ch08

							                       Chapter Summary/Lecture Organizer


I. THINKING - Thinking involves using information and knowledge to perform such mental activities
   as reasoning, solving problems, producing and understanding language, drawing conclusions, and
   expressing and comprehending thoughts.
   A. Cognitive Building Blocks – Thinking involves three basic building blocks – mental images,
      concepts, and language. A mental image is a representation of a sensory experience. Concepts are
      mental representations of a group or category and help us simplify and organize information. We
      learn concepts by at least three major methods – artificial concepts, natural concepts, and
      hierarchies. While artificial concepts are precisely defined and may not be as expedient, natural
      concepts rely on prototypes or a ―best example‖ which can be quicker and more efficient.
      Hierarchies are concepts that have been ranked with specific subcategories within broader
      concepts.
   C. Problem-Solving - Problem solving is defined as a series of thinking processes we use to reach a
      goal that is not readily attainable. The three major steps in problem solving are preparation,
      production, and evaluation:

               1. Preparation - As the first step, preparation involves identifying given facts,
               distinguishing relevant from irrelevant facts, and defining the ultimate goal.

               2. Production - During the production stage, possible solutions, called hypotheses, are
               generated. There are two major procedures for generating hypotheses--by using
               algorithms and heuristics. Algorithms are problem-solving strategies that always
               eventually lead to a solution. They often involve trying out random solutions to a
               problem in a systematic manner (e.g., 2 x 10 = 2 + 2 + 2...all the way to 10). Heuristics
               are rules of thumb or educated guesses developed from previous experience that involve
               selective searches for appropriate solutions to problems. Heuristics generally, but not
               always, leads to a solution. The three most valuable heuristics are means-end analysis,
               working backward, and creating sub-goals.

               3. Evaluation - The final step in problem solving, evaluation, involves appraising
               hypotheses to see whether they satisfy the conditions of the goal as it was defined in the
               preparation stage.

               Psychology at Work: Heuristics and Your Career –
               Three problem-solving heuristics (working backward, means-end analysis, and creating
               subgoals) are presented as a model to help students decide on the many choices of majors
               and careers.

               Psychology at Work: Recognizing Barriers to Problem Solving –
              Barriers to problem solving include: 1) mental sets (only using methods that have worked
              in the past rather than trying new ones, 2) functional fixedness tendency to see only
                                         familiar uses for well-known objects), 3) confirmation bias (the
                       tendency to seek out and
                  pay attention to information that confirms existing positions or beliefs, while ignoring
                  contradictory information), and 4) availability heuristic (basing the probability of events
                  on how easily recalled, and representativeness heuristic (estimating the probability of an
                  event based on how well a previous prototype.

                  Critical Thinking/Active Learning: Solving Problems in College Life: The critical
                  thinking exercise allows students to practice the three major problem solving strategies
                  (algorithms and heuristics) and two specific heuristics (means-end analysis, working
                  backward, and creating sub-goals).

      D. Creativity - Creativity is the generation of ideas that are original and useful. Creative
         thinking involves originality, fluency, and flexibility. Two distinct types of creative thinking
         include: convergent, where the person works toward a single solution to a problem; and
         divergent, in which the person tries to generate as many solutions as possible

II.       LANGUAGE
      A. Characteristics of Language - Human language is a building block of thinking, enables us
         to communicate our thoughts and feelings in creative and complex ways, and is largely
         learned rather than instinctive like other animals. Phonemes are the basic speech sounds;
         they are combined to form morphemes, the smallest meaningful units of language. Phonemes,
         morphemes, words, and phrases are put together by rules of grammar (syntax and semantics).
         Syntax refers to the grammatical rules for ordering words in sentences; semantics refers to
         meaning in language.
      A. Language and Thought – The Whorf hypothesis is presented as an intriguing hypothesis
         that theorizes language determine our perceptions of reality. Some researchers suggest that a
         more tenable position is that language influences thought. Several examples are presented to
         support Whorf’s linguistic relativity hypothesis.

      B. Language Development – Stages and theories of language development are explored. The first
         prelinguistic stage begins with the newborn’s reflexive cry and becomes more purposeful. At
         about 2 to 3 months, babies begin cooing and around 4 to 5 months they start babbling. The
         linguistic stage begins near the first year. Around 2 years, a pattern called telegraphic speech
         begins and by age 5 children have usually mastered the basic rules of grammar. Most theorists
         believe that language acquisition is a combination of both nature and nuture. Noam Chomsky
         believes that humans are born ―pre-wired‖ with an ability to put words together in a meaningful
         way and possess a type of language acquisition device (LAD) that enables a child to analyze
         language and extract the basic rules of grammar.

      C. Animals and Language – Nonhuman animal use of language is explored. One of the most
         successful studies taught apes nonvocal language using American Sign Language. In another
         study, dolphins were taught to understand sentences that varied in syntax and meaning. Although
         evidence suggests that animals can learn language, skeptics suggest that animals are being trained
         to respond for rewards., but it is less complex, less creative, and more rule-laden than human
         language.

III. INTELLIGENCE
        A. What is Intelligence? - There are numerous definitions for intelligence. Charles
         Spearman viewed intelligence as a single factor, which he termed general intelligence (g).
          L. L. Thurstone viewed it as seven distinct mental abilities; J. P. Guilford viewed it as 120
          factors; and, Raymond Cattell viewed it as two types of "g"--fluid intelligence and crystallized
          intelligence. Contemporary theorist, Howard Gardner, proposes a theory of multiple intelligences
          and has identified eight different types of intelligence and suggested that teaching and assessing
          should take into account people's learning styles and cognitive strengths. Robert Sternberg,
          another contemporary theorist, developed a triarchic theory, which emphasizes three separate but
          related aspects of intelligence—the internal components, the use of these components to adapt to
          environmental changes, and the application of past experiences to real-life situations. The text
          defines intelligence as the global capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal
          effectively with the environment.
                  Psychology at Work: Multiple Intelligence and Your Career – Students are given an
                  opportunity to explore Gardner’s multiple intelligence and possible careers. Table 8.5.

      B. How Do We Measure Intelligence? - Most IQ tests are intended to predict abilities needed for
         school success. There are several individual IQ tests, the major ones being the Stanford-Binet,
         and the Wechsler. The Stanford-Binet measures primarily verbal abilities of children aged three
         to sixteen. Although the Stanford-Binet also has sub-scales that can measure adults, most often
         adult IQ scores are measured using the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. There are actually
         three separate Wechsler intelligence scales, each designed to test distinct age levels verbal and
         nonverbal abilities. In order for any test to be scientifically acceptable it is necessary for the test
         to include three basic requirements: standardization, reliability, and validity. Standardization is
         the process of giving a test to a large number of people in order for the norms for the test to be
         developed and ensuring the procedures for administering the test are formalized so that all people
         who administer the test do so in exactly the same way. Reliability is a measure of the stability of
         test scores over time. Good tests will return similar scores when given to the same person at
         different times. Validity refers to how well the test measures what it is intended to measure. An
         IQ test is considered valid if it predicts grades in school.

IV.      THE INTELLIGENCE CONTROVERSY

      A. Extremes in Intelligence – The validity of intelligence testing is explored for measuring the
         extremes in intelligence - mental retardation and giftedness. Mental retardation is defined as an
         IQ less than 70 and has significant deficits in adaptive functioning. The causes of mental
         retardation include both genetic and environmental. Giftedness includes people with especially
         high IQs often including only the top 1 or 2%.

                  Research Highlight: How Do We Explain Differences in IQ?- Research into the
                  influences of biology and genetics on intelligence reveals the importance of brain size
                  and efficiency. The results of the powerful Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart
                  strongly emphasize the influences of heredity.

                  Gender and Cultural Diversity: Are IQ Tests Culturally Biased? - IQ Test scores are
                  influenced by both environment and heredity. The gender and cultural diversity section
                  explores the controversial book--The Bell Curve by Hernstein and Murray. The problem
                  of African-Americans and other minorities scoring lower than whites on IQ tests is
                  discussed. Lowered school success for many children can be traced to lack of school
                  readiness and language barriers. Programs such as Head Start combat these problems by
                  providing early education for low-income children.