From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia History of Frankfurt am Main
History of Frankfurt am Main
Stray archeological finds on the Domhügel go back to
the Paleolithic, but the first proven settlement and land
development date to the Roman era. It is assumed that
the Romans settled on the hill in the last quarter of the
1st century CE; amongst other things, a Roman bath has
been found, which may have belonged to a larger com-
plex, possibly a fortress. Apparently the military occu-
pation was abandoned during the 2nd century and re-
placed by a villa. Several farm buildings have also been
excavated. A similar building complex was discovered
at the modern Günthersburgpark in the Frankfurt-Born-
heim portion of the city.
With the retreat of the Roman border to the west
bank of the Rhine in 259/260, the Roman history of
Frankfurt came to an end.
Frankfurt in 1612
The history of the city of Frankfurt am Main is the story
of a hill at a ford in the Main that developed into a Euro-
pean banking metropolis, becoming the smallest metrop-
olis in the world. The spire of the cathedral tower marks
the geographical center of the city at exactly 50° 6’ 42.5"
North and 8° 41’ 9.4" East.
Early history
Frankfurt is located in what was originally a swampy
portion of the Main valley, a lowland criss-crossed by
channels of the river. The oldest parts are therefore to
be found on the higher portions of the valley, through
which passed the Roman road from Mainz (Roman Mo-
guntiacum) to Heddernheim (Roman Nida). The Odenwald
and Spessart ranges surrounded the area, lending a de-
fensive advantage, and placenames show that the low-
lands on both sides of the river were originally wooded.
The oldest part of the Altstadt, the old city center, is
the Cathedral Hill (Domhügel), upon an island created by
arms of the Main. Only from the West could it be reached
by foot without getting wet; this, together with its loca- A 19th century statue of Charlemagne in Frankfurt
tion at a ford, gave it significant military and economic
advantages.
1
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia History of Frankfurt am Main
Early Middle Ages High Middle Ages
The name Frankfurt first appears in writing in the year
After an era of lesser importance under the Salian and
793, but it seems to have already been a considerable city.
Saxon emperors, a single event once again brought
In 794 a letter from the Emperor to the bishop of Toledo
Frankfurt to the fore: it was in the local church in 1147
contained "in loco celebri, qui dicitur Franconofurd which
Franconofurd",
that Bernard of Clairvaux called, amongst others, the Ho-
reads "that famous place, which is called Frankfurt."
henstaufen king Conrad III to the Second Crusade. Before
It seems Cathedral Hill was already permanently set-
leaving for Jerusalem, Conrad selected his ten year-old
tled in Merovingian times (possibly first by Romans). In
son as heir, but the boy died before his father. Due to this,
1992 excavations at the cathedral found the rich grave of
an election was held in Frankfurt five years later, and af-
a girl, that has been dated to the late Merovingian period
ter the emperor Frederick Barbarossa was elected, Frank-
of the 7th century.
furt became the customary place for the election of the
Charlemagne built himself a royal court at "Fran-
German kings.
conovurd", the "ford of the Franks", and in the summer
Under the Hohenstaufen emperors, Frankfurt expe-
of 794 held a church council there, convened by the grace
rienced strong growth and rising national importance.
of God, authority of the pope, and command of Charle-
By 1180 the city had expanded greatly, and by 1250 had
magne (canon 1), and attended by the bishops of the
seen an increase in privileges in addition to economic
Frankish kingdom, Italy and the province of Aquitania,
growth. Police power in the city lay in the hands of the
and even by ecclesiastics from England. The council was
bailiffs and reeves; however, the citizens selected their
summoned primarily for the condemnation of Adoption-
own mayors and officials, who were responsible for po-
ism. According to the testimony of contemporaries two
lice management and some judicial duties. These officials
papal legates were present, Theophylact and Stephen,
enjoyed the favor of the emperors, who had eliminated
representing Pope Adrian I. After an allocution by
the reeves entirely by the end of the Hohenstaufen dy-
Charlemagne, the bishops drew up two memorials
nasty.
against the Adoptionists, one containing arguments from
patristic writings; the other arguments from Scripture.
The first was the Libellus sacrosyllabus, written by Pauli-
nus, Patriarch of Aquileia, in the name of the Italian bish-
ops; the second was the Epistola Synodica, addressed to the
bishops of Spain by those of Germany, Gaul and Aqui-
tania. In the first of its fifty-six canons the council con-
demned Adoptionism, and in the second repudiated the
Second Council of Nicaea of 787, which, according to the
faulty Latin translation of its Acts (see Caroline Books),
seemed to decree that the same kind of worship should
be paid to images as to the Blessed Trinity, though the
Greek text clearly distinguishes between latreia and
proskynesis; this constituted a condemnation of icono-
clasm. The remaining fifty-four canons dealt with metro- Frankfurt preserved its essentially medieval aspect as late as
politan jurisdiction, monastic discipline, superstition etc. 1872
Louis the Pious, Charlemagne’s son, selected Frank-
furt as his seat, extended the palatinate, built a larger
palace, and in 838 had the city encircled by defensive
The Early Modern era, 16th to
walls and ditches. 18th centuries
After the Treaty of Verdun (843), Frankfurt became
Starting from the 16th century, trade and the arts flow-
to all intents and purposes the capital of East Francia
ered in Frankfurt. Science and innovation progressed,
and was named Principalis sedes regni orientalis (principal
and the invention of the printing press in nearby Mainz
seat of the eastern realm). Kings and emperors frequent-
promoted education and knowledge. From the 15th to
ly stayed in Frankfurt, and Reichstags and church coun-
17th centuries, the most important book fair in Germany
cils were repeatedly held there. The establishment of re-
was held in Frankfurt, a custom which would be revived
ligious monasteries and numerous endowments to the lo-
in 1949.
cal church furthered the urban community. Also, as the
In the early 17th century tensions between the guilds
German emperor had no permanent residence anymore,
and the patricians, who dominated the city council, led
Frankfurt remained the center of imperial power and the
to substantial unrest. The guilds asked for greater partic-
principal city of Eastern Francia.
ipation in urban and fiscal policies as well as for econom-
ic restrictions of the Jewish community’s rights. In 1612,
2
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia History of Frankfurt am Main
From the French Revolution to
the end of the Free State
During the French Revolutionary War, General Custine
occupied Frankfurt in October 1792. On December 2 of
the same year, the city was retaken.
In January 1806, General Augereau occupied the city
with 9,000 men and extorted 4 million francs from it.
Frankfurt’s status as a free city ended when it was grant-
ed to Karl Theodor Anton Maria von Dalberg in the same
year. In 1810 Dalberg’s territories were reorganized into
the Grand Duchy of Frankfurt.
During this time, the city experienced serious
Plundering of the Jewish quarter during the Fettmilch Rebelli- changes in the structure and construction of the town.
on Centuries-old defensive walls were dismantled, replaced
by garden plots. It was felt that one no longer need fear
after the election of Emperor Matthias the council reject- cannon fire, even without walls. On July 1, 1808, Goethe’s
ed the Guild’s request, to read out publicly the imperi- mother wrote to her son Wolfgang: "Die alten Wälle sind
al privileges given to the city. This caused the so called abgetragen, die alten Tore eingerissen, um die ganze Stadt ein
Fettmilch Rebellion, named after its leader, the baker Park." (The old barriers are threadbare, the old gates torn
Vinzenz Fettmilch. A part of the populace, mainly crafts- down, around the whole city a park.)
men, rose up against the city council. In 1614, the mob On November 2, 1813, the allies drew together in
began a pogrom in the city’s Jewish ghetto, and the em- Frankfurt, to re-establish its old rights and set up a cen-
peror had to ask Mainz and Hessen-Darmstadt to restore tral administrative council under Baron vom Stein. The
order. Congress of Vienna clarified that Frankfurt was a Free Ci-
In the Thirty Years’ War, Frankfurt was able to main- ty of the German federation, and in 1816 it became the
tain its neutrality; the city council had avoided siding seat of the Bundestag. This government seat occupied the
with one opponent or another after its negative experi- Palais Thurn and Taxis. When Goethe visited his native
ences in the Schmalkaldic War. This issue became critical city for the last time in 1815, he encouraged the council-
between 1631 and 1635, when the Swedish regent Gus- men with the words: "A free spirit befits a free city…..It befits
tav Adolf came to Frankfurt demanding accommodation Frankfurt to shine in all directions and to be active in all direc-
and provisions for himself and his troops. But the city tions."
mastered these adversities more easily than what was to The city took good heed of this advice. When in 1831
follow the war: the plague ravaged the city, as it would Arthur Schopenhauer, a lecturer at the time, moved from
most of Europe at this time. In the 1648 Peace of West- Berlin to Frankfurt, he justified it with the lines: "Healthy
phalia, Frankfurt was confirmed as an Imperial Free City, climate, beautiful surroundings, the amenities of large cities,
and soon reached new heights of prosperity. the Natural History Museum, better theater, opera, and con-
certs, more Englishman, better coffee houses, no bad water…
and a better dentist."
In 1833 a revolutionary movement attempted to top-
ple the Diet of the royalist German Confederation, which
sat at Frankfurt, and was quickly put down. [1]
The Revolutions of 1848 and their after-
math
The Revolutions of 1848, also known as the March Revo-
lution, forced Klemens von Metternich, the reactionary
Austrian head of state, to step down. This was celebrated
wildly in Frankfurt. On 30 March 1848 one could see
Frankfurt in 1770, protected by its walls and bastions black, red, and gold flags everywhere, and the populace
was admonished not to shoot into the air.
On 18 May 1848, a day which some historians call
the greatest day in the history of the city, the National
Assembly held its first meeting in the Frankfurter
3
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia History of Frankfurt am Main
Recent history
Early Nazi period
In 1933 the Jewish mayor (Oberbürgermeister) Ludwig
Landmann was replaced by NSDAP member Friedrich
Krebs. This led to the firing of all Jewish officials in the
city administration and from city organizations. A meet-
ing of Frankfurt traders, who wanted to discuss the boy-
cott of Jewish businesses, was broken up and the partic-
ipants arrested and intimidated. Although the Nazis had
originally mocked the city as the Jerusalem am Main be-
cause of its high Jewish population, the city adopted a
propagandistic nickname, the Stadt des deutschen Handw-
Rebellion of the German Revolutionary Student Movement,
erks or the city of German craft.
1833
World War II
Paulskirche. The last meeting was held there a year later,
on 31 May 1849. Frankfurt was at this point the center Main article: Bombing of Frankfurt am Main in World
of all political life in Germany. The party transformation War II
and the excitement were the most violent there; riots,
particularly among those living in the Sachsenhausen
quarter, had to be suppressed with force of arms on 7–8
July 1848 as well as on 18 September.
The next fifteen years saw new industrial laws focus-
ing on complete freedom of trade, and political Emanci-
pation of the Jews, initiated ten years before its final re-
alization in 1864.
Starting in August 1863, a political gathering focused
on German federal reform met in Frankfurt, including
the national congress and the opposing reform congress. Model of Frankfurt’s old city center after the bombing raids.
The Kingdom of Prussia did not show up, however, and
the reform failed, leading to the Austro-Prussian War in Large parts of the city center were destroyed by in the
1866. Frankfurt was annexed by Prussia as a result of the bombings of the second World War. On March 22, 1944, a
war, and the city was made part of the province of Hesse- British attack destroyed the entire Old City, killing 1001
Nassau. people. The East Port - an important shipping center for
bulk goods, with its own rail connection - was also largely
destroyed.
Frankfurt was first reached by the Allied ground ad-
vance into Germany during late March 1945. The US 5th
Infantry Division seized the Rhine-Main airport on 26
March 1945 and crossed assault forces over the river into
the city on the following day. The tanks of the supporting
US 6th Armored Division at the Main River bridgehead
came under concentrated fire from dug-in heavy flak
guns at Frankfurt. The urban battle consisted of slow
ca 1845 steel engraving: View from Sachsenhäuser Berg to the clearing operations on a block-by-block basis until 29
north, in the foreground staffage people clothed in late Bieder-
March 1945, when Frankfurt was declared as secured, al-
meier style, behind them to the left Sachsenhausen, in the mid-
though some sporadic fighting continued until 4 April
dleground the Main with the Alte Brücke, the neo-classical
Main front from the Schöne Aussicht with the Alte Stadtbiblio- 1945.[2]
thek in the east to the Mainkai with the Saalhof to the Unter-
mainkai with the Leonhardskirche and the Untermaintor in Post-war period
the west, behind it the city with the looming cathedral and the The Military Governor for the United States Zone
spires of the Liebfrauenkirche, the Katharinenkirche, the Alte (1945–1949) and the United States High Commissioner
Nikolaikirche and the Paulskirche, in the background the for Germany (HICOG) (1949–1952) had their headquarters
Taunus
4
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia History of Frankfurt am Main
in the IG Farben Building, intentionally left undamaged of the emperor, he was incensed with the city for seven
by the Allies’ wartime bombardment[citation needed]. The years. King Conrad IV did not forgive the citizens until
heavily destroyed city decided in the spirit of the time to May 6, 1246. The emperor distributed the income he de-
plan a major reconstruction of the historical city center, rived from the Jews so liberally among the princes and
retaining the old road system. The formerly independent his retainers that he had little left for himself; yet the
city republic joined the state of Hesse in 1946. As the state Jews remained under his protection. In 1286 King Rudolf
capital was already at the smaller city of Wiesbaden and pledged to Count Adolf of Nassau 20 marks yearly from
the American armed forces had used Frankfurt as their the income derived from the Frankfurt Jews. When Adolf
European headquarters, the city seemed most promis- was made king under the title of "Adolf of Nassau", he
ing candidate for the West German federal capital. The pledged these 20 marks to the knight Gottfried of Meren-
American forces even agreed to withdraw from Frankfurt berg (1292); and the latter again pledged 4 marks of this
to make it suitable, as the British forces already had with- sum to the knight Heinrich of Sachsenhausen. King Adolf
drawn from Bonn. Much to the disappointment of many also gave 25 marks to Glottfried of Eppstein as a heredi-
in Frankfurt, however, the vote narrowly favored Bonn tary fief; and from 1297 he gave 300 marks yearly of the
twice. Despite this, the mayor looked towards the future, Jews’ tax to the Archbishop of Mayence, adding to this
seeing that with the division of Germany and relative sum 500 pounds of hellers in 1299. As early as 1303 the
isolation of Berlin, Frankfurt could take over positions archbishop pledged 100 marks of this amount, and thus
in trade and commerce previously filled by Berlin and the Jews of the city of Frankfurt became subject to the
Leipzig. Since Bonn never played an important role de- archbishop. The emperor, however, attempted to exact
spite its status as capital, Frankfurt, Hamburg, and Mu- still more money from the Jews, and it was only thanks to
nich realigned themselves, passing from regional centers the resistance of the city that King Adolf did not succeed
to international metropolises and effectively forming in 1292 in extracting from them the sum required for his
three West German cultural and financial capitals. coronation.
Since the turn of the 2nd century, the Frankfurt fair The Jews were subject not only to the emperor and to
has been held every fall and had become the most impor- the archbishop but also to the city; in 1331 King Ludwig
tant fair site in Europe. Frankfurt’s countless publishing recommended his "beloved Kammerknechte" to the pro-
houses as well as its fur industry profited from the elimi- tection of the municipality. Under Ludwig the Frankfurt
nation of Leipzig by the division of Germany into East and Jews were accused of a crime and cruelly persecuted, and
West. After the war, the West German book fair was held many fled. The king then confiscated the houses and oth-
in Frankfurt. Since German reunification, the Frankfurt er property of the fugitives and sold them to the munic-
Book Fair is held in the fall, and Leipzig’s in the spring. ipal council for 3,000 pounds of hellers. Those Jews that
The bi-annual Internationale Automobil-Ausstellung is a returned had their property restored to them; and, as the
worldwide car fair that is also held in Frankfurt. Jews had been treated unjustly, the king promised not to
The Deutsche Bundesbank made Frankfurt its seat, punish them again but to be content with the verdict of
and most major banks followed suit. This and the Frank- the municipal council. The Jews were required, however,
furt Stock Exchange have made the city the second most to pay to the king a new impost, the "goldene Opferpfen-
important commercial center in Europe, after London. nig."
Jewish Frankfurt am Main In the 14th century
During the Black Death (1349) the Jews of Frankfurt were
The date of the original organization of Frankfurt’s again persecuted. At the beginning of these outbreaks
Jewish community is uncertain. Probably no Jews were the circumspect Carl IV, who feared for his income,
living in Frankfurt at the time of the first and second pledged the Jews to the city for more than 15,000 pounds
Crusades, as the city is not mentioned among the places of hellers, stipulating that he would redeem them, which
where Jews were persecuted, although references occur he never did. The Flagellants, on coming to Frankfurt,
to persecutions in the neighboring cities of Mayence and destroyed nearly the entire Jewish community, with the
Worms. Jews in their distress setting fire to their own houses.
A Jew of Frankfurt is mentioned in connection with Their property was confiscated by the council by way
the sale of a house at Cologne between 1175 and 1191. of indemnity. Jews returned to Frankfurt very gradually.
Eliezer ben Nathan, rabbi at Mayence toward the end of In 1354 Carl IV. renewed his pledge to the city; three
the twelfth century, says that there were not then ten years later the Archbishop of Mayence again advanced
adult Jews in Frankfurt. The first reliable information his claims, but the Jews and the council came to an agree-
concerning Frankfurt Jews dates from 1241, on May 24 ment with him in 1358. In 1367 the city was again in full
of which year 180 Hebrews were killed during a riot and possession of the income derived from the Jews, but this
many fled, this being the first Judenschlacht or slaughter did not prevent the emperor from occasionally levying
of the Jews. As the affair was detrimental to the income
5
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia History of Frankfurt am Main
extraordinary taxes; for example, Sigismund (1414) ex- Hard times were now approaching. In 1612 the Jews
acted a contribution from the Jews toward the expenses of Frankfurt suffered much on account of some persons
of the Council of Constance. HI who were heavily indebted to them, chief among these
The Jews were under the jurisdiction of the municipal being Fettmilch. On Aug. 22, 1614, these men headed an
council. Beginning with 1488, privileges (Judenstüttigkeit- attack on the Jews’ street, sweeping away everything in
en) were issued that had to be renewed every three years. the space of thirteen hours; and the unfortunate Jews,
The Jews lived originally in the vicinity of the cathedral, who had sought refuge in the cemetery, begged for per-
this part of the city being necessary for their commerce; mission to depart. On the following day 1,380 Jews, glad
but Christians also lived there. Hence it was a hard blow to have saved even their lives, left the city and went to
to the former when they were forced, in 1462, to settle Offenbach, Hanau, and Höchst. The synagogue as well as
outside the old city ramparts and the moat. At first the the Torah-scrolls were destroyed, and the cemetery was
city built their dwellings, but later they were required desecrated. When the emperor heard of the affair he pro-
to erect their own houses, The Judengasse originally con- scribed Fettmilch; but the Jews were not brought back
sisted merely of one row of houses; when this became until February 1616, when their street was placed un-
overcrowded, a part of the moat was filled in, and houses der the protection of the emperor and the empire, as an-
were built upon the new ground thus obtained. There nounced in a notice affixed to each of the three gates.
were three gates in the street, one at each end and one By 1618 there were 370 families, living in 195 houses, of
in the center. The cemetery of the community, which which 111 lay to the right of the Bornheimerpforte, and
was situated on the Fischerfeld and is still in existence, 84 to the left. The houses were of wood, with stone foun-
is mentioned for the first time in 1300, but a tombstone dations, and were named according to signs suspend-
dated July, 1272, has been preserved. Among the com- ed in front. The names were those of animals (e.g., ox,
munal buildings were the synagogue (called also the "Ju- duck, wild duck), fruits (apple, red apple), trees (fir, elder,
denschule"), the "Judenbadstube", the "Juden-Tanzhaus" nut), or miscellaneous objects (tongs, scales, winecup);
or "Spielhaus", and the hospital. The Jewish inhabitants but sometimes a house was named simply from the color
were more numerous in the early years of the commu- of the shield, e.g., red= "Rothschild"; black = "Schwarz-
nity than later on: in 1241 they numbered about 200; schild." The main synagogue was built in 1462; a smaller
in 1357 there were 12 tax-paying families; from 1357 to one was erected in 1603. Among the other communal
1379, not more than 14 on the average; from 1401 to 1450, buildings were the bath, to the east of the synagogue, the
an average of 12; while in 1473 there were 17 families. dance house, the inn, the slaughterhouse, the bakehouse,
and the hospital.
From the 15th to the 17th century With their return to Frankfurt a new epoch in the his-
Toward the end of the Middle Ages the number of the tory of the Jews of that city begins. They were still de-
Frankfurt Jews was considerably increased by emigrants barred from acquiring real estate, but they loaned mon-
from Nuremberg (1498); and Frankfurt replaces Nurem- ey, even accepting manuscripts as pledges. The rate of in-
berg as the leading Jewish community in the empire. This terest, formerly as high as 24 percent, was now reduced
is seen in the numerous requests made by other cities to to 8 percent. As the unredeemed pledges were sold, traf-
the magistrates of Frankfurt for information concerning fic in second-hand goods arose, which was further stimu-
their method of procedure in cases affecting Jews.[3] Civil lated by the fact that the Jews were not permitted to sell
cases were decided by a commission of twelve, with the new goods. They were also forbidden to deal in spices,
chief rabbi at its head. The reports of this commission provisions, weapons, cloth, and (from 1634 on) grain. But
from 1645 to 1808 are in the archives of the community. in spite of these interdictions, their commerce gradually
In 1509 the Jews were threatened with confiscation of increased. During the Thirty Years’ War the Jews fared
their Hebrew books by Pfefferkorn, who arrived in the no worse than their neighbors. In 1694 there were 415
city with an imperial edict; on April 10, 1510, they were Jewish families; of these, 109 persons were engaged as
obliged to surrender all their books, which were not re- moneylenders and dealers in second-hand goods; 106
stored to them until June 6, after they had sent a special dealt in dry goods, clothes, and trimmings; 24 in spices
embassy to the emperor. In 1525 the impending danger and provisions; 9 retailed wine and beer; 3 were innkeep-
of expulsion was averted by the municipal council; but ers; and 2 had restaurants. Besides these there were the
the Jews were restricted in their commerce and were for- communal officials.
bidden to build their houses higher than three stories.
Although this measure crowded them more closely, there In the 18th century
were 43 Jewish families in Frankfurt in 1543, and 454 in The importance and status of the community at the be-
1612. (A list of these families was published in 1614; 2d ginning of the eighteenth century are indicated by the
ed., Mayence, 1678; republished in the "Israelit", Aug. 17, gracious reception accorded to the deputation that of-
1899). fered presents to Joseph I on his visit to Heidelberg in
6
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia History of Frankfurt am Main
1702. On Jan. 14, 1711, a fire which broke out in the house stroyed by fire when the French bombarded the city in
of Rabbi Naphtali Cohen destroyed the synagogue to- 1796.
gether with nearly the whole Judengasse. The rabbi was
accused of having caused the fire by cabalistic means and The Cemetery
was forced to leave the city. The 8,000 homeless Jews The Jewish cemetery, as mentioned above, is situated on
found shelter either in the pest house or with compas- the old Fischerfeld. In 1349 the cemetery was enclosed
sionate Christians. The synagogue and the dwelling hous- within the city moat and walls, which were fortified with
es were speedily rebuilt, and the street was widened six jetties. Beginning in 1424 the neighboring communities
feet. In 1715 the community issued an edict against lux- also buried their dead there; but this privilege was with-
ury. From 1718 onward the "Residenten", or representa- drawn by the magistrate in 1505. When Frankfurt was be-
tives of the community of Frankfurt at Vienna, were ac- sieged during the interregnum in 1552, a garrison with
corded official recognition. In 1721 part of the Judengasse cannon was stationed in the cemetery, and an attempt
was again destroyed by fire. About the same period, con- was even made to force the Jews to sink the tombstones
flicts with the Shabbethaians (a messianic Jewish sect) and to level the ground; but against this they protested
caused excitement in the community. In consequence of successfully (July 15, 1552). During the Fettmilch riots the
the denunciation of a baptized Jew the edition of the Tal- whole community spent the night of September 1, 1614,
mud published at Frankfurt and Amsterdam between the in the cemetery, prepared for death, and thought them-
years 1714 and 1721 was confiscated; and certain prayer selves fortunate when they were permitted to leave the
books were likewise seized on account of the "Alenu" city through the Fischerfeld gate on the following after-
prayer. The books were restored, however, on Aug. 1, noon. In 1640 a dispute in regard to passage through the
1753, chiefly through the efforts of Moses Kann. cemetery was decided in favor of the Jews. The communi-
The middle of the century was marked by the dissen- ty occasionally paid damages to Christians who were in-
sions between the Kann and Kulp parties. The Kulp par- jured by the oxen (bekorim, the first-born that may not be
ty, to which many influential men belonged, endeavored used in accordance with Exodus xiii. 3) that grazed with-
to harmonize the ancient constitution of the communi- in the cemetery walls. In 1694 a neighboring garden was
ty with new measures for the benefit of the people; but bought for the purpose of enlarging the cemetery. Dur-
their efforts were thwarted by the wealthy Kann fami- ing the great fire of 1711 the Jews sought refuge with-
ly, whose influence was predominant both in the govern- all their possessions among the tombs of the fathers. The
ment of the community and among the people. In 1750 communal bakingnovens, which before the fire were be-
the two parties effected a compromise, which was, how- hind the synagogue, were transferred to a new site ac-
ever, of but short duration. The community was further quired in 1694. The only building preserved from the
excited by Jonathan Eybeschütz’s amulet controversy. In flames was the hospital for the poor, near the cemetery;
1756 the Jews received permission to leave their street in behind it, another hospital was built in 1715 to replace
urgent cases on Sundays and feast days for the purpose the one in the Judengasse that had been destroyed. A
of fetching a physician or a barber or mailing a letter, but slaughterhouse for poultry and a fire station were erect-
they were required to return by the shortest way. In 1766 ed between the ovens and the cemetery. The fire station
the Cleve divorce controversy began to excite the rabbi- existed down to 1882; the site of the ovens is now covered
nate of Frankfurt also. At the coronation of Joseph II. the by the handsome building of the Sick Fund, and that
Frankfurt Jews were permitted for the first time to ap- of the Holzplatz and the garden by the Philanthropin
pear in public, when they swore allegiance to the emper- schoolhouse. On the site of the two hospitals the Neue
or (May 28, 1764). The community of Frankfurt rendered Gemeinde-Synagoge was built in 1882. The cemetery,
great service in suppressing Eisenmenger’s "Entdecktes covering more than 5 acres (20,000 m2), was closed in
Judenthum", confiscating all the copies in 1700. Eisen- 1828; its epitaphs have been published by Dr. M.
menger sued the community for 30,000 gulden. Although Horovitz.
he lost his case, proceedings were several times renewed The end of the eighteenth century marks a new epoch
with the aid of King Frederick I of Prussia, and only in for the Jews of Frankfurt. In 1796 they received permis-
1773 was the community finally released from all claims sion to live among Christians. In 1811 the prince-primate
brought by Eisenmenger’s heirs. granted them full civic equality. In 1809 they were al-
In 1753 there were 204 houses, built on both sides ready scattered throughout the city and had taken sur-
of the Jews’ street. On May 29, 1774, a fire destroyed 21 names. A reaction, however, came in 1816, when the city,
dwellings, and the homeless again found shelter in the on regaining its autonomy, completely excluded the Jews
houses of Christians. When their houses were rebuilt, from the municipal government. In 1819 there were riots
the Jews endeavored to remain outside of the ghetto but to the cry of "Hep-hep!", and the magistrate discussed
were forced to return by a decree of Feb. 13, 1776. One the advisability of restricting the number of Jews to not
hundred and forty houses on the Jews’ street were de- more than 500 families and of assigning to them a special
7
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia History of Frankfurt am Main
part of the city. These schemes, however, were not car- • Joseph Juspa Hahn (cf. Hahn), author of a work
ried into effect. In 1853 the civic rights of the Jews were dealing with the liturgy and with the chief phases of
enlarged, and in 1864 all restrictions were removed. The religious life; officiated up to the time of his death in
synagogue that had been rebuilt after the fire of 1711 in 1637.
the Judengasse was torn down in 1854, and a new syna- • Samuel Hildesheim (cf.Hildesheim); elected in 1618.
gogue was erected on the site (1855–60). The synagogue • Pethahiah; elected 1622; author of the cabalistic
on the Börneplatz was consecrated in 1882. The Israelitis- work "Sefer ha-Kavonot," which relates the events in
che Religionsgesellschaft, an independent congregation connection with the Fettmilch riot and which was
founded in 1851 (incorporated 1900), built a synagogue approved by Elhanan Helen, author of the "Megillat
in 1853 and enlarged it in 1874. In 1817 there were 4,309 Winz."
Jews in Frankfurt; in 1858, 5,730; in 1871, 10,009; in 1880, • Hayyim Cohen of Prague, grandson of the Maharal of
13,856; in 1890, 17,479; and in 1900, 22,000 in a total pop- Prague; officiated in 1628.
ulation of 288,489. • Shabbethai Horowitz, son of Isaiah Horowitz; elected
in 1632. He was the author of "Vavei ha-’Ammudim,"
Rabbis and scholars the introduction to his father’s work. In 1643 he
The following rabbis and scholars of Frankfurt may be went, like his predecessor, to Posen.
mentioned: • Meïr Schiff, author of novellæ to the Talmud; born at
• Simeon Darshan (cf. darshan), author of "Yalkut Frankfurt in 1605; died while rabbi of Fulda in 1641,
Shim’oni." just after he had been called to the rabbinate of
• Alexander Süsslin, author of the collection Prague; was buried at Frankfurt.
"Aguddah." • Mendel Barr of Kraków; elected in 1644; died in 1666.
• R. Isaac ben Nathan, a victim of the first He was a pupil of Joel Sirkes, and inclined toward the
"Judenschlacht" (1241). Kabalah. Among his prominent pupils were Yair
• Anselm, 1288. Bacharach and Meïr Stern.
• Abraham of Hanau (cf. Hanau), 1332. • Aaron Samuel Kaidanower of Wilna; called to
• Gumprecht, martyr in 1349. Frankfurt in 1667; went to Kraków in 1677. He was
• Joseph Lampe (cf. Lampe), 1363. the author of "Birkath ha-Zevach," commentary to
• Asher, 1374. some treatises of the Talmud.
• Meïr ben Samuel of Nordhausen, 1385; took part in • Isaiah Horowitz II, son of Shabbethai Horowitz, and
the convention of rabbis at Mayence in 1381. grandson of Isaiah Horowitz. David Grünhut,
• Süsslin of Speyer, 1394. kabalist, cited by Johann Andreas Eisenmenger and
• Nathan Levi, 1430-60. Johann Jakob Schudt, was his contemporary. Hurwitz
• Simon Cohen, a relative of Moses Minz. went to Posen.
• Israel Rheinbach; held office till 1505. • Samuel b. Zebi of Kraków; elected 1690. He added
• Isaac ben Eliakim; took part in the convention of valuable references to the Frankfurt edition of the
rabbis at, Worms in 1542. Talmud (1721). His son, Judah Aryeh Löb, known as a
• Naphtali Treves, author. writer, was associate rabbi; Löb’s father-in-law,
• Herz Treves, son of the preceding; also an author. Samuel Schotten, though rabbi at Darmstadt, was
• Akiba Frankfurt; widely known as a preacher; died in living at Frankfurt as "Klaus" rabbi, and after Samuel
1597. The Maharal of Prague, delivered the funeral ben Zebi’s death (1703) he became president of the
oration. rabbinate.
• Simon of Aschaffenburg (cf. Aschaffenburg), author of • Naphtali Cohen; called in 1704. As stated above, he
a supercommentary to Rashi’s Pentateuch was accused of having caused the fire of 1711, and,
commentary; lived at Frankfurt until his death. being compelled to leave the city, he wandered
• Elia Loanz, pupil of Akiba Frankfurt; wrote a song, about for many years.
"Streit Zwischen Wasser und Wein," to the melody of • Moses Frankfurter, author of a commentary to the
"Dietrich von Bern", and many other works; was a Mechilta.
native of Frankfurt. • Joseph ben Moses Kossmann, author of "Noheg ke-
• Eliezer Treves. tzon Yosef," a work on the ritual of the community of
• Abraham Naphtali Herz Levi. Frankfurt.
• Samuel ben Eliezer of Friedberg (cf. Friedberg), during • Pethahiah ben David Lida, who issued in 1727 at
whose incumbency the most important event was Frankfurt his father’s "Yad Kol Bo." The book was
the convention of rabbis held at Frankfurt in 1603. confiscated but was restored with the approval of
• Isaiah Horowitz; called to Frankfurt in 1606; went to several professors and preachers.
Prague in 1622. He was the author of the kabalistic Naphtali Cohen’s successors in the rabbinate of Frankfurt
work "Shnei Luchoth ha-Brith." were as follows:
8
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia History of Frankfurt am Main
• Abraham Broda of Prague; died in 1717; famous both • Almosenkasten der Israelitischen Gemeinde (1845).
as a writer and as a scholar. • Biḳḳur Ḥolim (1889).
• Jacob Cohen Popers of Prague; called from Coblenz to • Hersheim’sche Stiftung (for education of poor boys;
Frankfurt. He was noted for his many pupils and for 1865).
his learned correspondence, which is included in the • Georgine Sara von Rothschild’sche Stiftung (1870;
responsa collection "Shev Ya’akov." He became hospital, 1878).
involved in the current controversies in regard to • Gumpertz’sches Siechenhaus (1888).
Shabbethaism. • Israelitische Religionsschule (1890).
• Jacob Joshua Falk (1741–56); known to Talmudists • Israelitische Volksschule (1882).
through his valuable Talmud commentary "Pnei • Israelitische Waisenanstalt (founded 1873).
Yehoshua" and to historians through his conflict with • Israelitischer Hülfsverein (1883).
Jonathan Eybeschütz. During his rabbinate occurred • Israelitischer Kranken-Unterstützungs Verein (1843).
the Kann-Kulp controversy mentioned above. Kulp’s • Israelitisches Frauen-Krankenhaus (society, 1761;
party was opposed to the rabbi and sided with hospital, 1831).
Eybeschütz. Falk had to leave the city in • Israelitisches Gemeinde-Hospital (1875).
consequence of this disturbance. He died at • Israelitisches Kinderhospital.
Offenbach am Main in 1756, at the age of 75, and was • Jüdische Haushaltungsschule.
buried at Frankfurt. • Kindergarten für Israeliten (1890).
• Moses Kann, Moses Rapp, and Nathan Maas took • Lemaan Zion, Palästinensischer Hülfsverein.
charge of the rabbinate until 1759. Maas was the real • Mädchenstift (1877).
leader in the controversy in which the rabbinate of • Realschule der Israelitischen Gemeinde
Frankfurt engaged with reference to the divorce (Philanthropin; founded by Sigmund Geisenheimer
granted at Cleve (referred to above), as his opinion 1804).
was authoritative. • Realschule der Israelitischen Religionsgesellschaft
• Abraham Lissa; elected in 1759; died in 1768. He was (1883).
a notable Talmudist, and the author of "Birkath • Sigmund Stern’sche Waisenstiftung (1874).
Avrohom"; he also studied medicine. Maas again acted • Suppenanstalt für Israelitische Arme.
as deputy rabbi from 1769 to 1771; he is also known • Verein zur Beförderung der Handwerke.
through his commentary to two treatises of the • Verein für Jüdische Krankenpflegerinnen.
Talmud. • Versorgungs-Anstalt für Israeliten (1845).
• Pinchas Horowitz; elected 1771; died 1805. He was • Waisenhaus des Israelitischen Frauenvereins (1847);
the author of "Hafla’ah" and other Talmudic works. and a number of private "Stiftungen" established for
Prominent scholars were at that time living at various purposes.
Frankfurt; among them David Tebele Scheuer, who • For Jewish physicians see Horovitz "Jüdische Aerzte".
became rabbi at Mainz, and Nathan Adler, a strict
ritualist, who gathered about him a group of men Bibliography
that attempted to introduce Chasidism into • Georg Ludwig Kriegk, Bürgerzwiste;
Frankfurt. The community, with the consent of the • Otto Stobbe, Die Juden in Deutschland, Brunswick,
rabbi, soon found it necessary to proceed against 1866;
Adler. Hurwitz also opposed the school of David • Karl Bücher, Die Bevölkerung von Frankfurt-am-Main,
Mendelssohn. Tübingen, 1886;
• Hirsch Hurwitz, son of Pinchas Horowitz; died • Horovitz, Frankfurter Rabbinen;
September 8, 1817. He was the author of several • idem, Inschriften des Alten Friedhofs . . . zu Frankfurt,
haggadic and halachik works. Frankfurt, 1901;
• Leopold Stein; elected 1844; officiated down to 1862; • Schudt, Jüdische Merckwürdigkeiten, Frankfurt,
also known as poet and writer. 1714–17;
• Abraham Geiger, Samson Raphael Hirsch, Solomon • Baerwald, Der Alte Friedhof der Israelitischen Gemeinde
Breuer, Nehemiah Brüll, M. Horovitz, and Rudolph zu Frankfurt, 1883;
Plaut succeeded Stein in the order named; Seligsohn • Horovitz, Die Frankfurter Rabbinerversammlung vom
was elected to the office in 1903. Jahre 1603, ib. 1897;
• Frankfurter Israel. Volks-Kalender, 1882 et seq.
Philanthropic Institutions
Among the philanthropic institutions of Frankfurt the Publishing
following are important: The law of this free city decreeing that no Jew should es-
• Achawa (Verein zur Brüderlichkeit; 1864). tablish a printing house there greatly impeded the devel-
9
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia History of Frankfurt am Main
opment of Hebrew publishing in Frankfurt. Many books of the nineteenth century. Among the more important
published there, especially prayer books, appeared with- works printed by Kölner may be mentioned the "Bayit
out place of publication or publisher’s name. Owing to Ḥadash", in 5 vols., corrected by Samuel Dresles
this restriction, the printing requirements of Frankfurt (1712–16), and the continuation of the Babylonian Tal-
were in large measure met by Jewish presses established mud (1720–23) begun at Amsterdam, between which city
in neighboring towns and villages, such as Hanau, Hom- and Frankfurt there was a sort of partnership in printing.
burg, Offenbach, and Rödelheim, the last-named place Kölner printed with the same Amsterdam type the
being specially notable. Besides the local wants of Frank- "Yeshu’ah be-Yisrael" (1719–20). He then conceived the
furt there was the yearly fair which was practically the idea of printing the Alfasi after the model of the Sab-
center of the German-Jewish book trade. In a measure the bionetta edition of 1554, a copy of which was bought
presses of the above four towns were really intended to for 40 thalers. He resolved upon printing 1,700 copies at
supply the fair trade of Frankfurt. the price of 10 thalers each; the expenses, 11,000 thalers,
According to Wolf ("Bibl. Hebr." ii. 1385), the history were to have been obtained by means of a lottery; that is
of Hebrew typography at Frankfurt-on-the-Main begins to say, each subscriber was entitled to a copy of the book
with 1625, in which year seliḥot were printed there. But and to a lottery ticket; but the whole plan miscarried.
Steinschneider and Cassel declare this statement doubt- Between the years 1726 and 1736 no Hebrew printing
ful. The chronogram of a certain prayer book seems to appears to have been done in Frankfurt, and during the
show that it was printed there in 1656, but this chrono- last three-quarters of the eighteenth century very few
gram is known only from references to it in a second Hebrew works were printed there. Among those printed
edition printed at Amsterdam in 1658 ("Cat. Bodl." Nos. "Toledot Adam", a Hebrew letter-writer printed in 1736;
2149, 2152). It may be said with certainty, however, that and in 1742 the responsa "Sheb Ya’aḳob", the three Babot
Hebrew printing began in Frankfurt not later than 1662, of the Jerusalem Talmud, and the second part of the
when the Pentateuch with a German glossary was print- "Pene Yehoshua’", the third part appearing in 1756.
ed. The books printed at Frankfurt up to 1676 do not bear Abraham Broda’s "Eshel Abraham" was issued in 1776.
any printer’s name. Hebrew printing has continued at Frankfurt up to the
From the year 1677 till the beginning of the eigh- present day.
teenth century there were two Christian printing estab-
lishments in Frankfurt at which Hebrew books were
printed: (1) The press owned till 1694 by Balthasar Chris-
References
tian Wust, who began with David Clodius’ Hebrew Bible; [1] The German Revolutionary Student Movement,
his last work was the unvocalized Bible prepared by 1819-1833Rolland Ray Lutz, Central European
Eisenmenger, 1694; up to 1707 the press was continued History, Vol. 4, No. 3 (Sep., 1971), pp. 215-241
by John Wust. Among his typesetters who worked on [2] Stanton, Shelby, World War II Order of Battle: An
the "Amarot Ṭehorot" (1698) and the responsa "Ḥawwot Encyclopedic Reference to U.S. Army Ground Forces from
Yaïr" were two Christians: Christian Nicolas and John Battalion through Division, 1939-1946 (Revised Edition,
Kaspar Pugil. (2) That of Blasius Ilsnerus, who printed 2006), Stackpole Books, p. 57, 84.
in 1682 the "Ḥiddushe Haggadot" of Samuel Edels. Many [3] Neustadt in Zeitschrift für Geschichte der Juden in
works that appeared in the last quarter of the seven- Deutschland, i. 190.
teenth century without bearing the names of either • Geschichte von Frankfurt am Main from the
printers or publishers probably belong to the publica- German-language Wikipedia. Last retrieved October
tions of Isaac and Seligmann, sons of Hirz Reis, who in 2, 2005.
1687 published a beautiful edition of the Yalḳuṭ.
Although the proprietors of the presses were Christians, Bibliography of Jewish Encyclopedia
the publishers were often Jews; among them may be • Schudt, Jüdische, Merckwürdigkeiten, iv.;
mentioned Joseph Trier Cohen (1690–1715), Leser • Appendix, ii. 148 et seq.;
Schuch, Solomon Hanau, and Solomon and Abraham, • Moritz Steinschneider and David Cassel, Jüdische
sons of Kalman, who in 1699 published through John Typographie, in Ersch and Johann Gottfried Gruber,
Wust the Alfasi in three volumes. Encyc. section ii., part 28, pp. 78 et seq.
The greatest period of Hebrew publishing in Frank- This article incorporates text from the 1901–1906 Jewish
furt was the first quarter of the eighteenth century. He- Encyclopedia, a publication now in the public domain.
brew books were printed in several establishments, in- ([1])
cluding those of Mat. Andrea (1707–10), Jo. Ph. Andrea By : Richard Gottheil, A. Freimann, Joseph
(1716), Nicolas Weinmann (1709), Antony Heinscheit Jacobs, Max Seligsohn
(1711–19), and, above all, John Kölner, who during the
twenty years of his activity (1708–27) furnished half of
the Hebrew works printed at Frankfurt up to the middle External links
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia History of Frankfurt am Main
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