring instruments shall be used on-site
(cross out if not applicable) at the specified intervals.
Combustible Gas Indicator – continuous/hourly/daily/other
O2 Monitor – continuous/hourly/daily/other
(Normally detergent and water) will be used as the decontamination Colorimetric Tubes – continuous/hourly/daily/other
solution. (type)
J. SITE SAFETY AND HEALTH PLAN
1. (name) is the designated site safety officer and is directly HNU/OVA – continuous/hourly/daily/other
responsible to the project team leader for safety recommendations on-site. Other – continuous/hourly/daily/other
– continuous/hourly/daily/other
4. Emergency Procedures (should be modified as required for incident) The following emergency escape routes are designated for use in those
situations where egress from the exclusion zone cannot occur through the
The following standard emergency procedures will be used by on-site
decontamination line: (describe alternate routes to leave area in
personnel. The site safety officer shall be notified of any on-site emergencies
emergencies)
and be responsible for ensuring that the appropriate procedures are followed.
Personnel Injury in the Exclusion Zone: Upon notification of an injury in the
exclusion zone, the designated emergency signal shall
be sounded. All site personnel shall assemble at the decontamination line. The
In all situations, when an on-site emergency results in evacuation of the
rescue team will enter the exclusion zone (if required) to remove the injured
exclusion zone, personnel shall not reenter until:
person to the hot line. The site safety officer and project team leader should
evaluate the nature of the injury, and the affected person should be deconta- 1. The conditions resulting in the emergency have been corrected.
minated to the extent possible prior to movement to the support zone. The 2. The hazards have been reassessed.
on-site EMT shall initiate the appropriate first aid, and contact should be 3. The site safety plan has been reviewed.
made for an ambulance and with the designated medical facility (if required). 4. Site personnel have been briefed on any changes in the site safety
No persons shall reenter the exclusion zone until the cause of the injury or plan.
symptoms is determined.
5. Personal Monitoring
Personnel Injury in the Support Zone: Upon notification of an injury in the
support zone, the project team leader and site safety officer will assess the The following personal monitoring will be in effect on-site:
nature of the injury. If the cause of the injury or loss of the injured person
Personal exposure sampling: (describe any personal sampling programs
does not affect the performance of site personnel, operations may continue,
being carried out on site personnel; this would include use of sampling
with the on-site EMT initiating the appropriate first aid and necessary follow-
pumps, air monitors, etc.)
up as stated above. If the injury increases the risk to others, the designated
Medical monitoring: The expected air temperature will be °F. If it is
emergency signal shall be sounded and all site
determined that heat stress monitoring is required (mandatory if over 70°F),
personnel shall move to the decontamination line for further instructions.
the following procedures shall be followed:
APPENDIX E SAMPLE SITE SAFETY PLAN
Activities on-site will stop until the added risk is removed or minimized.
(describe procedures in effect, i.e., monitoring body temperature, body
Fire/Explosion: Upon notification of a fire or explosion on-site, the designated weight, pulse rate)
emergency signal shall be sounded and all site per-
sonnel assembled at the decontamination line. The fire department shall be
alerted and all personnel moved to a safe distance from the involved area.
Personal Protective Equipment Failure: if any site worker experiences a
failure or alteration of protective equipment that affects the protection factor,
that person and his/her buddy shall immediately leave the exclusion zone.
Reentry shall not be permitted until the equipment has been repaired or All site personnel have read the above plan and are familiar with its provisions.
replaced.
Site Safety Officer (name) (signature)
Other Equipment Failure: If any other equipment on-site fails to operate Project Team Leader
properly, the project team leader and site safety officer shall be notified and Other Site Personnel
then determine the effect of this failure on continuing operations on-site. If
the failure affects the safety of personnel or prevents completion of the work
plan tasks, all personnel shall leave the exclusion zone until the situation is
evaluated and appropriate actions taken.
159
Appendix F
MEDICAL OCCUPATIONAL HISTORY
Source: NIOSH Contract Reports, Hazardous Waste Project/Publication 1983–1985, Cincinnati, Ohio, Project Officer, William
F. Martin.
161
162 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
DATE OF VISIT: CONFIDENTIAL
NAME: AGE:
MEDICAL HISTORY BY ORGAN SYSTEMS (Continued)
EMPLOYER:
Gastrointestinal Blood
EMPLOYER’S ADDRESS:
Peptic ulcer ( ) yes ( ) no : Anemia ( ) yes ( ) no
EMPLOYER’S PHONE NUMBER:
Hiatus hernis ( ) yes ( ) no : Problems with blood
JOB TITLE: Hepatitis ( ) yes ( ) no : clotting/bleeding ( ) yes ( ) no
JOB DESCRIPTION: Gallbladder disease ( ) yes ( ) no : Sickle cell ( ) yes ( ) no
Liver disease/jaundice ( ) yes ( ) no : Other blood disorders ( ) yes ( ) no
Cirrhosis ( ) yes ( ) no : Specify
SEX: (F) (M) SOCIAL SECURITY NO.: Other, specify ( ) yes ( ) no :
:
YEARS OF SCHOOL COMPLETED: :
NAME/ADDRESS/PHONE NUMBER OF PERSONAL PHYSICIAN:
NAME: Skin Eye
ADDRESS:
Psoriasis ( ) yes ( ) no : Require glasses ( ) yes ( ) no
Eczema ( ) yes ( ) no : Glaucoma ( ) yes ( ) no
PHONE:
Contact dermatitis ( ) yes ( ) no : Cataracts ( ) yes ( ) no
WHEN WERE YOU LAST EXAMINED BY HIM/HER? Other allergic skin : Optic neuritis ( ) yes ( ) no
WHEN WAS YOUR CHEST X-RAY? RESULTS: reactions ( ) yes ( ) no : Eye infection(s) ( ) yes ( ) no
Specify : Other, specify ( ) yes ( ) no
:
PERSONAL MEDICAL HISTORY
List significant medical illness, and all hospitalizations in the last 5 years: Pulmonary Nervous System
ILLNESS OR CONDITION HOSPITALIZATION? APPROX. DATE OF HOSP. Pneumonia ( ) yes ( ) no : Seizure disorder ( ) yes ( ) no
a. ( ) yes ( ) no Pleurisy ( ) yes ( ) no : Stroke ( ) yes ( ) no
Asthma ( ) yes ( ) no : Peripheral neuritis ( ) yes ( ) no
b. ( ) yes ( ) no
Bronchitis ( ) yes ( ) no : Psychiatric illness ( ) yes ( ) no
c. ( ) yes ( ) no Emphysema ( ) yes ( ) no : Other nervous disorder ( ) yes ( ) no
Bronchiectasis ( ) yes ( ) no : Specify
Tuberculosis ( ) yes ( ) no :
CONFIDENTIAL Silicosis ( ) yes ( ) no :
MEDICAL HISTORY BY ORGAN SYSTEMS Asbestosis ( ) yes ( ) no :
Other, specify ( ) yes ( ) no :
Have you ever been told by a doctor that you had any of the following conditions? :
:
Cardiovascular Genitourinary
Heart murmur ( ) yes ( ) no : Nephritis ( ) yes ( ) no Ear, Nose, and Throat Musculoskeletal
Angina/chest pain ( ) yes ( ) no : Kidney disease ( ) yes ( ) no Chronic sinusitis ( ) yes ( ) no : Rheumatoid arthritis ( ) yes ( ) no
Heart attack ( ) yes ( ) no : (indicate type) Impaired hearing ( ) yes ( ) no : Other arthritis ( ) yes ( ) no
High blood pressure ( ) yes ( ) no : Urinary infection ( ) yes ( ) no Ringing in the ears ( ) yes ( ) no : Back injury ( ) yes ( ) no
Vascular disease in : Kidney/urinary Easy nasal bleeding ( ) yes ( ) no : Degenerative disc disease ( ) yes ( ) no
arms/legs ( ) yes ( ) no : bladder stones ( ) yes ( ) no Nasal allergies ( ) yes ( ) no : Sciatica/disc herniation ( ) yes ( ) no
Other, specify ( ) yes ( ) no : Blood/protein in urine ( ) yes ( ) no Tonsillectomy ( ) yes ( ) no : Bone lesions/infections ( ) yes ( ) no
: Venereal disease ( ) yes ( ) no Other, specify ( ) yes ( ) no : Other, specify ( ) yes ( ) no
: Other, specify ( ) yes ( ) no :
: :
:
CONFIDENTIAL CONFIDENTIAL
MEDICAL HISTORY BY ORGAN SYSTEMS (Continued) GENERAL HEALTH
Have you been examined or treated by any doctor
General
within the past year? ( ) yes ( ) no
Thyroid disease/goiter ( ) yes ( ) no If “yes,” for what?
Diabetes ( ) yes ( ) no
Gout ( ) yes ( ) no
Have you lost more than five pounds within the
Frequent night sweats/fever ( ) yes ( ) no
last 6 months? ( ) yes ( ) no
Hemorrhoids ( ) yes ( ) no
Hernia ( ) yes ( ) no Have you noticed any swelling or lumps in your
Specify type breast, neck, armpits, groin or elsewhere during
Cancer ( ) yes ( ) no the past year? ( ) yes ( ) no
Specify type If “yes,” specify site
Dental/gum problems ( ) yes ( ) no
Have you experienced the following signs/symptoms within the past year:
Specify type
Other, specify ( ) yes ( ) no Frequent headache/dizziness ( ) yes ( ) no
Frequent bowel problems
(constipation or diarrhea) ( ) yes ( ) no
Swelling of the lower
extremities or eyelids ( ) yes ( ) no
FAMILY HISTORY Frequent shortness of breath,
cough, or morning phlegm ( ) yes ( ) no
If any member of your family noted in the following table has had any of the stated condi-
APPENDIX F MEDICAL OCCUPATIONAL HISTORY
tions, please indicate by the appropriate code number. Indicate what you believe your health status is now:
( ) EXCELLENT ( ) GOOD ( ) FAIR ( ) POOR
CODE: Father =1 Brother/Sister = 4
Mother =2 My children = 5 CIGARETTE USE
Grandparent = 3
Check the smoking history closest to your own:
CODE NO. CONDITION : CODE NO. CONDITION ( ) Never smoked regularly
Allergy (asthma, eczema, : Hypertension ( ) Used to smoke regularly
hay fever) : Kidney disease How many years did you smoke?
Bleeding disorder : Migraine headaches How many packs per day?
Cancer or leukemia : Rheumatic heart disease How long ago did you stop?
Cirrhosis : Sickle cell disease Do you smoke now? ( ) yes ( ) no
Congenital malformation : Tuberculosis If “yes,” for how many years?
Diabetes : Other How many packs per day on the average?
Emphysema : Please specify:
Epilepsy (seizures) : Cigars/pipe:
ever smoke ( ) yes ( ) no
Is your father still living? ( ) yes ( ) no
If “no,” at what age did he die? ALCOHOL USE
What was the cause of death?
On the average, how much of each of the following do you drink per week?
Is your mother still living? ( ) yes ( ) no Beer cans
If “no,” at what age did she die? Wine glasses
What was the cause of death? Whiskey/liquor jiggers
163
164 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
CONFIDENTIAL 3.
MEDICATION
4.
Please indicate any medications you are taking, including nonprescription medications (such
as aspirin, laxatives, vitamins, etc.) 5.
6.
REPRODUCTIVE HISTORY 7.
Have you or your spouse been unable to have children? ( ) yes ( ) no
If “yes,” specify reason, if known: Do you have any hobbies (e.g., arts/crafts, gunning, furniture refinishing) or home
construction/gardening activities that may expose you to any hazards? ( ) yes ( ) no
Have you ever had any children born with a handicap or congenital
If “yes,” specify activities and kind of materials used:
malformation? ( ) yes ( ) no
If “yes,” specify:
FOR PHYSICIAN’S USE ONLY
ALLERGIES
Physician’s summary and elaboration of all pertinent data. (Physician shall comment on
Are you allergic to anything that you know of? ( ) yes ( ) no
all positive answers. Physician may develop by interview any additional medical history
If “yes,” specify:
deemed important, and record any significant findings here.)
OCCUPATIONAL HISTORY
How long have you been in present job? years months
Indicate any job-related illness or injuries you have experienced since working in present
job:
Indicate any substance(s) that you work with that you consider hazardous:
Do you wear protective clothing on the job?
Have you had any problems wearing or using a respirator?
List all your previous jobs, beginning with the one you had immediately prior to your
present job. Please indicate the dates of employment as well as any hazardous exposures:
JOB DATES EXPOSURES
1.
2. Typed or printed name of physician
Signature Date
Appendix G
HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE DATA SHEET
Under “Name of Substance,” list both the common name and Part II is a compilation of five types of hazardous char-
the name approved by the International Union for Pure and acteristics. In the far right column labeled “source,” enter the
Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). Enter both because it may be reference from which the information was obtained. Section
necessary to look up information under different names. If a A lists toxicological hazards:
compound has more than one common name, list all syn-
onyms. Write the chemical formula after the name because
• Inhalation. Under “Concentrations,” enter the threshold
limit value (TLV) concentration (or any other pertinent
some references index chemicals by their formulas.
value—PEL, IDLH, etc.). This is important for selecting
Part I lists the physical and chemical properties of the
levels of protection for workers who will be in the area.
compound. In the far right column labeled “Source,” enter the
reference from which the information was obtained. In this • Ingestion. Enter the type of test (e.g., LD50) and the toxic-
way, if the information is later found to be incorrect or con- ity level in milligrams per kilogram of body weight (mg/kg).
flicting, it may be corrected. It also makes it easier to refer • Skin/eye absorption and contact. Determine from the refer-
back to a particular source if additional information is needed. ences whether these hazards exist.
The following properties are included in the data sheet:
• Carcinogenic, teratogenic, and mutagenic. It is difficult
to obtain concentration data on these hazards, since very
• Normal physical state. Check the appropriate space for the little is known about the mechanisms that cause these
physical state of the chemical at normal ambient tempera-
effects.
tures (20°C to 25°C).
• Aquatic. Expressed in ppm for a particular species.
• Molecular weight. Express in grams per gram-mole (g/g-
mole). Neutralization or any other chemical treatment • Other. Enter an IDLH concentration or any other pertinent
requires an estimate of the number of moles of chemical miscellaneous information.
present. Section B contains fire hazard data:
• Density and specific gravity. Only one is required. Density • Combustibility. Applies to any compound that can
is expressed in grams per milliliter (g/ml); specific gravity is be oxidied in air. Almost every organic compound is
dimensionless. Indicate the temperature at which specific combustible.
gravity is measured and circle the appropriate letter corre-
sponding to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) or Celsius (°C). • Toxic by-products. If the compound is combustible, enter yes,
because all combustion processes yield some carbon
• Solubility (water). Expressed in parts per million (ppm) or monoxide. List the particular toxic by-products in the spaces
milligrams per liter (mg/L) (1 ppm = 1 mg/L). Solubility is below.
temperature dependent.
• Flammability/explosiveness limits. Expressed as a percent-
• Solubility. Enter any other material for which solubility age by volume in air. Usually flammable limits and explo-
data are needed. For instance, recovering a spilled material sive limits are synonymous.
by solvent extraction may require solubility data for an
organic compound. Section C contains reactivity data:
• Boiling point. Expressed in °F or °C, it is the temperature • Reactivity hazard. If the material is reactive, indicate the
at which the vapor pressure of the compound equals atmo- substances that are incompatible with the material.
spheric pressure (760 millimeters of mercury at sea level). Section D contains corrosivity data:
The boiling point is raised if any impurities are present.
• pH. Some references give the pH of an aqueous solution at
• Melting point. Expressed in °F or °C, it is equivalent to the a given concentration. For example, the pH of a 0.5% solu-
freezing point. The melting point is lowered if any impuri- tion of sodium hydroxide is 13. There is also space for listing
ties are present. the types of materials known to be corroded by the com-
pound in question.
• Vapor pressure. Expressed in millimeters of mercury or
atmospheres at a given temperature. The vapor pressure is • Neutralizing agent. Some references list neutralizing mate-
strongly temperature dependent. rials that bring the pH of the affected area to neutral
(pH = 7).
• Vapor density. A dimensionless quantity expressed relative
to air. Section E contains radioactivity data:
• Flash point. Expressed in °F or °C. Indicate whether the • Background. List a background level. Background is usually
figure is based on an open-cup or closed-cup test. on the order of 0.01 milliroentgens per hour (mR/hr).
• Other. Enter any miscellaneous data, such as biochemical • Alpha, beta, gamma. Exposure rates on some elements may
oxygen demand, autoignition temperature, or odor thresh- be found in the Radiological Health Handbook (U.S.
old concentrations. Department of Health and Human Services, H.D.).
165
166 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
Parts III, IV, and V describe the specific incident and rec- Part V, recommended site control, covers the establishment of
ommend safety measures. Sometimes parts of these sections the following:
will be left blank because of a lack of accurate information.
Enter available incident information as promptly as possible • hot line
so that mitigation measures can be taken. Part III describes
• decontamination line
the incident:
• command post
• Quantity involved. Usually express in barrels, gallons, or • exclusion zone
liters for a liquid and kilograms or pounds for a solid.
• contamination reduction zone
• Release information. Indicate whether the container is still
leaking and the rate of discharge, if known. • support zone
• Monitoring/sampling recommended. Indicate what type of An example of the documentation needed to complete
monitoring should be initiated to characterize an incident
a hazardous substance data sheet also is shown, in this case
completely and whether on-site samples are necessary.
for benzene. Nine sources of information were used in this
Part IV covers recommended protection: example:
• Worker. Decide on levels of protection for response per- ACGIH Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values (TLV)
sonnel based on the chemical, physical, and toxicological
properties of the materials in question. The OHM/TADS CHRIS, Volume 2
reference segment 108, “Personal Safety Precautions,” aids Condensed Chemical Dictionary by G. Hawley
in this decision.
Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials by N.I. Sax
• Public. Based on the data in Parts I, II, and III and on the Department of Labor Industry Safety Data Sheets
proximity of the incident to populated areas, make an initial
public hazard evaluation. The Oil and Hazardous Materi- DoT 1989 Emergency Response Guidebook
als/Technical Assistance Data System (OHM/TADS) refer- The Merck Index
ence segment 111, “Degree of Hazard to Public Health,” is
helpful in recommending action to protect public health. NIOSH/OSHA Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
OHM/TADS is an EPA database. OHM/TADS
SAMPLE HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE DATA SHEET SAMPLE HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE DATA SHEET
NAME OF SUBSTANCE: C. REACTIVITY HAZARD HAZARD CONCENTRATIONS SOURCE
COMMON CHEMICAL Yes No
Yes No
I. PHYSICAL/CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
D. CORROSIVITY HAZARD HAZARD CONCENTRATIONS SOURCE
SOURCE
Normal physical state: Gas Liquid Solid pH Yes No
Molecular weight Neutralizing agent:
Density g/ml
Specific gravity @ °F/°C
Solubility: water @ °F/°C
E. RADIOACTIVE HAZARD HAZARD EXPOSURE RATE SOURCE
Solubility: @ °F/°C
Boiling point @ °F/°C Background Yes No
Melting point @ °F/°C Alpha particles Yes No
Vapor pressure mmHg @ °F/°C Beta particles Yes No
Vapor density @ °F/°C Gamma radiation Yes No
Flash point @ °F/°C
Other: III. DESCRIPTION OF INCIDENT:
Quantity involved
II. HAZARDOUS CHARACTERISTICS Release information
A. TOXICOLOGICAL HAZARD HAZARD CONCENTRATIONS SOURCE
Monitoring/sampling recommended
APPENDIX G
Inhalation Yes No
Ingestion Yes No
IV. RECOMMENDED PROTECTION:
Skin/eye absorption Yes No
Skin/eye contact Yes No Worker
Carcinogenic Yes No
Teratogenic Yes No Public
Mutagenic Yes No
Aquatic Yes No
HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE DATA SHEET
V. RECOMMENDED SITE CONTROL:
Other: Yes No
Hot line
B. FIRE HAZARD HAZARD CONCENTRATIONS SOURCE
Combustibility Yes No Decontamination line
Toxic by-products: Yes No
Command post location
Flammability: Yes No
LFL
UFL
Explosiveness: Yes No
LEL
UEL
167
Appendix H
CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
RECOMMENDATIONS
In this appendix, chemical protective clothing (CPC) recom- unnoted, since there can be significant differences in pro-
mendations for chemical classes are presented. The chemicals duct quality among vendors. This is a compromise that was
have been grouped into generic families (acids, amines, etc.), accepted and recognized in summary compilations. In general,
and general recommendations are made for each family that however, a given material will exhibit the same performance
is represented by more than one chemical having CPC per- relative to another material independent of whether the mate-
formance information for a given material. The recommen- rials are free of films or coatings and independent of source.
dations are contained in three tables. This information is For example, if a butyl rubber glove is more resistant to a
extracted from Guidelines for the Selection of Chemical Pro- given chemical than a nitrile rubber glove, it is highly likely
tective Clothing prepared by Arthur D. Little, Inc., for the that butyl rubber gloves and clothing in both supported and
U. S. Environmental Agency and Los Alamos National unsupported form will be better barriers to that chemical than
Laboratory, March 1983. their nitrile counterparts. In other words, differences in per-
formance between products of a given material will probably
SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS be small compared to performance differences between cate-
gories of materials. In using the tables, remember that their
CHEMICALS purpose is to provide a starting point for CPC selection. Selec-
CPC recommendations have been developed for approxi- tion based on the tables’ recommendations does not guaran-
mately 300 chemicals and fourteen clothing materials. The tee protection, since in no way do they take into account key
chemicals are the liquids included in the Clean Water Act issues such as the application of the CPC or quality differences
(CWA) Sections 311 and 307a, the Clean Air Act (CAA) among CPC products.
Section 112, and the Resource Conservation and Recovery
Act (RCRA) Sections P, U, F, and K. Also included are PERFORMANCE INFORMATION
any other chemicals (principally liquids but including some The information on which the recommendations are based is
gases) for which CPC vendors’ recommendations or technical from three sources:
reports of permeation test results were available. Vendors’
recommendations or permeation data were not available for
all the liquids addressed in the aforementioned acts. Approx- • CPC vendors’ chemical resistance charts, which are often
included in the product catalogs. The ratings in the charts
imately 40% of the chemicals are included in OSHA Direc-
of approximately thirty venders (including the five largest
tive Subpart 2—Toxic and Hazardous Substances, 29 CFR
manufacturers of CPC) were tabulated and reviewed by
1910.1000, Tables Z-1 and Z-2. Note that except for the
chemical and material classes. In total, more than 6000 indi-
aqueous solutions, all liquids are single components; multi-
vidual ratings were included in the tabulation.
component organic solutions are not addressed.
CPC recommendations are not given for all materials in • CPC raw materials suppliers’ chemical resistance charts.
all classes. The criterion for being given a recommendation is
that the class must contain more than one chemical with a • The technical literature that addresses chemical resistance
and permeation testing of CPC materials and products. In
CPC recommendation for the material of concern. In many
all, more than 2000 individual test results (such as break-
cases, there was considerable variability among the recom-
through time, permeation rate, and percent weight change)
mendations for chemicals within a class; these are indicated
were tabulated.
by double asterisks (**) in Table H.3.
The vendors use a variety of rating scales. Some have
MATERIALS
three grades, most have four grades, and a few have five or six
The fourteen principal materials from which CPC is fabricated grades. To compare ratings, a normalized four-grade system
are listed across the top of Table H.3. A general characteriza- (A, B, C, D) was developed. Briefly, products with the highest
tion of several of the physical properties of the materials is rating in a four- or three-grade system or the highest two
presented in Table H.1. ratings in a six-grade system were given a normalized rating
The fourteen categories were reduced from the approxi- of A. A normalized rating of B was given to the next highest
mately 100 types and forms of clothing materials available vendor ranking, which was generally called “good” but in
and represent the materials of construction for well over 90% some three-grade systems was called “fair.” A normalized
of the CPC considered in the Guidelines for the Selection of rating of C was given to the third highest vendor ranking,
Chemical Protective Clothing. By grouping several types and except in the three-grade systems. Typically, vendors called
forms of clothing into one category, it is likely that in some this ranking “fair.” Finally, all vendor rankings of “poor” and
cases particularly good or particularly poor items have gone “not recommended” were given a normalized rating of D.
169
TABLE H.1 Physical Characteristics of CPC Materials
Abrasion Cut Heat Ozone Puncture Tear Relative
Material Designation by Material Resistance Resistance Flexibility Resistance Resistance Resistance Resistance Cost
Butyl rubber (Butyl) F G G E E G G High
Natural rubber (Nat. Rub.) E E E F P E E Medium
Neoprene (Neop.) E E G G E G G High
Neoprene/styrene-butadiene rubber (Neop./SBR) G G G G G G G Medium
Neoprene/natural rubber (Nep./Nat. Rub.) E E E G G G G Medium
Nitrile rubber (Nitrile) E E E G F E G High
Nitrile rubber/polyvinyl chloride (Nitrile/PVC) G G G F E G G Medium
Polyethylene (PE) F F G F F P F Low
Chlorinated polyethylene (CPE) E G G G E G G Low
Polyurethane (PU) E G E G G G G High
Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) F F P G E F G Medium
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) G P G P E G G Low
Styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) E G G G F F F Low
Viton G G F G E G G Very high
Ratings are subject to variation depending on formulation, thickness, and whether the material is supported by fabric.
E = excellent; G = good; F = fair; P = poor.
APPENDIX H CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING RECOMMENDATIONS 171
TABLE H.2 Description of Criteria for Recommendations
Character Performance Data Vendor Recommendations
RR Breakthrough times greater than 1 hour reported A or B ratings from three or more (apparently
by (normally) two or more testers independent) vendors
R None Same as RR
rr Some data suggesting breakthrough times of A or B ratings from fewer than three vendors; no
approximately 1 hour or more Cs or Ds [sup]*
B or C ratings—with Bs predominating—from
several vendors
r None Same as rr
NN Breakthrough times less (usually significantly C or D ratings from three or more (apparently
less) than 1 hour reported by (normally) two independent) vendors
or more testers
N None Same as NN
nn Some data (usually high solubilities) suggesting C or D ratings from fewer than three vendors
breakthrough times of 1 hour are not likely B or C ratings—with Cs predominating—from
several vendors
n None Same as nn
*Products of some materials (e.g., CPE and Vitron) are manufactured and rated by only one or two vendors.
RECOMMENDATIONS are conservative in that they reflect a cautious attitude toward
CPC selection.
The recommendations in the tables resulted from a compre- During the selection and eventual use of the CPC rec-
hensive analysis of all the available information. Briefly, a ommended in Table H.3, it is important to remember the
computerized database of the information was developed. following:
No attempt was made to validate any of the data before they
were input. In a sense, there was a self-validation of the data,
since the recommendation scale used in the tables takes into • The recommendations are based on the best information
available. In some cases, this information is very limited.
account the number of independent information sources that
The recommendations are a guide, not a guarantee.
will in total either substantiate or throw into question indi-
vidual performance claims. This is discussed in the next para- • The recommendations probably do not hold for extreme
graph and becomes evident from review of Table H.2. The conditions (e.g., high and low temperatures, long-term
database was organized such that any available information contact, high abrasion), nor do they consider the problems
for a particular chemical and a particular clothing material associated with reuse.
could be retrieved in the form of a single printed report. The
report was analyzed, and a recommendation was developed.
• Certain products in each category may be better or
poorer than the norm. Also, the quality of construction
No recommendation was made for a chemical–material pair
of even the better products can vary from batch to
for which there was no information.
batch. In their present form, the recommendations do not
There are eight grades of recommendations. Each is
address quality issues. The assessment of quality and
designed to represent a particular combination of perfor-
uniformity of quality can best be gained through field
mance, the number of sources substantiating that perfor-
experience.
mance, and the consistency of the information.This is reflected
by the number and size of the letters that indicate the recom- • The double-letter recommendations are based primarily on
mendation. The criteria and explanations for the recommen- breakthrough-time data. Permeation-rate data were given
dations are summarized in Table H.2. In all cases of only secondary consideration.
inconsistencies between test results and manufacturers’ rec-
ommendation information, the test results were more influ- The recommendations may be modified as additional perfor-
ential in forming the recommendation. All recommendations mance information becomes available from the EPA.
TABLE H.3 CPC Recommendations by Chemical Class
Neop./
Nat. Neop./ Nat. Nitrile/
Butyl Rub. Neop. SBR Rub. Nitrile PVC PE CPE PU PVA PVC SBR Viton
Acids, carboxylic—aliphatic and alicyclic
Unsubstituted R ** RR r r RR rr r r n RR ** r
Polybasic ** RR RR RR r r n RR r
Aldehydes
Aliphatic R ** ** ** ** r ** r n rr r n
Aromatic and heterocyclic r ** ** n ** N n r ** n rr N nn
Amides, carboxylic—aliphatic rr NN NN N ** nn nn
N
Amines—aliphatic and alicyclic r ** rr RR r r NN r rr rr **
Primary * n n ** ** ** nn r ** ** ** **
Secondary r rr R r r RR rr r rr RR nr
Tertiary
Esters, carboxylic
Aliphatic
Acetates ** NN NN n ** NN n ** ** r RR NN n n
Higher monobasic r NN N
Aromatic—phthalates ** ** RR r RR ** ** **
Esters—aliphatic rr nn ** ** RR RR NN **
Halogen compounds
Aliphatic
Unsubstituted nn NN NN n NN NN n NN NN nn ** NN n RR
Substituted ** ** ** ** NN nn nn ** NN
Aromatic
Unsubstituted n N N ** r NN ** N
Substituted rr RR rr NN rr
Polynuclear ** N ** ** RR N
Heterocyclic compounds
Epoxy compounds rr n ** nn ** ** ** nn NN n n
Furan derivatives n ** ** NN n nn nn n ** NN n
Hydrazines ** ** ** ** ** ** **
Hydrocarbons
Aliphatic and alicyclic NN NN RR n NN RR n nn r R RR NN n RR
Aromatic NN NN * n NN * n nn * * RR NN * RR
Hydroxyl compounds
Aliphatic and alicyclic
Primary RR ** RR ** RR r r r r ** ** ** rr
Secondary ** RR RR RR r r r r RR RR r
Polyols rr RR RR ** **
Aromatic rr ** RR ** ** ** ** r ** NN ** **
Inorganic gases r n R n rr ** **
Inorganic salts rr
Inorganic acids ** ** ** n ** ** ** rr ** nr nr ** ** rr
Inorganic bases NBR(r) R RR RR r RR r r r r nr RR r **
Ketones, aliphatic rr NN NN n NN n ** n ** ** NN r NN
Nitriles, aliphatic ** r
Nitro—unsubstituted ** NN ** NN nn nn RR nn nn
Organophosphorous compounds rr ** rr ** **
Peroxides r ** RR RR r RR r
Vinyl halides **
Class recommendations only for chemical classes in which two or more chemicals have recommendations for a given material.
**Indicate a wide variation in ratings within the class for the given material. In these cases refer to Matrix A.
See Table H.2 for definitions of R, RR, n, NN, r, rr, etc.
Appendix I
DECONTAMINATION PROCEDURES FOR THREE TYPICAL
LEVELS OF PROTECTION
LEVEL A DECONTAMINATION: A WORST-CASE • container (30 to 50 gallon)
DECONTAMINATION PROTOCOL
• high-pressure spray unit and splash guard
EQUIPMENT WORN • water
This decontamination procedure is for workers wearing the • two or three long-handled, soft-bristled scrub brushes
following protective clothing and equipment:
Stations 4: Tape Removal Remove tape around boots
• fully encapsulating suit with integral boots and gloves and gloves and deposit it in a container with a plastic liner.
Equipment needed:
• self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA)
• hard hat (optional) • container (20 to 30 gallon)
• chemical-resistant boots with steel toe and shank • plastic liners
• boot covers
Station 5: Boot Cover Removal Remove boot covers
• inner and outer gloves and deposit them in a container with a plastic liner. Equip-
• taped joints between gloves, boots, and suit ment needed:
• container (30 to 50 gallon)
DECONTAMINATION PROCEDURES
• plastic liners
Decontamination of this level of protection is performed at
nineteen separate stations. • bench or stool
Station 1: Segregated Equipment Drop Deposit equip- Station 6: Outer Glove Removal Remove outer gloves
ment used on the site (tools, sampling devices and containers, and deposit them in a container with a plastic liner. Equip-
monitoring instruments, radios, clipboards, etc.) on plastic ment needed:
drop cloths or in different containers with plastic liners. Each
piece of equipment may be contaminated to a different • container (20 to 30 gallon)
degree; therefore, segregation at the drop reduces the poten- • plastic liners
tial for contamination. Equipment needed:
Station 7: Suit and Safety Boot Wash If design does not
• containers of various sizes include Station 2, suits will be washed at this station. Thor-
oughly wash suit and boots. Scrub them with a long-handled,
• plastic liners
soft-bristled scrub brush and copious amounts of decontami-
• plastic drop cloths nation solution or detergent-water solution. Repeat as many
times as necessary. Equipment needed:
Station 2: Suit, Boot Covers, and Glove Wash Thor-
oughly wash and scrub fully encapsulating suit, outer boot • container (30 to 50 gallon)
covers, and gloves with a decontamination solution or
• decontamination solution
detergent-water solution. Equipment needed:
• detergent-water solution
• container (20 to 30 gallon) • two or three long-handled, soft-bristled scrub brushes
• decontamination solution
Station 8: Suit and Safety Boot Rinse If design does
• detergent-water solution not include Station 3, suits will be rinsed at this station. Rinse
• two or three long-handled, soft-bristled scrub brushes off the decontamination or detergent-water solution using
copious amounts of water. Repeat as many times as necessary.
Station 3: Suit, Boot Covers, and Glove Rinse Rinse Equipment needed:
off the decontamination solution from Station 2 using copious
amounts of water. Repeat as many times as necessary. Equip- • container (30 to 50 gallon)
ment needed: • high-pressure spray unit
175
176 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
• water • container (30 to 50 gallon)
• two or three long-handled, soft-bristled scrub brushes • plastic liners
Station 9: Tank Change If a worker leaves the exclu- Station 16: Inner Glove Removal Remove inner gloves
sion zone to change her air tank, this is the last step in the and deposit them in a container with a plastic liner. Equip-
decontamination procedure. She exchanges the tank, dons ment needed:
new outer gloves and boots, and has the joints taped. She then
returns to duty. Equipment needed: • container (20 to 30 gallon)
• plastic liners
• air tanks
• tape Station 17: Inner Clothing Removal Remove inner
clothing. Place it in a container with a plastic liner. Do not
• boot covers
wear inner clothing off the site, since small amounts of con-
• gloves taminants may have been transferred in removing fully encap-
sulating suit. Equipment needed:
Station 10: Safety Boot Removal Remove safety boots
and deposit them in a container with a plastic liner. Equip- • container (30 to 50 gallon)
ment needed:
• plastic liners
• container (30 to 50 gallon)
Station 18: Field Wash Shower if highly toxic, skin-
• plastic liners corrosive, or skin-absorbable materials are known or sus-
• bench or stool pected to be present. Wash hands and face if shower is not
available. Equipment needed:
• bootjack
Station 11: Fully Encapsulating Suit and Hard Hat • water
Removal With the assistance of a helper, remove fully • soap
encapsulating suit and hard hat. Hang the suit on a rack or lay
• small table
it out on drop cloths. Equipment needed:
• basin or bucket
• rack • field showers
• drop cloths • towels
• bench or stools
Station 19: Redress Put on clean clothes. A dressing
Station 12: SCBA Backpack Removal While still trailer is needed in inclement weather. Equipment needed:
wearing face piece, remove backpack and place it on the table.
Disconnect hose from regulator valve and proceed to next • table
station. Equipment needed: table. • chairs
Station 13: Inner Glove Wash Wash with decontami-
• lockers
nation solution or detergent-water solution that will not harm • clothes
skin. Repeat as many times as necessary. Equipment needed:
LEVEL A DECONTAMINATION (SITUATION 1)
• basin or bucket AND THREE MODIFICATIONS
• decontamination solution The preceding description outlines each station included in a
complete worst-case decontamination protocol. Different
• detergent-water solution sites will present different hazard levels. Thus, at each indi-
• small table vidual site, this protocol must be modified accordingly. Table
I.1 illustrates the modifications that can be made in response
Station 14: Inner Glove Rinse Rinse with water. to a variety of conditions.
Repeat as many times as necessary. Equipment needed:
LEVEL B DECONTAMINATION
• water
EQUIPMENT WORN
• basin or bucket
This decontamination procedure is for workers wearing the
• small table
following protective clothing and equipment:
Station 15: Face Piece Removal Remove face piece.
Deposit it in a container with a plastic liner. Avoid touching • one-piece, hooded chemical-resistant splash suit
face with fingers. Equipment needed: • SCBA
APPENDIX I DECONTAMINATION PROCEDURES FOR THREE TYPICAL LEVELS OF PROTECTION 177
TABLE I.1 Typical Modifications to the Decontamination Protocol
Station Number
Situation Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
1 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
2 X X X X X X X X X
3 X X X X X X X X X X
4 X X X X
Situation 1 = The individual entering the CRZ is observed to be grossly contaminated, or extremely toxic
substances are known or suspected to be present.
Situation 2 = Same as Situation 1 except that the individual needs a new air tank and will return to the exclusion
zone.
Situation 3 = The individual entering the CRZ is expected to be minimally contaminated. Extremely toxic or
skin-corrosive materials are not present. No outer gloves or boot covers are worn. Inner gloves are not contaminated.
Situation 4 = Same as Situation 3 except that the individual needs a new air tank and will return to the exclusion
zone.
• hard hat • water
• chemical-resistant boots with steel toe and shank • small buckets
• boot covers • two or three long-handled, soft-bristled scrub brushes
• inner and outer gloves • sponges or cloths
• taped joints between gloves, boots, and suit
Stations 9 and 10 These stations are exactly the same
DECONTAMINATION PROCEDURES for Level B decontamination as for Level A decontamination.
Stations 1 through 6 These stations are exactly the Station 11: SCBA Backpack Removal While still
same for Level B contamination as for Level A decontamina- wearing face piece, remove backpack and place it on a table.
tion. Disconnect hose from regulator valve and proceed to net
station. Equipment needed: table.
Station 7: Suit, SCBA, Boot, and Glove Wash If design
does not include Station 2, wash suit at this station. Thor- Station 12: Splash Suit Removal With assistance,
oughly wash suit, SCBA, boots, and gloves with a long- remove splash suit. Deposit it in a container with a plastic
handled, soft-bristled scrub brush and copious amounts of liner. Equipment needed:
decontamination solution or detergent-water solution. Wrap
SCBA regulator (if belt-mounted type) with plastic to keep • container (30 to 50 gallon)
out water. Wash backpack assembly with sponges or cloth. • plastic liners
Equipment needed:
• bench or stool
• container (30 to 50 gallon)
Stations 13 through 19 These stations are exactly
• decontamination solution the same for Level B decontamination as for Level A
• detergent-water solution decontamination.
• two or three long-handled, soft-bristled scrub brushes
LEVEL C DECONTAMINATION
• small buckets
EQUIPMENT WORN
• sponges or cloths
The decontamination procedure outlined is for workers
Station 8: Suit, SCBA, Boot, and Glove Rinse If design wearing the following protective clothing and equipment:
does not include Station 3, rinse suit at this station. Rinse off
the decontamination solution or detergent-water solution • one-piece, hooded chemical-resistant splash suit
using copious amounts of water. Repeat as many times as • canister-equipped full face mask
necessary. Equipment needed:
• hard hat
• container (30 to 50 gallon) • chemical-resistant boots with steel toe and shank
• high-pressure spray unit and splash guard • boot covers
178 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
• inner and outer gloves Station 10 This station is exactly the same for Level C
decontamination as for Level B decontamination.
• taped joints between gloves, boots, and suit
Stations 11 through 18 These stations are exactly the
DECONTAMINATION PROCEDURES
same for Level C decontamination as Stations 12 through 19
Stations 1 through 8 These stations are exactly the for Level B decontamination.
same for Level C decontamination as for Level B decontam-
ination. BIBLIOGRAPHY
U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). Policy Guidance for Response
Station 9: Canister or Mask Change If the worker
to Hazardous Chemical Releases. USCG Pollution
leaves the exclusion zone to change his canister or mask, this
Response COMDTINST-M16465.30. Washington, DC:
is the last step in the decontamination procedure. He
USCG, 1984.
exchanges his canister or mask, dons new outer glove and boot
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Office of Emergency
covers, and has joints taped. He then returns to duty. Equip-
and Remedial Response. Hazard Response Support
ment needed:
Division. Standard Operating Safety Guides. Washington,
DC: EPA, November 1984.
• canisters or masks
• tape
• boot covers
• gloves
Appendix J
HEALTH AND SAFETY CHECKLIST
This checklist is provided to assist hazardous waste site super- HAZARD EVALUATION
visors, federal and state inspectors, and industry planners iden-
tify, evaluate, and control site hazards, ensure proper worker This section provides a guide to assessing the potential risk of
protection, and identify potential health and safety problems. exposure to chemical, physical, and biological hazards and
It can be used for active disposal sites, abandoned sites under- unsafe conditions at hazardous waste sites. Safety hazards,
going remedial action, and emergency response operations. which are often classified as physical hazards, are treated sep-
The checklist is divided into three sections: (1) hazard arately under the subsection “Evaluation of Safety Hazards.”
recognition, (2) hazard evaluation, and (3) hazard control and
worker protection. Individual checklists on specific subjects HAZARD CONTROL AND WORKER PROTECTION
are grouped under the appropriate heading. Hazard control and worker protection at waste sites entail
Although this checklist is intended primarily for individ- providing trained, healthy workers with the proper protective
uals with training and experience in health- and safety-related equipment and ensuring that their environment is secure and
fields, two footnotes have been added for less-experienced monitored.
users. These are designed to draw attention to potential prob-
lems, indicated by an asterisk (*) or an exclamation point (!) AUDIT OF INFORMATION SOURCES
placed in a response box. The asterisk indicates a potentially
serious health or safety problem that must be addressed but Before conducting site investigations or environmental sam-
does not present an immediate hazard. The exclamation point pling, the investigator should audit the existing site informa-
indicates a serious health or safety problem that requires tion and sources of information. Such an information audit
immediate corrective action. will help to ascertain the presence of hazardous materials and
to determine the origin of many of the waste materials. It also
HAZARD RECOGNITION will help to familiarize the investigator with the physical char-
acteristics of the site. The checklist on the following pages is
Hazard recognition involves the identification of the potential designed to promote a comprehensive review of information
for human exposure to dangerous chemical, physical, or bio- sources and to identify those data that are needed for an ade-
logical agents. Data from both off-site reconnaissance and on- quate assessment of waste site hazards. Proper consideration
site surveys are used to establish the degree of hazard present of existing information at a given site will avoid unnecessary
at a site. and costly duplication of data collection efforts.
179
180 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
HEALTH AND SAFETY CHECKLIST (5) Have the following local nongovernmental sources
of information been investigated?
Response
Question Yes No • Utility companies (to inquire about existing
electric, telephone, or gas lines; sewers;
(1) Are any of the following site records available? water pipes, etc.)
• Waste storage inventories and operating records • Local hospitals
• Manifests or shipping papers • Local businessperson’s groups
• Receipts, logbooks, or other business ledgers • News media
(2) If available, have they been received for information • Court records
on the presence of hazardous waste materials?
• Neighbors
(3) Have waste generators been contacted for additional
information? (6) Have interviews been conducted with former and
current employees?
(4) Have available records from the following federal,
state, and local sources been reviewed? Types of Information
• Pollution control agencies (7) Have past or present inquiries into the following
information characterized the topographical and
• State Attorney General geological aspects of the site?
• State Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) • Soil surveys
agencies
• USGS maps or other topographic maps
• State fire marshal
• USGS reports
• Workers’ Compensation agencies
• Geologic maps
• County Commissioner’s Office
• Site construction documents
• Local government officials
• Historical and recent aerial photos
• Police departments
• Electromagnetic conductivity
• Ground-penetrating radar
(8) Has the above information been reviewed to INITIAL SITE INSPECTION
determine:
The twofold purpose of an initial site inspection is to verify and to
supplement the information obtained from the audit. The inspection may
• All possible contaminant flow routes? generate additional data through a combination of observations and environ-
mental sampling. This initial site inspection checklist will serve as a guide for
• Location of any streams or ponds? considering key features of the waste site that might represent a hazardous or
unsafe situation.
• Approximate depth of local aquifer and
location?
Response
Question Yes No
• Type of surface material and bedrock?
(11) Can the physical state (i.e., solid, liquid, gaseous) of
• Depth to bedrock? some or all of the wastes be determined visually
during a walk-through?
(9) Have data published by the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) been
(12) How are the wastes contained?
consulted to determine the following meteorological
conditions?
• Paper or wood packages
• Wind direction
• Metal barrels
• Precipitation
• Plastic barrels
APPENDIX J
• Temperature profile
• Underground tanks
(10) Have aerial photographs (historical and recent) been
compared for: • Aboveground tanks
• Compressed gas cylinders
• Disappearance of natural depressions, quarries,
HEALTH AND SAFETY CHECKLIST
or borrow pits?
• Open pits
• Variation in reforestation of disturbed areas?
• Other
• Mounting in disturbed areas or paved surfaces? (13) In general, what is the condition of waste containers?
• Changes in vegetation around buildings? • Sound (undamaged)
• Modifications of grade? • Visibly rusted or corroded (damaged but not
leaking)
• Any alteration of topographic features?
• Leaking
• Appearance and disappearance of traffic patterns?
181
182 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLING • Disease-carrying vectors, i.e., rats, mice, insects,
The environment at the hazardous waste site may be sampled many times etc.?
during inspection, cleanup, or work activities. Sampling is also a necessary part of
hazard recognition and evaluation. This checklist for environmental sampling is • Concentrations of combustible or explosive gases?
not to be considered definitive in any reasonable sense; rather it is designed to
prompt the user to consider major areas of concern. (16) Have any of the following remote sensing or
subsurface investigative methods been used to screen
Response for buried wastes or contaminant plumes?
Question Yes No
• Electromagnetic conductivity
(14) Have the following environmental media been sampled?
• Magnetometry
• Air
• Metal detection
On-site
Off-site (around perimeter of site) • Ground-penetrating radar
• Topsoil • Comparison of historic and recent aerial photos
• Deep soil (core sampling) EVALUATION OF CHEMICAL HAZARDS
The potential for serious exposure to toxic chemicals is a persistent problem
• Groundwater
associated with hazardous waste handling and disposal. An evaluation of this
Upgradient of site potential is necessary to avert or prevent serious health problems. This section of
Beneath site the checklist provides the user with only a general overview for evaluating
Downgradient of site chemical hazards. Because the assessment of chemical hazards is a serious and
often complex problem, it is recommended that the National Institute for
• Surface water Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Data Book on Chemical Hazards be
used to supplement this checklist.
• Waste contaminants
Surface impoundments/lagoons Response
Tanks Question Yes No
Drums
Gas cylinders (17) Has the ambient air within the contamination,
decontamination, and clean zones been sampled for
(15) Has the environment been adequately sampled concentrations of toxic substances? *
(or monitored) to identify sources of:
• Ionizing radiation, i.e., X-rays, radioisotopes,
etc.?
• Biological or pathological hazards, i.e., hospital
wastes?
(18) Have the measured concentrations exceeded the (24) Is the radiation level at or above 10.0 millirems
following limits? per hour (mR/h)? *
• Levels “immediately dangerous to life and health” If the answer is “no,” see Question 25.
(IDLH) !
(25) Is the radiation level significantly above (20¥)
• Threshold limit values (TLVs)–both 8-hour background (normal background is 0.02 mR/h)? !
time-weighted averages (TWAs) and short-
term exposure levels (STELs)? * If the answer is “yes,” see Question 26.
• OSHA Permissible Exposure Levels (PELs)? * (26) Has a complete detailed radiation survey
been conducted? *
(19) Has the ambient air within the areas planned for use
as contamination, decontamination, and clean zones (27) Do site conditions predispose workers to heat
been sampled for concentrations of explosive or cold stress? *
substances? *
EVALUATION OF BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS
(20) Do the measured concentrations approach or
The checklist for evaluating biological hazards is designed to assure that the
exceed the lower explosive limits (LELs) of the
user considers the potential for exposure to biological agents at hazardous waste
substance(s)? *
sites. The questions primarily address the disease potential at a given time.
(21) Have any severe skin irritants been identified on
Response
the site?
APPENDIX J
Question Yes No
(22) Have any contaminants that are highly toxic via
(28) Did the information audit or initial on-site inspection
dermal absorption been identified?
reveal the presence of pathological wastes? *
EVALUATION OF PHYSICAL HAZARDS
(29) Has the site been sampled for pathological agents? *
HEALTH AND SAFETY CHECKLIST
Exposure to physical hazards is a potential problem at many hazardous
waste sites. An evaluation of this potential is necessary to avert or prevent serious (30) If pathological wastes have been identified on site,
exposure to at least two harmful agents: ionizing radiation and extremes of heat have the potential hazards associated with these
and cold. This section of the checklist briefly reviews the potential hazard for such wastes been investigated and documented? *
exposures. Further information on these and other physical agents can be
obtained from the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (31) Have potential disease and/or contaminant-carrying
(ACGIHP) document, “Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and vectors (rats, mice, bats, mosquitoes, etc.) been
Physical Agents in the Work Environment.” (Note: Safety hazards, which are identified?
often classified as physical hazards, are treated under a separate subsection
entitled “Evaluation of Safety Hazards.”) (32) Have potential dermatitis agents (poison ivy, poison
oak, poison sumac, etc.) been identified?
Response
Question Yes No
(33) If biological agents are present, have any steps been
taken to eliminate or negate the potential hazards? *
(23) Has the level of ionizing radiation been determined
for the planned work zones? *
183
If the answer is “yes,” see Question 24.
184 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
EVALUATION OF SAFETY HAZARDS ADMINISTRATIVE CONTROL
Like any other work environment, hazardous waste sites may present unsafe Administrative controls consist of those measures that assure that the
situations to the worker. Although this checklist cannot impart the depth of workers are healthy and well-trained. The training is supported by a program to
understanding required to evaluate the accident potential at these sites, it offers a ensure the maintenance of the workers’ health and safety. The checklist for
few key safety considerations as a general overview of an often complex problem. assessing administrative controls is specifically designed to evaluate medical,
The user is referred to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration’s training, safety, industrial hygiene, and emergency programs. The questions
(OSHA) General Industry Safety and Health Standards for more specific and provide a general review of the basic requirements for each program.
detailed information.
Medical Program
Response
Response
Question Yes No
Question Yes No
(34) Have the quantity and nature of reactive waste
(41) Has a formal medical surveillance program been
materials been established? *
established?
(35) Have incompatible materials been identified? *
(42) Does the medical surveillance program include
comprehensive preplacement examinations?
(36) Have highly corrosive wastes or other wastes that may
cause severe dermal and mucous membrane irritation
(43) If so, does the preplacement examination include:
or allergenic reaction been identified? *
(37) Have flash point tests been performed to determine
• Work-up of medical history and physical
examination?
what wastes are ignitable? *
(38) Is the physical condition of the site safe for the
• Visual acuity test?
performance of work activities (i.e., have
deteriorated buildings, unguarded pits, buried
• Hearing acuity test?
wastes, or unstable structures been identified)? *
• Pulmonary function test?
(39) Have the overall condition and situation of
containment vessels, piping, tanks, etc., been
• Chest X-ray?
determined to be safe for the work activities
required? *
• Complete urinalysis?
(40) Do the excavating and general labor activities at the
• Complete blood analysis (count and chemistry)?
site comply with OSHA’s general industry safety
standards (OSHA 29 CFR 1910)? *
• Baseline levels of toxic substances in body
fluids?
(44) Does the medical surveillance program include
periodic physical examinations?
(45) Are physical examinations performed at least (54) Does the training program include:
annually?
• First aid and cardiopulmonary resuscitation?
(46) Does the medical surveillance program include a
program of surveillance testing to determine worker • Review of physical/chemical/toxicological
exposures to specific toxic agents? properties of suspect hazardous materials?
(47) Does the program of surveillance testing for specific • Hazard recognition (chemical, biological, and
toxic agents comply with the applicable medical physical agents)?
surveillance sections of OSHA 29 CFR 1910.1000-
1046 (Subpart Z)? • Principles of site safety?
(48) Does the medical program certify employees for the • Standard operating procedures (e.g., use of
use of respirators? “buddy system,” decontamination procedures,
zone delineation)?
(49) Is the medical program adequate to screen workers
susceptible to heat stress? • Use and maintenance of respiratory equipment
protective clothing and other personal protective
(50) Has a medical record-keeping system been equipment?
established?
• Simulated emergency situations and contingency
(51) Does the record-keeping system for specific toxic plan implementation?
agents comply with the applicable medical
APPENDIX J
surveillance sections of OSHA 29 CFRR • Use of communications or alarm systems and
1910.1000-1046 (Subpart Z)? protocols?
(52) Do the medical records include, at a minimum, • Use and maintenance of fire-fighting and spill
the following? control equipment?
HEALTH AND SAFETY CHECKLIST
• Medical and work histories of each employee? (55) Does the training program provide for the safety
orientation of contract employees?
• Results of all medical examinations?
(56) Does the training include both classroom and
• Monitoring data on chemical and other on-the-job training?
toxic agents to which an employee might be
exposed?
(57) Is the program directed by a person(s) trained in
hazardous waste management and/or site
Training Program
remedial actions?
(53) Do all personnel receive comprehensive safety
(58) Are files kept of records documenting the training?
and health training before commencing with their
duties?
185
186 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
Safety and Industrial Hygiene Program Emergency Program
(59) Has a written safety and industrial hygiene program (62) Is there a written emergency action/disaster control
been established? plan?
(60) Does the safety and industrial hygiene program (63) Does the plan include provisions for:
discuss procedures regarding:
• Emergency response procedures for fires, spills,
• Emergency equipment requirements, selection, explosions, and personal injury?
and use (see questions 96 through 109)?
• Evacuation and notification procedures for
• Decontamination (see questions 79 through 89)? incidents affecting both on-site workers and
nearby populations?
• Personal work practices (see questions 140
through 141)? • Identifying individuals with specific health, safety,
and emergency responsibilities (formation of
• Procedural work practices (see questions 142 emergency control team)?
through 147)?
• Protocol for communications with public
(61) Does the safety and industrial hygiene program emergency aid teams (i.e., fire departments,
discuss procedures regarding: paramedical units, and local hospitals)?
• Emergency equipment requirements, selection, • Provisions for the rapid dissemination of exposure
and use (see questions 96 through 109)? information to the medical facility (i.e., chemical
identity, magnitude of exposure, and health of
those involved)?
• Selection, use, and limitations of protective
clothing (see questions 110 through 122)?
(64) Have names and phone numbers of police, sheriff, fire
department, hospitals, ambulance services, and
• Selection, use, maintenance, and limitations of other emergency response agencies/services been
respirators and eye protection (see questions 123
posted in a conspicuous locations?
through 139)?
(65) Has a program been developed to monitor
• The monitoring of hazards during normal meteorological conditions likely to promote off-site
operations?
transport of emissions?
• Periodic workplace or site inspections? (66) Does each person have a written job description
outlining:
• Periodic employee safety performance reviews?
• Responsibilities and duties?
• Evaluation of the effectiveness of controls
following implementation? • Specific authority and position in the chain of
command?
• Maintenance of accident records and follow-up
investigation of accidents? • Minimal performance requirements?
(67) Are “tailgate meetings” held before daily work ENGINEERING CONTROLS
assignments are begun?
Engineering controls at hazardous waste sites entail proper site security, zone
delineation, and decontamination capabilities. Checklist questions evaluating site
(68) Are postassignment debriefing sessions held?
security and zone delineation require only a visual assessment of the site.
If so, see question 69.
Questions dealing with decontamination require knowledge of the hazardous
agents involved and the proper decontamination procedures required. This ques-
(69) Do the meetings include discussions on:
tionnaire provides the primary health and safety considerations for establishing
• Tasks to be performed? a site control plan.
Site Security and Zone Delineation
• How the work is to be done?
Response
• Possible time constraints (mandatory rest breaks,
change air tank, etc.)? Question Yes No
(70) Is the topic of hazards (chemical, biological, physical, (74) Has the site been secured, including the restriction of
and safety) that may be encountered well covered; general (public) access?
i.e., does it include:
(75) Is the site properly posted and do the signs convey an
• Ways to recognize or monitor the hazards? adequate warning?
• Effects of hazards? (76) Have the contamination, decontamination, and clean
zones been established? *
• Hazard clues or concentration limits that require
APPENDIX J
work stoppage? (77) Have the zones been clearly delineated? *
(71) Are Emergency Procedures reviewed?
(78) Is the worker access to the zones controlled, e.g.,
log-in, log-out of site workers?
(72) When unexpected events occur, are they investigated
immediately as to their meaning and effect on present
Decontamination
HEALTH AND SAFETY CHECKLIST
and future work activities?
(79) Have decontamination station(s) been established
(73) Before restarting work do all personnel participate
between the contamination and clean zone? *
in a discussion session following the unexpected
occurrence?
(80) Are separate stations established for personnel and
large equipment items?
(81) Is the layout of the station(s) designed to prevent
cross-contamination between clean and contaminated
areas? *
(82) Have the proper cleaning and rinsing methods and
solutions been selected for the waste contaminants
and equipment involved? *
187
188 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
(83) Are decontamination stations equipped with (95) Is equipment (e.g., pumps, forklifts, compressors, earth
adequate supplies, equipment, clothing, and storage moving equipment, drum handling devices) designed,
facilities? constructed, or modified, as appropriate, to perform
satisfactorily under the conditions posed by the
(84) If infectious agents have been found on site, have hazardous waste handling tasks for which it is
disinfection procedures been implemented? * intended? *
(85) Are procedures for evaluating the effectiveness of Emergency Equipment
decontamination documented? Do they include:
(96) Are the necessary fire protection equipment and
• Emergency decontamination procedures? * supplies, listed below, available on site?
• Detailed decontamination procedures for • Portable fire extinguishers for initial response
personnel and equipment? to fires of all classes? *
(86) Are cleaning and rinsing solutions and expendable • Water at sufficient pressure and capacity? *
equipment treated as hazardous waste and disposed
of accordingly? * • Sufficient length of water hose? *
(87) Is all equipment maintained in safe operating • Foam carts? *
condition? *
(97) Is the available fire protection equipment strategically
(88) Is all equipment stored in a secure, safe area? located to promote rapid deployment, yet sufficiently
isolated and protected from accidental damage? *
(89) Upon completion of daily work activities, is all
equipment serviced to a state of operational (98) Are spill control and contaminate equipment and
readiness? supplies available on site?
Standard Equipment (99) Are the available spill-control equipment and supplies
strategically located to provide rapid deployment,
(90) Are spare parts readily obtainable to make immediate yet sufficiently isolated from hazard areas?
repairs on equipment as needed?
(100) Are adequate first-aid supplies available on site? *
(91) Is all equipment cleaned and decontaminated before
storage? * (101) Are first-aid stations equipped with:
(92) Are maintenance and repair logs kept from each piece • Standard first-aid kit? *
of equipment?
• Stretchers and blankets? *
(93) Are routine equipment inspections conducted
regularly? • Self-contained breathing apparatus? *
(94) Are all equipment operators trained on and familiar • Portable oxygen supply? *
with their equipment? *
• Portable eyewash and shower? *
(102) Are first-aid stations located in the clean zone, but During the initial site inspection and environmental sampling effort, the
as close as possible to the workers? clothing, headwear, and respiratory and eye protection should be the most
effective possible unless the data collected during the information audit indicate
(103) Is an internal communications or alarm system otherwise.
available?
This checklist covers the basic health and safety considerations for selection
of adequate personal protection equipment. The user is also urged to consult the
(104) Do all employees have access to the communications of
NIOSH publication entitled “A Guide to Industrial Respiratory Protection,” by
an alarm system?
J. Pritchard.
(105) Is all emergency equipment tested and maintained on a
Protective Clothing
regular basis?
Response
(106) Has a secure area been established for remote opening
Question Yes No
of damaged drums or drums suspected of containing
extremely hazardous, reactive, or explosive materials? *
(110) Does a high to moderate potential exist for any body
part to come in contact with chemicals that are severe
(107) Is heavy equipment (e.g., bulldozers, forklift trucks,
irritants or highly toxic via dermal absorption?
backhoes) properly equipped to protect operators
(Potential situations are those where vapors may be
from rollover, explosives, liquid splashed, flying
generated or splashing may occur through work
debris, etc.? *
activities.)
(108) Do equipment and tools meet OSHA general industry
If so, see next question; if not, see question 112.
standards (OSHA CFR 29 1910)? *
APPENDIX J
(111) Are workers wearing fully encapsulated chemical
(109) Are spark-proof and explosion-proof equipment and
protective suits of impermeable material, inner
tools (spark-proof wrenches and other tools, sampling
and outer chemical-resistant gloves, and outer
equipment, drum moving equipment, explosion-proof
chemical protective boots? (Note: Fully encapsulated
motors, lighting, and ground-fault provisions for
denotes full coverage of neck, head, and face.) !
electrical wiring) used for on-site remedial/emergency
HEALTH AND SAFETY CHECKLIST
activities? *
(112) Does a moderate to low potential exist for severe
dermal irritants or chemicals that are toxic via dermal
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT absorption to come in contact with areas of the body
not usually protected by a fully encapsulated protective
Personal protective equipment is extremely important in the protection of
suit (e.g., back of neck, ears, wrists)?
workers’ health and safety at hazardous waste sites. This checklist for evaluating
proper selection and use of personal protective equipment has been designed
If answer is “yes,” see following question; if answer is
specifically to address the areas of protective clothing, protective headwear, and
“no,” see question 114.
respiratory and eye protection. Evaluation questions for protective clothing
require knowledge concerning the type of contaminants being handled to
(113) Are workers wearing hooded single or two-piece
ascertain whether the equipment will be effective and whether its selection
chemical-resistant suits, inner and outer chemical-
represents the efficient use of resources. Evaluation questions for respiratory
resistant gloves, and inner and outer chemical-
protection require knowledge concerning both the types and concentrations of
protective boots? !
airborne contaminants present in the work environment. Evaluation questions for
protective headwear and eyewear require only a visual assessment of equipment
189
usage.
190 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
(114) Does a potential exist for contact with moderate skin (123) Does the work atmosphere contain concentrations of
irritants or hazardous chemicals that exhibit low or no contaminants “immediately dangerous to life and
toxicity via dermal absorption? health” (IDLH) or above the lower explosive limit
(LEL); is it oxygen deficient less than 19.5% O2?
If so, see the following question; if not, see (Note: The conditions most often occur in enclosed
question 116. spaces, with inadequate ventilation.)
(115) Are workers wearing two-piece chemical-resistant (124) Do workers wear positive-pressure, closed-circuit,
suits or disposable coveralls with a chemical- self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA)? !
protective apron, inner and outer gloves, and inner
and outer boots? ! (125) Does work atmosphere contain potentially high
concentrations of unknown substances or at
(116) Does a potential exist for exposure to hazardous concentration levels less than IDLH but greater than
chemicals considered minor irritants and not toxic via 50% of the IDLH for the known substance(s)?
dermal absorption?
If the answer is “yes,” see the following question; if
If the answer is “yes,” see the following question; if “no,” see question 127.
“no,” review questions 110 through 115 for the required
protection. (126) As a minimum, do workers wear pressure-demand,
open-circuit, self-contained breathing apparatus
(117) Are workers wearing cotton or disposable synthetic (SCBA)? !
coveralls made of breathable fabric, chemical-resistant
gloves, and inner and outer boots? ! (127) Does work atmosphere contain only known
contaminants at concentrations less than 50% of the
(118) Does a potential exist for a flash fire in addition to IDLH, but greater than each substances TLV?
chemical contacts?
If the answer is “yes,” see the following question; if
If the answer is “yes,” see the following question. “no,” see question 129.
(119) Are workers wearing flame-retardant clothing that (128) As a minimum, do workers wear full-face, powered,
meets appropriate requirements for the chemical air-purifying, chemical-cartridge respirators with
exposure potential expected? ! NIOSH-approved cartridges for specific contaminants
and a high-efficiency particulate filter, and are they
(120) Does the clothing resist tearing and puncturing equipped with emergency escape respirators? (Note:
from physical hazards? These air-purifying respirators should only be worn
if the concentration of the known contaminant does
(121) Do weather conditions under which the clothing is not exceed the manufacturer’s recommendation for
used have a significant effect on the strength, the cartridge filter used. Also, known contaminants
durability, or flexibility of the material? should have good warning properties.) !
Protective Headwear (129) Are all air contaminants known, and do concentrations
of each fall at or below the ACGIH TLV?
(122) Are workers wearing approved hard hats? *
Respiratory and Eye Protection
If the answer is “yes,” see the following question; if (137) Are chemicals present that can cause eye
“no,” review questions 123 through 129 for required irritation?
protection.
(138) Do workers wear chemical safety goggles and/or
(130) Are workers equipped with half-face, air purifying, other equipment that affords adequate eye
chemical-cartridge respirators with NIOSH-approved protection? (Note: Only full-face respirators are
cartridges for specific contaminants and a high-efficiency allowed when contaminants that produce eye
particulate filter? * irritation are present.) !
(131) Have all workers and their respirators been properly (139) If a splash potential exists that may bring the facial
“fit-tested”? ! area in contact with irritant chemicals, do the
workers wear full-face chemical safety shields? !
(132) Is all respiratory equipment government approved? !
WORK PRACTICES
(133) Is the air supply for the SCBA and air-supplied
Maintaining the health and safety of the workers ultimately rests on the
respirators at least Grade D breathing air (i.e.,
workers themselves. Their awareness and commitment to established safety
19.5%–23.5% O2; no bad or nauseous odors)? !
procedures, both in terms of personal and procedural activities, form the basis of
any program designed to keep work-related risks to a minimum. The Work
(134) Is at least one crew member certified by the man-
Practices Checklist addresses both personal and procedural activities. Questions
ufacturer to perform minor repairs on the systems?
concerning procedural activities require site-specific knowledge regarding safety
and industrial hygiene programs.
(135) When air-lines are used, are they kept away from or
protected from chemical contamination? *
APPENDIX J
Personal Work Practices
(136) When self-contained breathing apparatus (air packs)
Response
is used:
Question Yes No
• Have the air cylinders passed current hydrostatic (140) Do workers abstain from the following “forbidden”
tests? *
HEALTH AND SAFETY CHECKLIST
personal work practices?
• Do their low-pressure alarms leave adequate air
for a person to reach the decontamination
• Eating, drinking, or smoking outside of designated
areas for such activities? *
station and go through the necessary procedure? *
• Growing facial hair that interferes with respirator
• If the regulator should fail, can it be bypassed? *
performance? *
• Does the apparatus restrict movement and
interfere with work tasks?
• Coming in contact with potentially contaminated
objects or media (sitting or leaning on drums,
unnecessary transit of contaminated materials). *
191
192 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
• Removal of protective equipment while in a (144) Do workers adhere to the “buddy system”? *
contaminated zone? !
(145) Are reusable protective clothing, respirators, and other
(141) Do workers use personal protective equipment personal protective equipment cleaned and maintained
properly? * daily? *
Procedural Work Practices (146) Are personnel properly deployed and stationed within
the decontamination and clean zones for operational and
(142) Do workers follow established decontamination emergency assistance? *
procedures? *
(147) Do workers comply with established protocol on zone
(143) Do workers follow procedures to avoid access (i.e., signing log sheets, donning required
physiological stress, e.g., fatigue, heat stress, protective equipment, decontamination, etc.)? *
dehydration? *
Appendix K
CHEMICAL HAZARD DATA—NIOSH
POCKET GUIDE (SAMPLE)
NIOSH POCKET GUIDE TO CHEMICAL HAZARDS
DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 97-140
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES
Public Health Service
Centers for Disease Control
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
June, 1997
Contents
I. Introduction
II. NIOSH Recommendations
III. How to Use This Pocket Guide
IV. Chemical Listing*
* Note: Only a sample of the 677 chemicals has been provided for training exercises in this appendix. Students should
obtain the latest edition of the Pocket Guide form NIOSH (CDC) at (800) 356-4674 or write NIOSH Publications, 4676
Columbia Parkway, Cincinnati, Ohio 45226-1998. (This booklet is also available on CD-ROM.)
193
194 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
I. INTRODUCTION these hazards. To formulate these recommendations,
NIOSH evaluates all known and available medical, bio-
The NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards is logical, engineering, chemical, trade, and other infor-
intended as a source of general industrial hygiene infor- mation relevant to the hazard. These recommendations
mation for workers, employers, and occupational health are then published and transmitted to OSHA and the
professionals. The Pocket Guide presents key infor- Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) for use
mation and data in abbreviated tabular form for 677 in promulgating legal standards.
chemicals or substance groupings (e.g., manganese NIOSH recommendations are published in a variety
compounds, tellurium compounds, inorganic tin com- of documents. Criteria documents recommend work-
pounds, etc.) that are found in the work environment. place exposure limits and appropriate preventive mea-
The industrial hygiene information found in the Pocket sures to reduce or eliminate adverse health effects and
Guide should help users recognize and control occupa- accidental injuries.
tional chemical hazards. The chemicals or substances Current Intelligence Bulletins (CIBs) are issued to
contained in this revision include all substances for disseminate new scientific information about occupa-
which the National Institute for Occupational Safety and tional hazards. A CIB may draw attention to a formerly
Health (NIOSH) has recommended exposure limits unrecognized hazard, report new data on a known
(RELs) and those with permissible exposure limits (PELs) hazard, or present information on hazard control.
as found in the Occupational Safety and Health Admin- Alerts, Special Hazard Reviews, Occupational Hazard
istration (OSHA) General Industry Air Contaminants Assessments, and Technical Guidelines support and
Standard (29 CFR 1910.1000). complement the other standards development activities
of the Institute. Their purpose is to assess the safety
BACKGROUND and health problems associated with a given agent or
In 1974, NIOSH (which is responsible for recommending hazard (e.g., the potential for injury or for carcinogenic,
health and safety standards) joined OSHA (whose juris- mutagenic, or teratogenic effects) and to recommend
dictions include promulgation and enforcement activi- appropriate control and surveillance methods. Although
ties) in developing a series of occupational health these documents are not intended to supplant the more
standards for substances with existing PELs. This joint comprehensive criteria documents, they are prepared to
effort was labeled the Standards Completion Program assist OSHA and MSHA in the formulation of regulations.
and involved the cooperative efforts of several con- In addition to these publications, NIOSH periodically
tractors and personnel from various divisions within presents testimony before various Congressional com-
NIOSH and OSHA. The Standards Completion Program mittees and at OSHA and MSHA rulemaking hearings.
developed 380 substance-specific draft standards with A complete list of occupational safety and health
supporting documentation that contained technical issues for which NIOSH has formal policies (e.g., recom-
information and recommendations needed for the pro- mendations for occupational exposure to chemical and
mulgation of new occupational health regulations. The physical hazards, engineering controls, work practices,
Pocket Guide was developed to make the technical infor- safety considerations, etc.) can be found in NIOSH Rec-
mation in those draft standards more conveniently avail- ommendations for Occupational Safety and Health:
able to workers, employers, and occupational health Compendium of Policy Documents and Statements
professionals. The Pocket Guide is updated periodically [DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 92-100].
to reflect new data regarding the toxicity of various
substances and any changes in exposure standards or III. HOW TO USE THIS POCKET GUIDE
recommendations.
The Pocket Guide has been designed to provide
chemical-specific data to supplement general industrial
DATA COLLECTION AND APPLICATION
hygiene knowledge. To maximize the amount of data
The data collected for this revision were derived from provided in this limited space, abbreviations and codes
a variety of sources, including NIOSH policy docu- have been used extensively. These abbreviations and
ments such as criteria documents and Current Intelli- codes, which have been designed to permit rapid com-
gence Bulletins (CIBs), and recognized references in prehension by the regular user, are discussed for each
the fields of industrial hygiene, occupational medicine, column in the following subsections.
toxicology, and analytical chemistry.
CHEMICAL NAME AND STRUCTURE/FORMULA,
II. NIOSH RECOMMENDATIONS CAS AND RTECS NUMBERS, AND DOT ID AND
GUIDE NUMBERS
Acting under the authority of the Occupational Safety
and Health Act of 1970 (29 USC Chapter 15) and the Chemical Name and Structure/Formula The chem-
Federal Mine Safety and Health Act of 1977 (30 USC ical name found in the OSHA General Industry Air
Chapter 22), NIOSH develops and periodically revises Contaminants Standard (29 CFR* 1910.1000) is listed
recommended exposure limits (RELs) for hazardous first. The chemical structure or formula is also provided;
substances or conditions in the workplace. NIOSH also
recommends appropriate preventive measures to reduce
or eliminate the adverse health and safety effects of *Code of Federal Regulations.
APPENDIX K CHEMICAL HAZARD DATA 195
carbon-carbon double bonds (-C=C-) and carbon- (see Appendix A, which contains a brief discussion of
carbon triple bonds (-C∫C-) have been indicated where potential occupational carcinogens).
applicable. A page index for synonyms and trade names The OSHA permissible exposure limits (PELs), as
is included at the back of the Pocket Guide to help the found in Tables Z-1, Z-2, and Z-3 of the OSHA General
user locate a specific substance. Industry Air Contaminants Standard (29 CFR 1910.1000),
that were effective on July 1, 1993* and which are cur-
CAS and RTECS Numbers Below the chemical rently enforced by OSHA are listed next. [*Note: In July
structure/formula is the Chemical Abstracts Service 1992, the 11th Circuit Court of Appeals in its decision in
(CAS) registry number. This number, in the format xxx- AFL-CIO v. OSHA, 965 F.2d 962 (11th Cir., 1992) vacated
xx-x, is unique for each chemical and allows efficient more protective PELs set by OSHA in 1989 for 212 sub-
searching on computerized data bases. A page index for stances, moving them back to PELs established in 1971.
all CAS registry numbers listed is included at the back The appeals court also vacated new PELs for 164 sub-
of the Pocket Guide to help the user locate a specific stances that were not previously regulated. Although
substance. OSHA is currently enforcing exposure limits in Tables Z-
Immediately below the CAS number is the NIOSH 1, Z-2, and Z-3 of 29 CFR 1910.1000 which were in effect
Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances (RTECS) before 1989, violations of the “general duty clause” as
number, in the format ABxxxxxxx. RTECS may be useful contained in Section 5(a)(1) of the Occupational Safety
for obtaining additional toxicologic information on a and Health Act may be considered when worker expo-
specific substance. sures exceed the 1989 PELs for the 164 substances that
were not previously regulated. The substances for which
DoT ID and GUIDE Number Under the RTECS OSHA PELs were vacated on June 30, 1993 are indicated
number are the U.S. Department of Transportation (DoT) by the symbol “†” following OSHA in this column and
identification number and the corresponding guide previous values are listed in Appendix G. Unless noted
number. Their format is xxxx xxx. The Identification otherwise, PELs are TWA concentrations that must not
number (xxxx) indicates that the chemical is regulated be exceeded during any 8-hour workshift of a 40-hour
by DoT. The Guide number (xxx) refers to actions to be workweek. A STEL is designated by “ST” preceding
taken to stabilize an emergency situation; this informa- the value and is measured over a 15-minute period
tion can be found in the 1996 North American Emergency unless noted otherwise. OSHA ceiling concentrations
Response Guidebook (Office of Hazardous Materials (designated by “C” preceding the value) must not be
Transportation [DHM-51], U.S. Department of Trans- exceeded during any part of the workday; if instanta-
portation, 400 Seventh Street S.W., Washington, D.C. neous monitoring is not feasible, the ceiling must be
20590-0001). A page index for all DoT ID numbers listed assessed as a 15-minute TWA exposure. In addition,
is included at the back of the Pocket Guide to help the there are a number of substances from Table Z-2 (e.g.,
user locate a specific substance; please note however, beryllium, ethylene dibromide, and methylene chloride)
that many DoT numbers are NOT unique for specific that have PEL ceiling values that must not be exceeded
substances. except for a maximum peak over a specified period (e.g.,
a 5-minute maximum peak in any 2 hours). Appendix B
SYNONYMS, TRADE NAMES, AND contains a brief discussion of substances regulated as
CONVERSION FACTORS carcinogens by OSHA.
Concentrations are given in ppm, mg/m3, mppcf
Common synonyms and trade names are listed alpha-
(millions of particles per cubic foot of air as determined
betically for each chemical. Factors for the conversion of
from counting an impinger sample), or fibers/cm3 (fibers
ppm (parts of vapor or gas per million parts of contam-
per cubic centimeter). The “[skin]” designation indicates
inated air by volume) to mg/m3 (milligrams of vapor or
the potential for dermal absorption; skin exposure
gas per cubic meter of contaminated air) at 25°C and 1
should be prevented as necessary through the use of
atmosphere are listed for chemicals with exposure limits
good work practices and gloves, coveralls, goggles, and
expressed in ppm.
other appropriate equipment. The “(total)” designation
indicates that the REL or PEL listed is for “total particu-
EXPOSURE LIMITS
late” versus the “(resp)” designation which refers to the
The NIOSH recommended exposure limits (RELs) are “respirable fraction” of the airborne particulate. Appen-
listed first in this column. Unless noted otherwise, RELs dix C contains more detailed discussions of the specific
are time-weighted average (TWA) concentrations for up exposure limits for certain low-molecular-weight alde-
to a 10-hour workday during a 40-hour workweek. A hydes, asbestos, various dyes (benzidine-, o-toluidine-,
short-term exposure limit (STEL) is designated by “ST” and o-dianisidine-based), carbon black, the various
preceding the value; unless noted otherwise, the STEL is chromium compounds (chromic acid and chromates,
a 15-minute TWA exposure that should not be exceeded chromium(II) and chromium(III) compounds, and
at any time during a workday. A ceiling REL is designated chromium metal), coal tar pitch volatiles, coke oven
by “C” preceding the value; unless noted otherwise, the emissions, cotton dust, lead, NIAX Catalyst ESN,
ceiling value should not be exceeded at any time. Any trichloroethylene, and tungsten carbide (cemented).
substance that NIOSH considers to be a potential occu- Appendix D contains a brief discussion of substances
pational carcinogen is designated by the notation “Ca” included in the Pocket Guide with no established RELs at
196 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
this time and Appendix F contains miscellaneous notes threat of exposure to airborne contaminants when that
regarding the OSHA PELs. appendix G lists the OSHA exposure is likely to cause death or immediate or delayed
PELS that were vacated on June 30, 1993. permanent adverse health effects or prevent escape from
such an environment.” The purpose of establishing an
IDLH exposure concentration is to “ensure that the worker
IDLH
can escape from a given contaminated environment in the
For the June 1994 Edition of the Pocket Guide, immedi- event of failure of the respiratory protection equipment.”
ately dangerous to life or health concentrations (IDLHs) The NIOSH Respirator Decision Logic uses these IDLH
were reviewed and, in many cases, were revised and values as one of several respirator selection criteria.
made more protective. As a consequence of the IDLH Under the NIOSH Respiratory Decision Logic, the most
changes, many of the respirator recommendations for protective respirators (e.g., a self-contained breathing
these substances were also revised. The criteria utilized to apparatus equipped with a full facepiece and operated in
determine the adequacy of existing IDLH values were a a pressure-demand or other positive-pressure mode)
combination of those used during the Standards Comple- would be selected for firefighting, exposure to carcino-
tion Program and a newer methodology developed by gens, entry into oxygen-deficient atmospheres, in emer-
NIOSH. These “interim” criteria form a tiered approach gency situations, during entry into an atmosphere that
with acute human toxicity data being used preferentially, contains a substance at a concentration greater than 2000
followed next by acute animal inhalation toxicity data, times the NIOSH REL or OSHA PEL, and for entry into IDLH
and then finally by acute animal oral toxicity data to deter- atmospheres.
mine an updated IDLH value. When relevant acute toxic- IDLH values are listed for over 380 substances. The
ity data were insufficient or unavailable, the use of chronic notation “Ca” appears in this column for all substances
toxicity data or an analogy to a chemically similar sub- that NIOSH considers to be potential occupational car-
stance was considered. The criteria and information cinogens. However, IDLH values that were originally
sources for both the original and revised IDLH values are determined in the Standards Completion Program or
given in Documentation for Immediately Dangerous to were recently revised are shown in brackets following
Life and Health Concentrations (IDLHs) (NTIS Publication the “Ca” designations. “10%LEL” indicates that the IDLH
No. PB-94-195047). NIOSH is currently assessing the was based on 10% of the lower explosive limit for safety
various uses of IDLHs and whether the original criteria considerations even though the relevant toxicological
used to derive the IDLH values are valid or if other infor- data indicated that irreversible health effects of impair-
mation or criteria should be utilized. Based on this assess- ment of escape existed only at higher concentrations.
ment, NIOSH will develop a new strategy for revising the “N.D.” indicates that an IDLH has not as yet been
IDLH values currently listed, as well as for developing new determined.
IDLH values for the more than 300 substances listed in the
Pocket Guide without IDLHs. PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION
The definition of IDLH that was derived during the
Standards Completion Program was based on the Mine This column provides a brief description of the appear-
Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) definition stip- ance and odor of each substance. Notations are made as
ulated in 30 CFR 11.3(t). The purpose for establishing an to whether a substance can be shipped as a liquefied
IDLH value in the Standards Completion Program was to compressed gas or whether it has major use as a
ensure that a worker could escape without injury or irre- pesticide.
versible health effects from an IDLH exposure in the event
of the failure of respiratory protection equipment. The CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
IDLH was considered a maximum concentration above
The following abbreviations are used for the chemical
which only a highly reliable breathing apparatus provid-
and physical properties given for each substance. “NA”
ing maximum worker protection was permitted. In deter-
indicates that a property is not applicable, and a ques-
mining IDLH values, the ability of a worker to escape
tion mark (?) indicates that it is unknown.
without loss of life or irreversible health effects was con-
sidered along with severe eye or respiratory irritation and MW Molecular weight
other deleterious effects (e.g., disorientation or incoordi- BP Boiling point at 1 atmosphere, °F
nation) that could prevent escape. As a safety margin, the Sol Solubility in water at 68°F*, % by weight
Standards Completion Program IDLH values were based (i.e., g/100 ml)
on the effects that might occur as a consequence of a FLP Flash point (i.e., the temperature at which
30-minute exposure. However, the 30-minute period the liquid phase gives off enough vapor to
was NOT meant to imply that workers should stay in flash when exposed to an external ignition
the work environment any longer than necessary, source), closed cup (unless annotated “(oc)”
in fact, EVERY EFFORT SHOULD BE MADE TO EXIT for open cup), °F
IMMEDIATELY! IP** Ionization potential, eV (electron volts)
The current NIOSH definition for an IDLH exposure VP Vapor pressure at 68°F*, mm Hg; “approx”
condition, as stipulated in the NIOSH Respirator Decision indicates approximately
Logic (DHHS [NIOSH] Publication No. 87-108, NTIS Publi- MLT Melting point for solids, °F
cation No. PB-91-151183), is a condition “that poses a FRZ Freezing point for liquids and gases, °F
APPENDIX K CHEMICAL HAZARD DATA 197
UEL Upper explosive (flammable) limit in air, % in Table 1. Table 2 presents ordering information for the
by volume (at room temperature*) measurement methods cited.
LEL Lower explosive (flammable) limit in air, %
by volume (at room temperature*) PERSONAL PROTECTION AND SANITATION
MEC Minimum explosive concentration, g/m3
(when available) This column presents a summary of recommended prac-
Sp. Gr Specific gravity at 68°F* referenced to water tices for each toxic substance. These recommendations
at 39.2°F (4°C) supplement general work practices (e.g., no eating,
RGasD Relative density of gases referenced to air drinking, or smoking where chemicals are used). Table 3
= 1 (indicates how many times a gas is explains the codes used. Each category is described as
heavier than air at the same temperature) follows:
SKIN: Recommends the need for personal
protective clothing.
*If noted after a specific entry, these properties may be EYES: Recommends the need for eye pro-
reported at other temperatures. tection.
**Ionization potentials are given as a guideline for the WASH SKIN: Recommends when workers should
selection of photoionization detector lamps used in some wash the spilled chemical from the
direct-reading instruments.
body in addition to normal washing
(e.g., before eating).
When possible, the flammability/combustibility of a REMOVE: Advises workers when to remove
substance was determined and listed after the specific clothing that has accidentally become
gravity. The following OSHA criteria (29 CFR 1910.106) wet or significantly contaminated.
were used to classify flammable or combustible liquids: CHANGE: Recommends whether the routine
changing of clothing is needed.
Class IA flammable liquid FI.P. below 73°F and BP PROVIDE: Recommends the need for eyewash
below 100°F. fountains and/or quick drench facilities.
Class IB flammable liquid FI.P. below 73°F and BP
at or above 100°F. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
Class IC flammable liquid FI.P. at or above 73°F RESPIRATOR SELECTION
and below 100°F.
Class II combustible liquid FI.P. at or above 100°F This column provides a condensed table of allowable
and below 140°F. respirator use for those substances for which IDLH
Class IIIA combustible liquid FI.P. at or above 140°F values have been determined. NIOSH is currently reeval-
and below 200°F. uating the IDLH values, and as new or revised IDLH
Class IIIB combustible liquid FI.P. at or above 200°F. values are developed, respirator selection recommenda-
tions will be incorporated into subsequent editions of
the Pocket Guide. In the interim no respirator recom-
INCOMPATIBILITIES AND REACTIVITIES mendations will be made for substances without IDLH
This column lists important hazardous incompatibilities values (these will be noted by “TBAL”—to be added
or reactivities of each substance. later).
NIOSH has developed a new set of regulations in 42
CFR 84 (also referred to as “Part 84”) for testing and cer-
MEASUREMENT METHOD
tifying nonpowered, air-purifying, particulate-filter respi-
The column provides a brief, key word description of the rators. The new Part 84 respirators have passed a more
suggested sampling and analysis method. Each descrip- demanding certification test than the old respirators
tion comprises four components: (1) the collection (e.g.; dust [D]; dust and mist [DM]; dust, mist, and fume
method, (2) the sample work-up, (3) the analytical [DMFu]; spray paint; pesticide; etc.) certified under 30
method, and (4) the method number. The method number CFR 11 (also referred to as “Part 11”). Under Part 84,
is usually from the 4th edition of the NIOSH Manual NIOSH is allowing manufactures to continue selling and
of Analytical Methods (DHHS [NIOSH] Publication No. shipping Part 11 particulate filters as NIOSH-certified
94-113) and is indicated by “IV” following the sample until July 10, 1998. It is important to see Table 4 for sub-
work-up. If a different edition of the NIOSH Manual of Ana- stitution of Part 84 respirators for Part 11 respirators.
lytical Methods is cited, the appropriate edition (and, for Also see the NIOSH Guide to the Selection and Use
the 2nd edition only, the volume number) would be noted of Particulate Respirators (DHHS [NIOSH] publication
[e.g., II(4)]. In a number of instances, the table cites OSHA 96-101).
Analytical Methods Manual (or the OSHA web site, The first line in the column indicates whether the
http://www.osha-slc.gov/) and applicable method number “NIOSH” or the “OSHA” exposure limit is used on which
(e.g., OSHA [#21]). When a method for a particular to base the respirator recommendations. The more pro-
substance is not included in the latest NIOSH or OSHA tective limit between the NIOSH REL or the OSHA PEL is
analytical methods manuals or at the OSHA web site, always used. “NIOSH/OSHA” indicates that the limits are
“None available” is listed. The codes listed are explained equivalent.
198 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
Each subsequent line lists a maximum use concen- the selection and use of respirators can be found in the
tration (MUC) followed by a series of codes representing NIOSH Respirator Decision Logic and the NIOSH Guide
classes of respirators that are acceptable for use below to Industrial Respiratory Protection (DHHS [NIOSH]
the MUC. Individual respirator class codes are separated Publication No. 87-116).
by diagonal lines (l). More protective respirators may be Codes for the various categories of respirators are
worn. Emergency or planned entry into unknown con- defined in Table 4. In addition, the assigned protection
centrations or entry into IDLH conditions are designated factor (APF) is indicated for each respirator class.
by the symbol § and followed by the codes for classes
of respirators acceptable for these conditions. “Escape”
ROUTE OF HEALTH HAZARD
indicates that the respirators are to be used only for
escape purposes. For each MUC or condition the table This column lists the toxicologically important routes of
lists only those respirators with the required protection entry for each substance and whether contact with the
factor and other use restrictions based on the NIOSH skin or eyes is potentially hazardous, abbreviated as
Respirator Decision Logic. follows:
All respirators selected must be approved by
Inh Inhalation
NIOSH and MSHA under the provisions of 30 CFR
Abs Skin absorption
11 or by NIOSH under 42 CFR 84. The current listing of
Ing Ingestion
NIOSH/MSHA certified respirators can be found in the
Con Skin and/or eye contact
NIOSH Certified Equipment List (DHHS [NIOSH] Publica-
(liq) Liquid
tion No. 94-104). A list of Part 84 respirators can be found
(sol) Solid
on the NIOSH Home Page (http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/
(soln) Solution
homepage.html) or obtained by calling 1-800-35-NIOSH.
A complete respiratory protection program must be
implemented and must fulfill all requirements of 29 CFR SYMPTOMS
1910.134. A respiratory protection program must include
This column lists the potential symptoms of exposure.
a written standard operating procedure covering regular
Their abbreviations are defined in Table 5.
training, fit-testing, fit-checking, periodic environmental
monitoring, maintenance, medical monitoring, inspec-
tion, cleaning, storage, and periodic program evaluation. FIRST AID
Selection of a specific respirator within a given class of
recommended respirators depends on the particular sit- This column lists emergency procedures for eye and skin
uation; this choice should be made only by a knowl- contact, inhalation, and ingestion of the toxic substance.
edgeable person. REMEMBER: Air-purifying respirators Abbreviations are defined in Table 6.
will not protect users against oxygen-deficient atmo-
spheres, and they are not to be used in IDLH conditions.
TARGET ORGANS
The only respirators recommended for fire fighting are
self-contained breathing apparatuses that have full face- This column lists the organs that are affected by
pieces and are operated in a pressure-demand or other exposure to each substance. Abbreviations are defined
positive-pressure modes. Additional information on in Table 5.
TABLE 1 Codes for Measurement Methods
Code Method/reagent Code Method/reagent
Collection method:* Hydrar Hydrar® sorbent tube
Ambersorb Ambersorb® XE-347 tube Imp Impinger
Anasorb Anasorb tube Mol-sieve Molecular sieve tube
Bag Gas collection bag OVS OSHA versatile sampler
Bub Bubbler Pad/Pre-filter Treated pad with a pre-filter
Carbo-B Carbosieve® B tube Porapak Porapak® tube
Char Charcoal tube Si gel Silica gel tube
Char (low-Ni) Charcoal tube (low nickel content) Soda lime Soda lime sorbent tube
Char (pet) Charcoal tube (petroleum-based) TD Thermal desorption tube
Chrom Chromosorb tube Tenax GC Tenax® GC tube
Dry tube Drying tube T-Sorb Thermosorb® tube
Filter Particulate filter Vertical elut Vertical elutriator
Florisil Florisil® tube XAD XAD® tube
G-chrom P Gas-chrom P® tube
(Continued)
APPENDIX K CHEMICAL HAZARD DATA 199
TABLE 1 (Continued)
Code Method/reagent Code Method/reagent
Sample work-up: GC/FPD GC with flame photometric
CCl4 Carbon tetrachloride detection for sulfur, nitrogen, or
CHCl3 Chloroform phosphorus
CH2Cl2 Methylene chloride GC/NPD GC with nitrogen/phosphorus
CH3CN Acetonitrile detection
CH3COOH Acetic acid GC/PID GC with photoionization detection
CS2 Carbon disulfide GC/TCD GC with thermal conductivity
DCE 1,2-Dichloroethane detection
DMF Dimethylformamide GC/TEA GC with thermal energy analyzer
DMSO Dimethyl sulfoxide detection
EDTA Ethylenedinitrilo-tetraacetic acid GC/TEA-EAP GC/TEA with explosives package
FeCl3 Ferric chloride GFAAS Graphite furnace atomic
HCl Hydrochloric acid absorption spectrometry
HCOOH Formic acid Grav Gravimetric
HNO3 Nitric acid HPLC/GFAAS High-pressure liquid
H2O2 Hydrogen peroxide chromatography with GFAAS
HPLC High-pressure liquid HPLC/FLD High-pressure liquid
chromatography chromatography with
H3PO4 Phosphoric acid fluorescence detection
HSA Hexanesulfonic acid HPLC/UVD High-pressure liquid
H2SO4 Sulfuric acid chromatography with
Kl Potassium iodide ultraviolet detection
KOH Potassium hydroxide HPLC/UV/ECD High-pressure liquid
LTA Low-temperature ashing chromatography with
Na2CO3 Sodium carbonate ultraviolet and electrochemical
NaHCO3 Sodium bicarbonate detection
NaOH Sodium hydroxide HPLC/UV/FLD High-pressure liquid
Na2S2O3 Sodium thiosulfate chromatography with
NH4OH Ammonium hydroxide ultraviolet and fluorescence
Pho-acid Phosphomolybdic acid detection
Thermal desorp Thermal desorption apparatus HYAAS Hydride generation atomic
THF Tetrahydrofuran absorption spectrometry
IC Ion chromatography
Analytical method: ICP Inductively coupled plasma
DPCSP Differential pulse cathodic IR Infrared spectrometry
stripping polarography ISE Ion-specific electrode
ECA Electrochemical analysis PCM Phase contrast microscopy
EGA Evolved gas analysis PES Plasma emission spectroscopy
FAAS Flame atomic absorption PLR Polarography
spectrometry TEM Transmission electron microscopy
GC Gas chromatography TOA Thermal optical analyzer
GC/AlkFID GC with alkaline flame ionization Titrate Titration
detection UV-vis Ultraviolet-visible
GC/ECD GC with electron capture detection spectrophotometry
GC/EConD GC with electrolytic conductivity Vis Visible spectrophotometry
detection XRF X-ray fluorescence spectrometry
GC/FID GC with flame ionization detection XRD X-ray diffraction spectrometry
*In the chemical listing, an asterisk following an adsorbent tube code (e.g., Char*, Si gel*, XAD-2*, etc.)
indicates that a special coating must be added. The figure “2” in parentheses following a collection device (e.g.,
Filter(2), Imp(2), Char(2), etc.) indicates that two are used in series.
200 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
TABLE 2 Ordering Information for Measurement Methods
Manual Publication No. Ordering No. Manual Publication No. Ordering No.
NIOSH Manual of 2nd supplement NIOSH 87-117 PB-88-204-722
Analytical Methods, to 3rd edition
2nd edition (II): 3rd supplement NIOSH 89-127 PB-90-162-470
Vol. 1 NIOSH 77-157-A PB-274-845 to 3rd edition
Vol. 2 NIOSH 77-157-B PB-276-624
4th supplement NIOSH 90-121 PB-91-152-660
Vol. 3 NIOSH 77-157-C PB-276-838
to 3rd edition
Vol. 4 NIOSH 78-175 PB-83-105-437
Vol. 5 NIOSH 79-141 PB-83-105-445
OSHA Analytical — 4542*
Vol. 6 NIOSH 80-125 PB-82-157-728
Methods Manual,
Vol. 7 NIOSH 82-100 PB-83-105-452
1990 & 1993
NIOSH Manual of NIOSH 84-100 PB-85-179-018
NIOSH Manual of NIOSH 94-113 017-011-00007-9**
Analytical Methods
Analytical Methods
(NMAM), 3rd edition
(NMAM), 4th edition
(III)
(IV)
1st supplement NIOSH 85-117 PB-86-116-266
to 3rd edition
*Denotes ordering number of the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), 1330
Kemper Meadow Drive, Cincinnati, OH 45240 (513-742-2020). All other ordering numbers are for the National
Technical Information Service (NTIS), Springfield, VA 22161 (703-487-4650).
**Printed copies of the NMAM are available from the U.S. Government Printing Office, Superintendent of
Documents, Washington, DC 20402.
The computerized version of the NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods (NMAM) is available on diskette from
the Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety, 250 Main Street East, Hamilton, Ontario CANADA L8N 1H6;
Telephone 905-570-8094; Toll Free 1-800-668-4284 and WindowChem Software, Inc., 420-F Executive Court North,
Fairfield, CA 94585; Telephone 707-864-0845; Toll Free 1-800-536-0404.
TABLE 3 Personal Protection and Sanitation Codes
Code Definition
Skin
Prevent skin contact Wear appropriate personal protective clothing to prevent skin contact.
Frostbite Wear appropriate personal protective clothing to prevent the skin from becoming
frozen from contact with the liquid or from contact with vessels containing the
liquid.
N.R. No recommendation is made specifying the need for personal protective equipment
for the body.
Eyes
Prevent eye contact Wear appropriate eye protection to prevent eye contact.
Frostbite Wear appropriate eye protection to prevent eye contact with the liquid that could
result in burns or tissue damage from frostbite.
N.R. No recommendation is made specifying the need for eye protection.
Wash skin
When contam The worker should immediately wash the skin when it becomes contaminated.
Daily The worker should wash daily at the end of each work shift.
N.R. No recommendation is made specifying the need for washing the substance from
the skin (either immediately or at the end of the work shift).
(continued)
APPENDIX K CHEMICAL HAZARD DATA 201
TABLE 3 (Continued)
Code Definition
Remove
When wet or contam Work clothing that becomes wet or significantly contaminated should be removed
and replaced.
When wet (flamm) Work clothing that becomes wet should be immediately removed due to its
flammability hazard (i.e., for liquids with a flash point 15 g or more >100,000 Ingestion occurs as a route of exposure of workers through
harmless eating or smoking with contaminated hands or in contami-
nated work areas. Ingestion of inhaled material also occurs.
One mechanism for the clearance of particles from the respi-
ratory tract is the carrying up of the particles by the action
of the ciliated lining of the respiratory tract. These particles
the chosen response in 50% of the treated animals. When the
are then swallowed and absorption of the material may occur
study of a toxic substance progresses to the point at which its
from the gastrointestinal tract. This situation is most likely to
action on the organism may be studied as graded response in
occur with larger size particles (2 m and up) although smaller
groups of animals, dose-response curves of a slightly different
particles deposited in the alveoli may be carried by phagocytes
sort are generally used. One might see, for example, a dose-
to the upward moving mucous carpet and eventually be
response curve relating the degree of depression of brain
swallowed.
choline esterase to the dose of an organic phosphorus ester or
In experimental work, compounds may be administered
a dose-response curve relating the increase in pulmonary flow
orally as either a single or multiple dose given by stomach tube
resistance to the concentration of sulfur dioxide inhaled.
or the material may be incorporated in the diet or drinking
water for periods varying from several weeks or months up to
ROUTES OF EXPOSURE
several years or the lifetime of the animals. In either case, the
Toxic chemicals can enter the body by various routes. The dose the animals actually receive may be ascertained with con-
most important route of exposure in industry is inhalation. siderable accuracy. Except in the case of a substance that has
Next in importance is contact with skin and eyes. The response a corrosive action or in some way damages the lining of the
to a given dose of toxic agent may vary markedly depending gastrointestinal tract, the response to a substance adminis-
on the route of entry. The intensity of toxic action is a func- tered orally will depend on how readily it is absorbed from
tion of the concentration of the toxic agent that reaches the the gut. Uranium, for example, is capable of producing kid-
site of action. The route of exposure can have an influence on ney damage, but is poorly absorbed from the gut, and so oral
the concentration reaching the site of action. administration produces only low concentrations at the site
of action. On the other hand, ethyl alcohol, which has
PARENTERAL as a target organ the central nervous system, is very rapidly
absorbed and within an hour 90% of an ingested dose has
Aside from the obvious use in administration of drugs, injec-
been absorbed.
tion is considered mainly as a route of exposure of experi-
The epithelium of the gastrointestinal tract is poorly
mental animals. In the case of injection, the dose administered
permeable to the ionized form of organic compounds. Absorp-
is known with accuracy. Intravenous (iv) injection introduces
tion of such materials generally occurs by diffusion of the
the material directly into the circulation, hence comparison of
lipid-soluble nonionized form. Weak acids that are predomi-
the degree of response to iv injection with the response to the
nantly nonionized in the high acidity (pH 1.4) of gastric juice
dose administered by another route can provide information
are absorbed from the stomach. The surface of the intestinal
on the rate of uptake of the material by the alternate route.
mucosa has a pH of 5.3. At this higher pH weak bases are less
When a material is administered by injection, the highest
ionized and more readily absorbed. The pH of a compound
concentration of the toxic material in the body occurs at the
thus becomes an important factor in predicting absorption
time of entrance. The organism receives the initial impact at
from the gastrointestinal tract.
the maximal concentration without opportunity for a gradual
reaction, whereas if the concentration is built up more gradu-
INHALATION
ally by some other route of exposure, the organism may have
time to develop some resistance or physiological adjustment Inhalation exposures are of prime importance to the indus-
that could produce a modified response. In experimental trial toxicologist. The dose actually received and retained by
studies intraperitoneal (ip) injection of the material into the the animals is not known with the same accuracy as when a
abdominal fluid is a frequently used technique. The major compound is given by the routes previously discussed. This
242 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
depends on the ventilation rate of the individual. In the case CRITERIA OF RESPONSE
of a gas, it is influenced by solubility, and in the case of
an aerosol, by particle size. The concentration and time of After the toxic material has been administered by one of the
exposure can be measured and this gives a working estimate routes of exposure discussed previously, there are various
of the exposure. Two techniques are sometimes utilized in criteria to evaluate the response. These criteria are oriented
an attempt to determine the dose with precision and still whenever possible toward elucidating the mechanisms of
administer the compound via the lung. One is intratracheal action of the material.
injection, which may be used in some experiments in which it
is desirable to deliver a known amount of particulate mater-
MORTALITY
ial into the lung. The other is so-called precision gassing. As has been indicated, the LD50 of a substance serves as an
In this technique the animal or experimental subject breathes initial test to place the compound appropriately in the spec-
through a valve system and the volume of exhaled air and the trum of toxic agents. Mortality is also a criterion of response
concentration of toxic material in it are determined. A in long-term chronic studies. In such studies, the investigator
comparison of these data with the concentration in the atmos- must be certain that the mortality observed was due to the
phere of the exposure chamber gives an indication of the dose chronic low level of the material she is studying; hence, an
retained. adequate control group of untreated animals subject to other-
wise identical conditions is maintained for the duration of the
CUTANEOUS experiment.
Cutaneous exposure ranks first in the production of occupa-
PATHOLOGY
tional disease, but not necessarily first in severity. The skin and
its associated film of lipids and sweat may act as an effective By examination of both gross and microscopic pathology of
barrier. The chemical may react with the skin surface and the organs of animals exposed, it is possible to get an idea of
cause primary irritation. The agent may penetrate the skin the site of action of the toxic agent, the mode of action, and
and cause sensitization to repeated exposure. The material the cause of death. Pathological changes are usually observed
may penetrate the skin in an amount sufficient to cause sys- at dose levels that are below those needed to produce the
temic poisoning. In assessing the toxicity of a compound by death of animals. The liver and the kidney are organs partic-
skin application, a known amount of the material to be studied ularly sensitive to the action of a variety of toxic agents. In
is placed on the clipped skin of the animal and held in place some instances the pathological lesion is typical of the specific
with a rubber cuff. Some materials such as acids, alkalis, and toxic agents, for example, the silicotic nodules in the lungs
many organic solvents are primary skin irritants and produce produced by inhalation of free silica or the pattern of liver
skin damage on initial contact. Other materials are sensitizing damage resulting from exposure to carbon tetrachloride and
agents. The initial contact produces no irritant response, but some other hepatotoxins. In other cases the damage may be
may render the individual sensitive and dermatitis may result more diffuse and less specific in nature.
from future contact. Ethyleneamines and the catechols in
the well-known members of the Rhus family (poison ivy and GROWTH
poison oak) are examples of such agents. The physiochemical
In chronic studies the effect of the toxic agent on the growth
properties of a material are the main determinant of whether
rate of the animals is another criterion of response. Levels of
or not a material will be absorbed through the skin. Among
the compound that do not produce death or overt pathology
the important factors are pH, extent of ionization, water and
may result in a diminished rate of growth. A record is also
lipid solubility, and molecular size. Some compounds, such as
made of the food intake. This will indicate whether diminished
phenol and phenolic derivatives, can readily penetrate the skin
growth results from lessened food intake or from less efficient
in amounts sufficient to produce systemic intoxication. If the
use of food ingested. It sometimes happens that when an agent
skin is damaged, the normal protective barrier to absorp-
is administered by incorporation into the diet, especially at
tion of chemicals is lessened and penetration may occur. An
high levels, the food is unpalatable to the animals and they
example of this is a description of cases of mild lead intoxica-
simply refuse to eat it.
tion that occurred in an operation that involved an inorganic
lead salt and also a cutting oil. Inorganic lead salts would not
ORGAN WEIGHT
be absorbed through intact skin, but the dermatitis produced
by the cutting oil permitted increased absorption. The weight of various organs, or more specifically the ratio of
organ weight to body weight, may be used as a criterion of
OCULAR response. In some instances such alterations are specific and
explicable, as for example the increase of lung weight to body
The assessment of possible damage resulting from the expo-
weight ratio as a measure of the edema produced by irritants
sure of the eyes to toxic chemicals should also be considered.
such as ozone or oxides of nitrogen. In other instances the
The effects of accidental contamination of the eye can vary
increase is a less specific general hypertrophy of the organ,
from minor irritation to complete loss of vision. In addition
especially of the liver and kidney.
to the accidental splashing of substances into the eyes, some
mists, vapors, and gases produce varying degrees of eye irrita-
PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTION TESTS
tion, either acute or chronic. In some instances a chemical
that does no damage to the eye can be absorbed in sufficient Physiological function tests are useful criteria of response
amount to cause systemic poisoning. both in experimental studies and in assessing the response of
APPENDIX L TOXICOLOGY REVIEW 243
exposed workers. They can be especially useful in chronic Tests for the level of metabolites of toxic agents in the
studies in that they do not necessitate the killing of the animal urine have found wide use in industrial toxicology as a means
and can, if desired, be done at regular intervals throughout the of evaluating exposure of workers. These are commonly
period of study. Tests in common clinical use such as brom- referred to as biologic threshold limits that serve as biologic
sulphalem retention, thymol turbidity, or serum alkaline phos- counterparts to the TLVs. The presence of the metabolic
phatase may be used to assess the effect of an agent on liver product does not of necessity imply poisoning; indeed, the
function. The examination of the renal clearance of various opposite is more commonly the case. Normal values have been
substances helps give an indication of localization of kidney established and an increase above these levels indicates that
damage. The ability of the kidney (especially in the rat) to exposure has occurred and thus provides a valuable screen-
produce a concentrated urine may be measured by the osmo- ing mechanism for the prevention of injury from continued or
lality of the urine produced. This has been suggested for the excessive exposure. Table L.2 lists some of these metabolic
evaluation of alterations in kidney function. Alterations products that have been used to evaluate exposure as well as
may be detected following inhalation of materials such as the agents for which they may be used.
chlorotrifluoroethylene at levels of reversible response. In There are other instances in which a biochemical alter-
some instances measurement of blood pressure has proved a ation produced by the toxic agent is useful as a criterion
sensitive means of evaluating response. Various tests of of evaluating exposure. Lead, for example, interferes in
pulmonary function have been used to evaluate the response porphyrin metabolism and increased levels of delta-
of both experimental animals and exposed workers. These aminolevulinic acid may be detected in the urine following
tests include relatively simple tests that are suitable for lead exposure. Levels of plasma chlorine esterase may be used
use in field surveys as well as more complex methods pos- to evaluate exposure to organic phosphorus insecticides.
sible only under laboratory conditions. Simple tests include Levels of carboxyhemoglobin provide a means of assessing
such measurements as peak expiratory flowrate (PEFR), exposure to carbon monoxide. Levels of methemoglobin can
forced vital capacity (FVC), and l-second forced expiratory be used to evaluate exposure to nitrobenzene or aniline.
volume (FEV1,0). More complex procedures include the Hemolysis of red cells is observed in exposure to arsine.
measurement of pulmonary mechanics (flow resistance and Analysis of blood, urine, hair, or nails for various metals is also
compliance). used to evaluate exposure, though whether these would be
termed biochemical tests depends somewhat on whether you
BIOCHEMICAL STUDIES are speaking with an engineer or a biochemist.
The use of biologic threshold limit values provides a valu-
The study of biochemical response to toxic agents leads
able adjunct to the TLVs, which are based on air analysis. The
in many instances to an understanding of the mechanism of
analysis of blood, urine, hair, or exhaled air for a toxic mate-
action. Tests of toxicity developed in animals should be ori-
rial per se (e.g., Pb, As) or for a metabolite of the toxic agent
ented to determination of early response from exposures that
(e.g., thiocyanate, phenol) gives an indication of the exposure
are applicable to the industrial scene. Many toxic agents act
of an individual worker. These tests represent a very practical
by inhibiting the action of specific enzymes. This action may
application of data from experimental toxicology. Research in
be studied in vitro and in vivo. In the first case, the toxic agent
industrial toxicology is often oriented toward the search for a
is added to tissue slices or tissue homogenate from normal
test suitable for use as a biologic threshold that will indicate
animals and the degree of inhibition of enzymatic activity
exposure at a level below which damage occurs.
is measured by an appropriate technique. In the second case,
the toxic agent is administered to the animals; after the desired
interval the animals are killed and the degree of enzyme inhi-
bition is measured in the appropriate tissues. A judicious TABLE L.2 Metabolic Products Useful as Indices
combination of in vivo and in vitro studies is especially useful of Exposure
when biotransformation to a toxic compound is involved. The
classic example of this is the toxicity of fluoroacetate. This
Product in Urine Toxic Agents
material, which was extremely toxic when administered to
animals of various species, did not inhibit any known enzymes
in vitro. Fluoroacetate entered the carboxylic acid cycle of Organic sulfate Benzene
metabolism as if it were acetic acid. The product formed Phenol
was fluorocitrate, which was a potent inhibitor of the enzyme Aniline
aconitase. Biological conversion in the living animal had Hippuric acid Toluene
resulted in the formation of a highly toxic compound. The Ethyl benzene
term lethal synthesis describes such a transformation. Thiocyanate Cyanate
Nitriles
DETOXICATION MECHANISMS Glucuronates Phenol
Benzene
The term biotransformation is in many ways preferable to
Terpenes
detoxication, for in many instances the toxic element may
Formic acid Methyl alcohol
be the metabolic product rather than the compound adminis-
2,6-dinitro-4-aminotoluene TNT
tered. There are some instances, of course, such as the con-
p-nitrophenol Parathion
version of cyanide to thiocyanate, that are truly detoxication
p-aminophenol Aniline
in the strict sense.
244 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
Behavioral Studies When any toxic agent is adminis- frequently used in such experiments. Quite frequently mate-
tered to experimental animals, the experienced investigator rials are screened by painting on the skin of experimental
is alert for any signs of abnormal behavior. Such things as animals, especially mice. Industrial experience down through
altered gait, bizarre positions, aggressive behavior, increased the years has made plain the hazard of cancer from exposure
or decreased activity, or tremors or convulsions can suggest to various chemicals. Among these are many of the poly-
possible sites of action or mechanisms of action. The ability nuclear hydrocarbons; betanaphylamine, which produces
of an animal to maintain its balance on a rolling bar is a bladder cancer; chromates; and nickel carbonyl, which pro-
frequently used test of coordination. The loss of learned duces lung cancer.
conditioned reflexes has also been used and by judicious
combination of these tests it is possible to determine, for FACTORS INFLUENCING INTENSITY OF
example, that the neurological response to methyl cellosolve TOXIC ACTION
differs from the response to ethyl alcohol. Ability to solve RATE OF ENTRY AND ROUTE OF EXPOSURE
problems or make perceptual distinctions has been used
on human subjects, especially in an effort to determine the The degree to which a biological system responds to the action
possible effects of low levels of carbon monoxide and other of a toxic agent is in many cases markedly influenced by the
agents that might be expected to interfere with efficient rate and route of exposure. It has already been indicated
performance of necessary tasks, thus creating a subtle hazard. that when a substance is administered as an iv injection, the
Effects on neurological variables, such as dark adaptation of material has maximum opportunity to be carried by the blood
the eye, have been used in determining threshold limit values. stream throughout the body, whereas other routes of exposure
interpose a barrier to distribution of the material. The effec-
Reproductive Effects It is possible that a level of a toxic tiveness of this barrier will govern the intensity of toxic action
material can have an effect on either male or female animals of a given amount of toxic agent administered by various
that will result in decreased fertility. In fertility studies the routes. Lead, for example, is toxic both by ingestion and by
chemical is given to males and females in daily doses for the inhalation. An equivalent dose, however, is more readily
full cycle of oogenesis and spermatogenesis prior to mating. If absorbed from the respiratory tract than from the gastroin-
gestation is established, the fetuses are removed by caesarian testinal tract, and hence produces a greater response.
section one day prior to delivery. The litter size and viability There is frequently a difference in intensity of response
are compared with untreated groups. The young are then and sometimes a difference even in the nature of the response
studied to determine possible effects on survival, growth rate, between the acute and chronic toxicity of a material. If a mate-
and maturation. The tests may be repeated through a second rial is taken into the body at a rate sufficiently slow that the
and third litter of the treated animals. If it is considered nec- rate of excretion and/or detoxification keeps pace with the
essary, the test may be extended through the second and third intake, it is possible that no toxic response will result even
generation. though the same total amount of material taken in at a faster
rate would result in a concentration of the agent at the site of
Teratogenic Effects Chemicals administered to the action sufficient to produce a toxic response. Information of
pregnant animal may, under certain conditions, produce this sort enters into the concept of a threshold limit for safe
malformations of the fetus without inducing damage to the exposure. Hydrogen sulfide is a good example of a substance
mother or killing the fetus. The experience with the birth of that is rapidly lethal at high concentrations, as evidenced by
many infants with limb anomalies resulting from the use of the many accidental deaths it has caused. It has an acute action
thalidomide by the mothers during pregnancy alerted the tox- on the nervous system with rapid production of respiratory
icologists to the need for more rigid testing in this difficult paralysis unless the victim is promptly removed to fresh air
area. Another example of human experience in recent times and revived with appropriate artificial respiration. On the
was the teratogenic effect of methyl mercury as demonstrated other hand, hydrogen sulfide is rapidly oxidized in the plasma
in the incidents of poisoning in Minamata Bay, Japan. The to nontoxic substances, and many times the lethal dose pro-
study of the teratogenic potential poses a very complex duces relatively little effect if administered slowly. Benzene is
toxicological problem. The susceptibility of various species of a good example of a material that differs in the nature of
animals varies greatly in the area of teratogenic effects. The response depending on whether the exposure is an acute one
timing of the dose is very critical as a chemical may produce to a high concentration or a chronic exposure to a lower level.
severe malformations of one sort if it reaches the embryo at If one used as criteria the 4 hr LC50 for rats of 16,000 ppm,
one period of development and either no malformations which has been reported for benzene, one would conclude
or malformations of a completely different character if it is (from Table L.1) that this material would be “practically non-
administered at a later or earlier period of embryogenesis. toxic,” which, of course, is contrary to fact. The mechanism of
acute death is narcosis. Chronic exposure to low levels of
Carcinogenicity The study of the carcinogenic effects benzene, on the other hand, produces damage to the blood-
of a toxic chemical is a complex experimental problem. Such forming tissue of the bone marrow, and chronic benzene intox-
testing involves the use of sizable groups of animals observed ication may appear even many years after the actual exposure
over a period of two years in rats or four to five years in dogs to benzene has ceased.
because of the long latent period required for the develop-
AGE
ment of cancer. Efforts to shorten the time lag have led to the
use of aging animals. This may reduce the lag period one third It is well known that, in general, infants and the newborn are
to one fourth. Various strains of inbred mice or hamsters are more sensitive to many toxic agents than are adults of the
APPENDIX L TOXICOLOGY REVIEW 245
same species, but this has relatively little bearing on a discus- HOST FACTORS
sion of industrial toxicology. Older persons or older animals
are also often more sensitive to toxic action than are younger For many toxic agents the response varies with the species of
adults. With aging comes a diminished reserve capacity in the animal. There are often differences in the response of males
face of toxic stress. This reserve capacity may be either and females to the same agent. Hereditary factors also can be
functional or anatomical. The excess mortality in the older age of importance. Genetic defects in metabolism may render
groups during and immediately following the well-known certain individuals more sensitive to a given toxic agent.
acute air pollution incidents is a case in point. There is ex-
perimental evidence from electron microscope studies that CLASSIFICATION OF TOXIC MATERIALS
younger animals exposed to pollutants have a capacity to Within the scope of this review it is not possible to discuss the
repair lung damage that was lost in older animals. specific toxic action of a variety of materials, although where
possible specific information has been used to illustrate the
STATE OF HEALTH
principles discussed. Toxic agents may be classified in several
Pre-existing disease can result in greater sensitivity to toxic ways. No one of these is of itself completely satisfactory. A
agents. In the case of specific diseases that would contraindi- toxic agent may have its action on the organ with which
cate exposure to specific toxic agents, preplacement medical it comes into first contact. Let us assume for the moment
examination can prevent possible hazardous exposure. For that the agent is inhaled. Materials such as irritant gases or
example, an individual with some degree of preexisting acid mists produce a more or less rapid response from the
methemoglobinemia would not be placed in a work situation respiratory tract when present in sufficient concentration.
involving exposure to nitrobenzene. Since it is known that the Other agents, such as silica or asbestos, also damage the lungs
uptake of manganese parallels the uptake of iron, it would be but the response is seen only after lengthy exposure. Other
unwise to employ a person with known iron deficiency anemia toxic agents may have no effect on the organ through which
as a manganese miner. It has been shown that viral agents will they enter the body, but exert what is called systemic toxic
increase the sensitivity of animals to exposure to oxidizing action when they have been absorbed and translocated to the
type air pollutants. Nutritional status also affects response to site of biological action. Examples of such agents would be
toxic agents. mercury vapor, manganese, lead, chlorinated hydrocarbons,
and many others that are readily absorbed through the
PREVIOUS EXPOSURE lungs, but produce typical toxic symptoms only in other organ
systems.
Previous exposure to a toxic agent can lead to either toler-
ance, increased sensitivity, or make no difference in the degree
of response. Some toxic agents function by sensitization and PHYSICAL CLASSIFICATIONS
the initial exposures produce no observable response, but sub- This type of classification is an attempt to base the discussion
sequent exposures will do so. In these cases the individuals of toxic agents on the form in which they are present in the
who are thus sensitized must be removed from exposure. In air. These are discussed as gases and vapors or as aerosols.
other instances, if an individual is reexposed to a substance
before complete reversal of the change produced by a previ- Gases and Vapors In common industrial hygiene usage
ous exposure, the effect may be more dangerous. A case in the term gas is usually applied to a substance that is in the
point would be an exposure to an organophosphorus insecti- gaseous state at room temperature and pressure and the term
cide that would lower the level of acetylcholine esterase. vapor is applied to the gaseous phase of a material that is ordi-
Given time, the level will be restored to normal. If another narily a solid or a liquid at room temperature and pressure. In
exposure occurs prior to this, the enzyme activity may be considering the toxicity of a gas or vapor, the solubility of
further reduced to dangerous levels. Previous exposure to low the material is of the utmost importance. If the material is an
levels of a substance may in some cases protect against irritant gas, solubility in aqueous media will determine the
subsequent exposure to levels of a toxic agent that would be amount of material that reaches the lung and hence its site of
damaging if given initially. This may come about through the action. A highly soluble gas, such as ammonia, is taken up
induction of enzymes that detoxify the compound or by readily by the mucous membranes of the nose and upper res-
other mechanisms often not completely understood. It has piratory tract. Sensory response to irritation in these areas
been shown, for example, that exposure of mice to low levels provides the individual with warning of the presence of an irri-
of ozone will prevent death from pulmonary edema in sub- tant gas. On the other hand, a relatively insoluble gas such as
sequent high exposures. There is also a considerable cross nitrogen dioxide is not scrubbed out by the upper respiratory
tolerance among the oxidizing irritants such as ozone and tract, but penetrates readily to the lung. Amounts sufficient to
hydrogen peroxide, an exposure to low levels of the one pro- lead to pulmonary edema and death may be inhaled by an
tecting against high levels of the other. individual who is not at the time aware of the hazard. The
solubility coefficient of a gas or vapor in blood is one of the
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
factors determining rate of uptake and saturation of the body.
Physical factors can also affect the response to toxic agents. In With a very soluble gas, saturation of the body is slow, is
industries such as smelting or steel making, high temperatures largely dependent on ventilation of the lungs, and is only
are encountered. Pressures different than normal ambient slightly influenced by changes in circulation. In the case of a
atmospheric pressure can be encountered in caissons or tunnel slightly soluble gas, saturation is rapid, depends chiefly on the
construction. rate of circulation, and is little influenced by the rate of breath-
246 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
ing. If the vapor has a high fat solubility, it tends to accumu- potential for interaction with irritant gases, a fact that is of
late in the fatty tissues that it reaches carried in the blood. importance in air pollution toxicology.
Since fatty tissue often has a meager blood supply, complete
saturation of the fatty tissue may take a longer period. It is CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION
also of importance whether the vapor or gas is one that is
Toxic compounds may be classified according to their chemi-
readily metabolized. Conversion to a metabolite would tend
cal nature.
to lower the concentration in the blood and shift the equi-
librium toward increased uptake. It is also of importance
PHYSIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
whether such metabolic products are toxic.
Such classification attempts to frame the discussion of toxic
Aerosols An aerosol is composed of solid or liquid par- materials according to their biological action.
ticles of microscopic size dispersed in a gaseous medium (for
our purposes, air). Special terms are used for indicating certain Irritants The basis of classifying these materials is their
types of particles. Some of these are: dust, a dispersion of solid ability to cause inflammation of mucous membranes with
particles usually resulting from the fracture of larger masses which they come in contact. While many irritants are strong
of material such as in drilling, crushing, or grinding operations; acids or alkalis familiar as corrosive to nonliving things such
mist, a dispersion of liquid particles, many of which are visible; as lab coats or bench tops, bear in mind that inflammation is
fog, visible aerosols of a liquid formed by condensation; fume, the reaction of a living tissue and is distinct from chemical cor-
an aerosol of solid particles formed by condensation of rosion. The inflammation of tissue results from concentrations
vaporized materials; smoke, aerosols resulting from incom- far below those needed to produce corrosion. As was indi-
plete combustion that consist mainly of carbon and other com- cated earlier in discussing gases and vapors, solubility is an
bustible materials. The toxic response to an aerosol depends important factor in determining the site of irritant action
on the nature of the material, which may have as a target in the respiratory tract. Highly soluble materials such as
organ the respiratory system or may be a systemic toxic agent ammonia, alkaline dusts and mists, hydrogen chloride, and
acting elsewhere in the body. In either case, the toxic poten- hydrogen fluoride affect mainly the upper respiratory tract.
tial of a given material dispersed as an aerosol is only partially Other materials of intermediate solubility such as the
described by a statement of the concentration of the material halogens, ozone, diethyl or dimethyl sulfate, and phosphorus
in terms of weight per unit volume or number of particles per chlorides affect both the upper respiratory tract and the
unit volume. For a proper assessment of the toxic hazard, it is pulmonary tissue. Insoluble materials, such as nitrogen
necessary to have information also on the particle size distri- dioxide, arsenic trichloride, or phosgene, affect primarily the
bution of the material. Understanding of this fact has led to lung. There are exceptions to the statement that solubility
the development of instruments that sample only particles in serves to indicate site of action. One such is ethyl ether and
the respirable size range. other insoluble compounds that are readily absorbed unal-
The particle size of an aerosol is the key factor in deter- tered from the alveoli and hence do not accumulate in that
mining its site of deposition in the respiratory tract and as a area. In the upper respiratory passages and bronchi where the
sequel to this, the clearance mechanisms that will be available material is not readily absorbed, it can accumulate in concen-
for its subsequent removal. The deposition of an aerosol in the trations sufficient to produce irritation. Another exception is
respiratory tract depends on the physical forces of impaction, in materials such as bromobenzyl cyanide that is a vapor from
settling, and diffusion or Brownian movement that apply to a liquid boiling well above room temperature. It is taken up
the removal of any aerosol from the atmosphere, as well as by the eyes and skin as a mist. In initial action, then, it is a
on anatomical and physiological factors such as the geometry powerful lachrymator and upper respiratory irritant, rather
of the lungs and the airflow rates and patterns occurring than producing a primarily alveolar reaction as would be pre-
during the respiratory cycle. In the limited space available, dicted from its low solubility.
only one point will be emphasized here, namely, the toxico- Irritants can also cause changes in the mechanics of
logical importance of particles below 1 mm in size. Aerosols in respiration such as increased pulmonary flow resistance or
the range of 0.2–0.4 mm tend to be fairly stable in the atmos- decreased compliance (a measure of elastic behavior of the
phere. This comes about because they are too small to be lungs). One group of irritants, among which are sulfur dioxide,
effectively removed by forces of settling or impaction and too acetic acid, formaldehyde, formic acid, sulfuric acid, acrolein,
big to be effectively removed by diffusion. Since these are the and iodine, produce a pattern in which the flow resistance is
forces that lead to deposition in the respiratory tract, it has increased, the compliance is decreased only slightly, and at
been predicted theoretically and confirmed experimentally higher concentrations the frequency of breathing is decreased.
that a lesser percentage of these particles is deposited in the Another group, among which are ozone and oxides of nitro-
respiratory tract. On the other hand, since they are stable in gen, has little effect on resistance and produces a decrease in
the atmosphere, there are large numbers of them present to compliance and an increase in respiratory rate. There is evi-
be inhaled, and to dismiss this size range as of minimal impor- dence that in the case of irritant aerosols, the irritant potency
tance is an error in toxicological thinking that should be cor- of a given material tends to increase with decreasing particle
rected whenever it is encountered. Aerosols in the size range size as assessed by the increase in flow resistance. Following
below 0.1 mm are also of major toxicological importance. The respiratory mechanics measurements in cats exposed to irri-
percentage deposition of these extremely small particles is as tant aerosols, the histologic sections prepared after rapid
great as for 1 mm particles and this deposition is alveolar. freezing of the lungs showed the anatomical sites of constric-
Particles in the submicron range also appear to have greater tion. Long-term chronic lung impairment may be caused by
APPENDIX L TOXICOLOGY REVIEW 247
irritants either as sequelae to a single very severe exposure or a stable complex with the ferric iron of ferric cytochrome
as the result of chronic exposure to low concentrations of the oxidase resulting in inhibition of enzyme action. Since aerobic
irritant. There is evidence in experimental animals that long- metabolism is dependent on this enzyme system, the tissues
term exposure to respiratory irritants can lead to increased are unable to utilize the supply of oxygen, and tissue hypoxia
mucous secretion and a condition resembling the pathology results. Therapy is directed toward the formation of an inac-
of human chronic bronchitis without the intermediary of tive complex before the cyanide has a chance to react with
infection. The epidemiological assessment of this factor in the the cytochrome. Cyanide will complex with methemoglobin so
health of residents of polluted urban atmospheres is currently nitrite is injected to promote the formation of methemoglo-
a vital area of research. bin. Thiosulfate is also given as this provides the sulfate
Irritants are usually further subdivided into primary and needed to promote the enzymatic conversion of cyanide to
secondary irritants. A primary irritant is a material that for the less toxic thiocyanate.
all practical purposes exerts no systemic toxic action either
because the products formed on the tissues of the respiratory Primary Anesthetics The main toxic action of these
tract are nontoxic or because the irritant action is far in excess materials is their depressant effect on the central nervous
of any systemic toxic action. Examples of the first type would system, particularly the brain. The degree of anesthetic effect
be hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid. Examples of the second depends on the effective concentration in the brain as well
type would be materials such as Lewisite or mustard gas, as on the specific pharmacologic action. Thus, the effective-
which would be quite toxic on absorption but death from the ness is a balance between solubility (which decreases) and
irritation would result before sufficient amounts to produce pharmacological potency (which increases) as one moves
systemic poisoning would be absorbed. Secondary irritants up a homologous series of compounds of increasing chain
are materials that do produce irritant action on mucous mem- length. The anesthetic potency of the simple alcohols also rises
branes, but this effect is overshadowed by systemic effects with the increasing number of carbon atoms through amyl
resulting from absorption. Examples of materials in this cate- alcohol, which is the most powerful of the series. The presence
gory are hydrogen sulfide and many of the aromatic hydro- of multiple hydroxyl groups diminishes potency. The presence
carbons and other organic compounds. The direct contact of carboxyl groups tends to prevent anesthetic activity, which
of liquid aromatic hydrocarbons with the lung can cause is slightly restored in the case of an ester. Thus acetic acid
chemical pneumonitis with pulmonary edema, hemorrhage, is not anesthetic, but ethyl acetate is mildly so. The sub-
and tissue necrosis. It is for this reason that in the case of stitution of a halogen for a hydrogen of the fatty hydrocar-
accidental ingestion of these materials the induction of vom- bons greatly increases the anesthetic action, but confers toxi-
iting is contraindicated because of possible aspiration of the city to other organ systems, which outweighs the anesthetic
hydrocarbon into the lungs. action.
Asphyxiants The basis of classifying these materials is Hepatotoxic Agents These are materials that have as
their ability to deprive the tissue of oxygen. In the case of their main toxic action the production of liver damage. Carbon
severe pulmonary edema caused by an irritant such as nitro- tetrachloride produces severe diffuse central necrosis of the
gen dioxide or laryngeal spasm caused by a sudden severe liver. Tetrachloroethane is probably the most toxic of the
exposure to sulfuric acid mist, the death is from asphyxia, chlorinated hydrocarbons and produces acute yellow atrophy
but the conditions result from the primary irritant action. The of the liver. Nitrosamines are capable of producing severe
materials we classify here as asphyxiants do not damage the liver damage. There are many compounds of plant origin, such
lung. Simple asphyxiants are physiologically inert gases that as some of the toxic components of the mushroom Amanita
act when they are present in the atmosphere in sufficient phalloides, alkaloids from Senecio, and aflatoxins, that are
quantity to exclude an adequate oxygen supply. Among these capable of producing severe liver damage and in some
are such substances as nitrogen, nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide, instances are powerful hepatocarcinogens.
hydrogen, helium, and the aliphatic hydrocarbons such as
methane and ethane. All of these gases are not chemically Nephrotoxic Agents These are materials that have as
unreactive and among them are many materials that pose a their main toxic action the production of kidney damage.
major hazard of fire and explosion. Chemical asphyxiants are Some of the halogenated hydrocarbons produce damage to
materials that have as their specific toxic action rendering the the kidney as well as to the liver. Uranium produces kidney
body incapable of utilizing an adequate oxygen supply. They damage, mostly limited to the distal third of the proximal con-
are thus active in concentrations far below the level needed voluted tubule.
for damage from the simple asphyxiants. The two classic
examples of chemical asphyxiants are carbon monoxide and Neurotoxic Agents These are materials that in one way
cyanides. Carbon monoxide interferes with the transport of or another produce their main toxic symptoms on the nervous
oxygen to the tissues by its affinity for hemoglobin. The car- system. Among them are metals such as manganese, mercury,
boxyhemoglobin thus formed is unavailable for the transport and thallium. The central nervous system seems particular-
of oxygen. ly sensitive to organometallic compounds, and neurological
Over and above the familiar lethal effects, there is damage results from such materials as methylmercury and
concern about how low-level exposures will affect perfor- tetraethyl lead. Trialkyl tin compounds may cause edema of
mance of such tasks as automobile driving and so on. In the the central nervous system. Carbon disulfide acts mainly on
case of cyanide, there is no interference with the transport of the nervous system. The organic phosphorus insecticides lead
oxygen to the tissues. Cyanide transported to the tissues forms to an accumulation of acetylcholine because of the inhibition
248 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
of the enzyme that would normally remove it and hence cause borne concentrations and represent conditions under which it
their main symptoms in the nervous system. is believed that nearly all healthy humans may be repeatedly
exposed for a forty-hour work week, without adverse effects.
Agents That Act on the Blood or Hematopoietic System TLVs for air contaminants that exist as gases or fumes are
Some toxic agents such as nitrites, aniline, and toluidine expressed as ppm (parts per million parts of air by volume at
convert hemoglobin to methemoglobin. Nitrobenzene forms 25°C and 760 mm Hg pressure). TLVs for respirable dusts,
methemoglobin and also lowers the blood pressure. Arsine which are suspended in the air, are in terms of mppcf (millions
produces hemolysis of the red blood cells. Benzene damages of particles per cubic foot of air). The TLVs are based on
the hematopoietic cells of the bone marrow. a time-weighted average (TWA). ACGIH also publishes
short-term exposure limits (STELs), which are the maximum
Agents That Damage the Lung In this category are amount to which a worker could be exposed for fifteen
materials that produce damage of the pulmonary tissue but minutes.
not by immediate irritant action. Fibrotic changes are pro-
duced by materials such as free silica, which produces the PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LIMITS
typical silicotic nodule. Asbestos also produces a typical
damage to lung tissue and there is newly aroused interest in The Occupational Safety and Health Administration adopted
this subject from the point of view of possible effects of low- the TLVs that had been published in 1968–1969 as its permis-
level exposure of individuals who are not asbestos workers. sible exposure limits. TLVs are recognized as guidelines, while
Other dusts, such as coal dust, can produce pneumoconiosis the OSHA PELs can be enforced. Although the ACGIH
that, with or without tuberculosis superimposed, has been of periodically updates its TLVs, OSHA has done so for only a
long concern in mining. Many dusts of organic origin such as few compounds, since the process of changing their standards
those arising in the processing of cotton or wood can cause requires complex rule-making, subject to legal challenge. Thus
pathology of the lungs and/or alterations in lung function. where there is a discrepancy between the PEL and the TLV,
The proteolytic enzymes added to laundry products are an the more protective level should be adhered to.
occupational hazard of current interest. Toluenediisocyanate
(TDI) is another material that can cause impaired lung BIOLOGICAL EXPOSURE INDICES
function at very low concentrations and there is evidence of The use of Biological Exposure Indices (BEIs) provides a
chronic as well as acute effects. valuable adjunct to TLVs and PELs, which are based on air
analysis. The analysis of blood, urine, hair, or exhaled air for a
HEALTH AND SAFETY STANDARDS toxic material (e.g., Pb, As) or for a metabolite of the toxic
AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT agent (e.g., thiocyanate, phenal) gives an indication of the
Historically, there was very little concern for protecting the exposure of an individual worker. These tests represent a very
health of the worker prior to 1900. The English Factory Acts practical application of data from experimental toxicology.
of 1833 were the first example of government’s interest in the Research in industrial toxicology is often oriented toward the
health of the workers. This interest was related to providing search for a test suitable for use as a BEI that will indicate
compensation for accidents rather than prevention. In 1908, exposure at a level below which damage occurs. Biological
the U.S. government passed a compensation act for certain monitoring determines both the occurrence of exposure and
civil employees, and by 1948 all states had passed such legis- the uptake (or presence) of a particular substance or its meta-
lation. This focus on compensation led to the development of bolites in body fluids or organs; it can be used to estimate
industrial health and safety as it became more profitable to the dose to effector organs and possibly the concentration at
control the environment than to pay for its negative health binding sites (receptor compartment) in the critical organs. It
effects. In 1912, the U.S. Public Health Service was given the may complement both medical surveillance and environmen-
authority to investigate conditions relating to worker health tal monitoring.
and safety in many industries and to make recommendations
for concrete, workable solutions. SUMMARY
A major change occurred with passage of the Occupa-
This toxicology overview is intended to acquaint the reader
tional Safety and Health Act of 1970, which established the
with some of the terminology that health scientists use to
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) as
communicate toxicological information to the public, indus-
an enforcement agency, and the National Institute of Occu-
trial hygienists, and environmental health workers. The reader
pational Safety and Health (NIOSH) as a research and con-
should be aware throughout this overview of the complexity
sultative agency. NIOSH, a division of the U.S. Public Health
of the issue and the difficulty of establishing specific, defini-
Service develops criteria which are intended to help manage-
tive exposure limits to hazardous substances. The range of
ment and labor develop better engineering controls and more
responses from individuals to the same toxic substance plus
healthful work practices, and on which OSHA should estab-
the imprecise process of extrapolating animal exposure to
lish its regulatory standards (but see below).
human tolerance must be appreciated by the hazardous waste
worker. Great care should be taken to prevent and/or limit
THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUES
hazardous waste worker exposure to the lowest practical level.
Threshold limit values (TLVs) are published annually by the Any program to protect the health and safety of haz-
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists ardous waste workers will be made more effective by a basic
(ACGIH) for approximately 400 substances. TLVs refer to air- understanding of the science of toxicology. The detection of
APPENDIX L TOXICOLOGY REVIEW 249
potentially toxic substances before damaging concentrations National Research Council (NRC). Pharmacokinetics in Risk
are reached is important for the prevention of worker injury. Assessment, Drinking Water and Health Vol.8.
The ability to recognize the workers’ symptomatic responses Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1987.
to toxic exposures is fundamental for timely intervention. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. Cincinnati, OH:
The perspective that toxicology provides to site supervisors, DHHS (NIOSH) 90-117, 1997.
project managers and others involved in worker health and “Occupational Exposure to Ethylene Glycol Monomethyl
safety is an essential part of any successful health and safety Ether and Ethylene Glycol Monoethyl Ether and Their
program. Acetates.” Cincinnati, OH: DHHS (NIOSH) 91-119,
1991, pp. 29–35.
Ottoboni, A. The Dose Makes the Poison. Berkeley, CA:
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Public Health Service, 1973, p. 61. 1990s.” Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 10
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. (1989):204–243.
(ACGIH). “Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Sub- Presidential/Congressional Commission on Risk Assessment
stances and Physical Agents and Biological Exposures and Risk Management. Framework for Environmental
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Ariens, E. Introduction to General Toxicology. New York: Staffa, J.A., and M.A. Mehlman, eds. Innovations in Cancer
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Gallo, M.A. “History and Scope of Toxicology.” Pp. 1–11 in Pathotox, 1979.
Casarett and Doull’s Toxicology: The Basic Science of Takizawa, Y. “Epidemiology of Mercury Poisoning.” pp.
Poisons. 5th ed. C.D. Klaassen, ed. New York: McGraw- 325–365 in The Biogeochemistry of Mercury in the
Hill, 1996. Environment. J.O. Niagru, ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1979.
Hallenbeck, W.H. Quantitative Risk Assessment for Environ- Vianna, N.J., and A.K. Polan. “Incidence of Low Birth
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Sites. 3rd ed. W.F. Martin and M. Gochfeld, eds. Boston: ity. J.E. Gibson, ed. New York: Hemisphere, 1983,
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Febiger, 1968, p. 5. Chemical Workers Potentially Exposed to Formaldehyde,
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Index
Page numbers followed by “f” denote figures; those followed by “t” denote tables
Abbreviations, 145 hazards assessment, 32, 34 level C, 97, 177–178
Acclimatization, 73 monitoring program, 34 methods
ACGIH, 34 off-site, 27–28 chemical removal, 95t, 95–96
Acronyms, 147–148 on-site, 29–32 effectiveness testing of, 96–97
Aerosols, 246 phases of, 27 health and safety hazards associated
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Chemical exposure with, 97
Registry, 7 acute, 9, 13 overview of, 94
Air-line respirators, 45t, 48–49, 69t–70t characteristics of, 10t physical removal, 94–95, 95t
Air monitoring chronic, 9, 13 personnel protection, 98–99
factors that affect, 42 ingestion, 13 plan, 93
general, 41 inhalation, 13 prevention of, 93–94
IDLH, 40–41 injection, 13 procedures, 175–178
long-term, 36 methods of, 9, 13 types of, 94
methods of overview of, 10t Decontamination line, 98
direct-reading instruments, 35–36, symptoms of, 10t, 13 Direct-reading instruments, 35–36, 37t–39t
37t–39t Chemical formulas, 149 Discharge, of hazardous waste
laboratory analysis, 36, 40, 40t Chemical protective clothing description of, 143
NIOSH, 36 recommendations, 169–173 handling of, 143
perimeter, 41 Codes of Federal Regulations, description Drilling hazards, 131–132
periodic, 41 of, 1–2 Drum grappler, 85
personnel, 41–42 Cold exposure, 12t, 18 Drums
purpose of, 35 Combustible gas indicator, 37t accidents associated with, 84
site characterization, 40–41 Communications buried, 86–87
stages of, 40 for emergencies, 105–106 contents
Air-purifying respirators, 45t, 49–50, 70t site, 82 characterization of, 88
Aliphatic amines, laboratory analysis of, 40t Comprehensive Environmental Response, sampling of, 87–88
Alpha radiation, 14 Compensation, and Liability Act, 1, shipping of, 89
American Conference of Governmental 3–4 deteriorated, 86
Industrial Hygienists, 34 Compressed-gas cylinders, 91, 143 with explosives or shock-sensitive waste,
Anions, laboratory analysis of, 40t Containers. see Drums 86
Anti-radiation suit, 53t Contaminants federal regulations regarding,
Aromatic hydrocarbon solvents, 116t adhering, 94–95 84
Asbestos loose, 94 handling of
characteristics of, 116t Contamination control line, 79 equipment, 85
health effects of, 116t Contamination reduction zone, 79–80 planning for, 85
laboratory analysis of, 40t Contingency plan, for emergencies, 101–102 procedures, 85–87
Asphyxiants, 247 Cooling garment, 53t purpose, 85
Corrosive material, 139, 143 inspection of, 84–85
Beta radiation, 14
CRZ, 79–80 with laboratory waste, 86
Biological exposure indices, 248
leaking, 86
Biologic hazards
Decontamination opening of, 87
characteristics of, 12t
definition of, 93 pressurized, 86
overview of, 12t
from drilling well, 132 with radioactive waste, 85–86
types of, 14
emergency, 99, 109 staging areas for, 88
Blast and fragmentation suit, 53t
equipment types of, 84t
Carcinogens, assessment of, 33t disposal of, 98 Dusts, assessment of, 33t
CERCLA, 1, 3–4 recommended types of, 98t–99t
CFRs, 1–2 facilities for, 97–98 Effectiveness testing, of decontamination
Chain-of-custody record, 32f federal regulations, 98 methods, 96–97
Characterization, of site level A, 97, 175 Electrical hazards
air monitoring, 40–41 level B, 97, 176–177 causes of, 14
251
252 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
characteristics of, 11t Superfund Amendments and characteristics of, 15t
overview of, 11t Reauthorization Act (1986), 1–3 clinical features of, 15t
Elevated tanks, 91 Toxic Substances Control Act, 5–6 prevention of, 15t
Emergencies FEMA, 7 Heat exhaustion
agencies, 104t, 112t FID, 36, 37t anhydrotic, 16t
causes of, 101t FIFRA, 7 characteristics of, 15t, 17
communication during Fire and explosions clinical features of, 15t
external, 106 atmospheric monitoring, 30t prevention of, 15t
internal, 105–106 causes of, 13 signs and symptoms of, 17, 122t
decontamination, 99, 109 characteristics of, 10t–11t Heat fatigue
documentation of, 111–112 guidelines for assessing, 33t chronic, 16t
equipment, 109t, 109–110 overview of, 10t–11t transient, 16t
evacuation routes and procedures, well drilling and, 132 Heat rash
108–109 Fire fighting, protective clothing for, 52t, 60 clinical features of, 16t, 17–18
first aid for, 110 Fit testing, for respiratory equipment, 67 description of, 16t
medical treatment for, 110 Flame ionization detector, 36, 37t prevention of, 16t
personnel for managing Flammable liquid, 138, 143 Heat stress
agencies, 104t Flammable solids, 138, 143 causes of, 14, 15t–16t
authority, 105 Flotation gear, 53t characteristics of, 11t
description of, 103t Frostbite, 18 classification of, 15t–16t
off-site, 104 monitoring for, 71, 72t
Gamma radiation, 14
on-site, 102–104 overview of, 11t
Gases, 138, 245–246
responsibilities of, 103t predisposing factors, 70
Groundwater well drilling. see Wells
training, 105, 128 prevention of, 15t, 71–72
planning for, 101–102 Halogenated aliphatic compounds, 117t symptoms of, 73t
prevention of, 105 Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments Heatstroke
public evacuation, 107 of 1984, 135 characteristics of, 15t
recognition of, 105 Hazardous materials clinical features of, 15t
refuges, 107 classification of, 137–139 prevention of, 15t
response procedures, 110–111 NIOSH data, 193–237 signs and symptoms of, 17, 122t
safe distances for, 106–107 transportation of. see Transportation, of treatment of, 17
safety stations, 107 hazardous waste Heat syncope, 15t
site mapping for, 106 Hazardous substance data sheet Hepatotoxic agents, 247
transportation of hazardous materials, description of, 34 Herbicides, 118t
140 sample, 165–167 Hot line, 77f, 79
treatment for, 122–123 Hazards HSWA, 175
Evacuations assessment of, 32–34, 33t Hyperpyrexia, 17
description of, 107 biologic Hypothermia, 12t, 18
procedures for, 108–109 characteristics of, 12t
Infectious substances, 139
routes for, 108–109 overview of, 12t
Infrared spectrophotometer, 38t
Exclusion zone, 78–79 types of, 14
Insecticides
Explosions. see Fire and explosions electrical
organochlorine, 118t–119t
Explosives, 138, 143 causes of, 14
organophosphate, 119t
characteristics of, 11t
Inspections
Federal agencies overview of, 11t
of drums, 84
reports of emergencies, 112t exposure signs and symptoms, 122t
guidelines for, 24–25, 69t–70t
types of, 7 physical
of personal protective equipment, 68,
Federal Emergency Management characteristics of, 11t
69t–70t
Administration, how to contact, 7 injury secondary to, 14
Ionizing radiation exposure
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and overview of, 11t
atmospheric monitoring, 30t
Rodenticide Act, 7 types of, 14
characteristics of, 10t
Federal regulations reassessment of, 34
overview of, 10t
Comprehensive Environmental HAZMAT employees, 136
protective clothing, 53t, 60
Response, Compensation, and Health and safety plan, for hazardous waste
radiation types, 14
Liability Act, 1, 3–4 response
symptoms of, 10t
for decontamination waste, 98 checklist, 179–192
Irritants, 246–247
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and elements of, 23–24
Rodenticide Act, 7 inspections, 24–25 Laboratory packs
for handling drums, 84 safety meeting prior to implementing, 24 classification of, 90t
National Environmental Policy Act, 5–7 Health and safety staff, training of, 128 description of, 86
Resource Conservation and Recovery Heat cramps handling of, 89–90
Act (1976), 1, 4–5 causes of, 17 Lagoons, 91
INDEX 253
Laws, 1–2. see also Federal regulations how to contact, 7 inspection of, 68, 69t–70t
LEXIS, 2 protective clothing and equipment in-use monitoring of, 67
regulations, 44t Level A, 61t–62t
Managers, training of, 128 record keeping requirements, 123 Level B, 28–29, 61t–62t
Masks, 54t Organic gases and vapors, 30t Level C, 61t–62t
Material safety data sheets Organic peroxides, 138–139, 143 Level D, 61t–62t
description of, 2, 140 Organochlorine insecticides, 118t–119t maintenance of, 70, 109
functions of, 140 Organophosphate insecticides, 119t OSHA regulations, 44t
handling provisions, 140 OSHA. see Occupational Safety and Health oxygen supply amounts, 65
posting at site, 83 Administration personal factors that affect, 66
Medical monitoring programs Oxidizers, 138, 143 physiological functions that affect
description of, 114–115 Oxygen deficiency description of, 72–74
emergency treatment, 122–123 atmospheric monitoring, 30t monitoring of, 72t
evaluation of, 113–114 causes of, 14 program development, 43–44
examination, 121–122 characteristics of, 10t respiratory equipment
occupational history, 162–164 overview of, 10t air-line respirators, 45t, 48–49, 69t–70t
overview of, 113 symptoms of, 13–14 air-purifying respirators, 45t, 49–50, 70t
periodic screening, 121–122 Oxygen meter, 39t characteristics of, 45t
preassignment screening description of, 44–46
baseline data gathering, 120 Passive locator system, 107 fit testing, 67
elements of, 114t Permeation protection factors, 46, 47t
functions of, 115 decontamination methods effectiveness self-contained breathing apparatuses,
physical fitness determinations, 115, and, 97 45t, 46–48, 69t
120 factors that affect, 94 storage of, 70
sample examinations, 120–121 of personal protective clothing, 51, 57 temperature-related effects, 47t
recommended type of, 114t Permissible exposure limits, 248 selection of, 28–29
records, 123 Personal protective clothing storage of, 70
review of, 113–114, 123–124 for arms, 55t training, 62, 64–65
termination examination, 122 chemical protective clothing, 169–173 upgrading of, 60–62
tests, 115t criteria for selecting, 51 worker’s ability to work while wearing,
toxins commonly found, 115, 116t–119t for ears, 55t 73, 120–121
Metals for eyes, 54t–55t work mission duration, 65–66, 71
commonly found types of, 117t for face, 54t–55t Pesticides, laboratory analysis of, 40t
health effects of, 117t–118t for feet, 55t Photoionization detector, 36, 38t
laboratory analysis of, 40t for full body, 52t–53t Physical hazards
Miliaria crystallin, 18 for hands, 55t characteristics of, 11t
Miliaria profunda, 16t, 18 hazards-based selection of, 58t– injury secondary to, 14
Miliaria rubra, 16t, 17 59t overview of, 11t
Miscellaneous hazardous material, 139 for head, 54t types of, 14
Monitoring, in site characterization, 34 heat-transfer characteristics of, 57 PID, 36, 38t
MSDS. see Material safety data sheets inspection of, 69t Planning, for hazardous waste response
National Environmental Policy Act, 5–7 mobility limitations associated with, health and safety plan, 23–24
National Institute for Occupational Safety 108–109 overview of, 21–23
and Health permeation and degradation resistance, responsibilities, 21–23
air-purifying respirators, 50 51, 57 work plan, 23
chemical hazard data, 193–237 purpose of, 51 Poisonous materials, 139, 143
exposure limits, 34 recommended types of, 51, 52t–56t Polychlorinated biphenyls
how to contact, 7 reuse of, 68 characteristics of, 119t
NEPA, 5–7 special conditions, 57, 60 factors that affect distribution of, 42
Nephrotoxic agents, 247 storage of, 70 health effects of, 119t
Neurotoxic agents, 247–248 Personal protective equipment laboratory analysis of, 40t
NIOSH. see National Institute for clothing. see Personal protective clothing temperature effects, 42
Occupational Safety and Health coolant supply, 65 Ponds, 91
Nitrosamines, laboratory analysis of, 40t description of, 28–29 Primary anesthetics, 247
Noise exposure for drilling wells, 131–132 Protection factors, 46, 47t
assessment of, 33t ensembles Proximity garment, 52t
characteristics of, 12t, 18 characteristics of, 60–62, 61t
Qualitative fit testing, 67
description of, 60–62, 61t
Occupational history, 162–164 doffing, 68 Radiation exposure
Occupational Safety and Health donning of, 66–67 atmospheric monitoring, 30t
Administration penetration of, 65 characteristics of, 10t
exposure limit terminology, 34 heat stress caused by. see Heat stress overview of, 10t
254 HAZARDOUS WASTE HANDBOOK
protective clothing, 53t, 60 security of, 80–82, 107–108 accidents, 135
radiation types, 14 work zones emergency response procedures, 140
symptoms of, 10t contamination reduction zone, 79–80 EPA-RCRA regulations, 136–137
Radioactive waste description of, 78 handling requirements
classification of, 139 exclusion zone, 78–79 description of, 142–143
in drums, 85–86 schematic representation of, 76f for discharges, 143
handling of, 143 support zone, 80 materials
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Solidification, 96 certification, 142
(RCRA) (1976) Solubilization, 95 classification of, 137–139
description of, 1, 4–5, 135 Spills. see Emergencies labeling of, 139, 141–142
transportation regulations, 136–137 Standard operating procedures, 93–94 marking of, 141
Respiratory equipment Standing orders, 82, 83t placards, 139, 142
air-line respirators, 45t, 48–49, 69t–70t Substances, warning properties for, 50 segregation of, 139
air-purifying respirators, 45t, 49–50, 70t Superfund Amendments and material safety data sheets, 140–141
characteristics of, 45t Reauthorization Act (1986), 1–3 overview of, 135–136
description of, 44–46 Supervisors, training of, 128 performance-oriented packaging, 142–
fit testing, 67 Support zone, 80, 81t 143
protection factors, 46, 47t Surfactants, 95–96 rail, 135
self-contained breathing apparatuses, 45t, Swab sampling, for testing effectiveness of training, 136
46–48, 69t decontamination methods, 97 Transporter, 136–137
storage of, 70 Swipe sampling, for testing effectiveness of
U.S. Coast Guard, how to contact, 7
temperature-related effects, 47t decontamination methods, 96
Response plan Syncope, heat-induced, 15t Vacuum trucks, 91
for emergencies, 110–111 Vapors, 245–246
Tanks
planning for, 21–23 Visual testing, for testing effectiveness of
elevated, 91
responsibilities, 22–23 decontamination methods, 96
guidelines for handling, 90
for transportation-related emergencies,
opening of, 90 Waste
140
Threshold limit values, 248 bulking of, 88–89
Rinse solution analysis, for testing
Toxicology characterization of, 88
effectiveness of decontamination
dose-response relationships, 240–241 hazardous
methods, 96
exposure routes, 241–242 classification of, 137–139
Safe distances, 106–107 factors that affect intensity of toxin, data sheet, 165–167
Safety glasses, 54t–55t 244–245 transportation of. see Transportation, of
Safety plan, 155–159 health and safety standards, 248 hazardous waste
Safety programs overview of, 239–248 radioactive
air-monitoring, 42 response evaluation criteria, 242– classification of, 139
elements of, 23 244 in drums, 85–86
SARA, 1–3 toxin classifications, 245–248 handling of, 143
Self-contained breathing apparatuses Toxic Substances Control Act, 5–6 shipping of, 89
(SCBA), 45t, 46–48, 69t Training well drilling–related, 132
Site certification, 126 Wells
buddy system, 80 emergency personnel, 105, 128–129 access hazards associated with, 133
characterization of emergency response, 105, 126 decontamination and waste handling
air monitoring, 40–41 equivalent, 126 hazards associated with, 133
description of, 40 of general site workers, 126, 128 drilling hazards associated with, 131–132
hazards assessment, 32, 34 of health and safety staff, 128 environmental hazards associated with,
IDLH monitoring, 40–41 management, 126 133
monitoring program, 34 of on-site management and supervisors, explosion and fire hazards associated
off-site, 27–28 128 with, 132
on-site, 29–32 personal protective equipment, 62, 64– sampling procedures hazards associated
phases of, 27 65 with, 133
communication systems, 82 programs Work plan, for hazardous waste response,
emergencies. see Emergencies content of, 126, 127t 23
handling of drums. see Drums description of, 125–126 Work zones, for site
locator systems, 107 organizations that offer, 126 communication systems for, 82
mapping of, 77, 106 record of, 129 contamination reduction zone, 79–80
preparation of, 77, 78t refresher, 126 description of, 78
safety supervisor, 126 exclusion zone, 78–79
plan for, 155–159 transportation of hazardous waste, 136 schematic representation of, 76f
in work practices, 82–83 Transportation, of hazardous waste support zone, 80, 81t