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Cycle I – coordinator: Prof. MUDr. Josef Stingl, CSc.
Module I. A: „Structure and function of the human body“
Coordinator: doc. MUDr. Romana Šlamberová, Ph.D.
QUESTIONS FOR THE ORAL EXAMINATION
1. General overview of metabolism, energetical metabolism
2. Digestion, absorption and metabolism of saccharides and their regulation
3. Digestion, absorption and metabolism of lipids and their regulation
4. Digestion, absorption and metabolism of proteins and peptides, and their regulation
5. Oral cavity and pharynx
6. Teeth
7. Oesophagus and stomach
8. Duodenum
9. Pancreas
10. Liver. Bile ducts
11. Small intestine
12. Large intestine and peritoneum
13. Vitamins
14. Metabolism of water and minerals
15. Blood – contents and function
16. Hemoglobin – function, degradation (tetrapyroles)
17. Hematopoesis, Hemostatis
18. Immunity (including spleen, thymus and lymphatic system)
19. Connective tissue – connective tissue proper, cartilage, bone
20. Respiration
21. Nasal cavity, larynx
22. Bronchi, lungs
23. Kidneys
24. Urine – origin, composition, estimation
25. Acid – base balance, homeostasis and role of lungs and kidneys in their maintenance
26. Heart
27. Conducting system of the heart
28. Hemodynamics
29. Arterial system
30. Venous system
31. Lymphatic system
32. Microcirculation
33. Blood circulation in the foetus
34. Skin and its derivates
35. Mammary gland
36. Thermoregulation
37. Endocrine regulations
38. Hypothalamus, hypophysis
39. Thyroid gland, parathyreoid glands
40. Suprarenal glands (cortex and medulla)
41. Male genital organs
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42. Female genital organs
43. Uterus, pregnancy, delivery
44. Fetal membranes and placenta
45. Fetal and perinatal period. Markers of maturity of the newborn
46. Muscular tissue
47. Synapse and neuromuscular junction
48. Nervous tissue
49. Motor and sensitive innervation of upper and lower extremities
50. Cranial and spinal nerves
51. Spinal cord, spinal meninges, vertebral canal
52. Subcortical areas of the brain
53. Cerebellum
54. Cerebral cortex
55. Cerebral ventricles, cerebrospinal fluid, meninges
56. Motor control
57. Sensory perception (taste, gustatory, sensitive)
58. Visual apparatus
59. Acoustic and vestibular apparatus
60. Pain
61. Autonomic nervous system
62. Behaviour, emotions
63. Learning and memory
64. Consciousness (vigilance), sleep, chronobiology
65. Biotransformation (xenobiochemistry)
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Detailed syllabus of questions for the final oral examination in the module I A
„STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE HUMAN BODY“
Legend: A = Anatomy, HE = Histology and Embryology, P = Physiology, C = Chemistry and
Biochemistry
1. General overview of metabolism, energetical metabolism (aerobic and anaerobic
processes)
A= Functional morphology of different parts of digestive tract
HE= Development and histophysiology of the digestive tract
P= Basal and general metabolic rate
Transformation of energetical, energetical values of the food, respiratory ratio, energetic
equivalent
Food intake and its regulation
Obesity and starvation
C= Ways of ATP formation. High-energy compounds and their alterations, adenylate kinase.
Respiratory chain and uncoupling proteins. Regulation of food consumption and energy
homeostasis. Leptin.
2. Digestion, absorption and metabolism of saccharides and their regulation
A= Anatomy of the salivary glands and pancreas; suboccipital triangle, protideomasseteric
region, oral cavity floor
HE= Microscopic structure and histophysiology of salivary glands, mucous membranes of the
small intestine and that of the exocrine pancreas and of Langerhans´ islets
P= Survey of the digestion of sacharides, glycaemic curve,load tests for saccharides
C= Digestion and absorption of saccharides - overview. Maintenance of glycaemia: formation
and utilization of glucose and a regulation of the processes on the cellular level (enzymes) and
the organism level (hormones).
3. Digestion, absorption and metabolism of lipids and their regulation
A= Morphology of the bile ducts, of the intestinal lymphatic vessels and their participation on
the lipid resorption, cystohepatic triangle, hepatoduodenal ligament
HE= Microscopic structure and histophysiology of the small intestine mucous membranes and
that of the adipose tissue
P= Physiological importance of the bile excretion, physical and chemical properties of bile
Function of small intestine (motility and regulation)
Absorption in the small intestine (facilitated diffusion, pinocytosis, active transport)
C= Digestion, absorption and blood transport of lipids – overview. Metabolic pathways
destined for triacylglycerol energy supply. Fat store mobilization, fatty acids as an energy
source, ketogenesis.
4. Digestion, absorption and metabolism of proteins and peptides, and their regulation
A= Anatomical structure of the stomach, pancreas and small intestine, lesser sac
HE= Microscopic anatomy and histophysiology of the gastric and small intestine mucosa
P= Composition of gastric juice and its secretion, substances influencing gastric secretion
C= Protein digestion and absorption. Elimination of amino group. Carbon skeletons of amino
acids - their fate after feeding and during starvation. Terms: glucogenic and ketogenic amino
acids.
5. Oral cavity and pharynx
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A= Structure of the lip, vestibulum oris, oral cavity, salivary glands, tongue (including
innervation), palatine tonsile, soft palate, general structure of the pharyngeal wall, its fixation
to the base of the skull, innervation of gustatory tract. Parapharyngeal and retropharynegeal
space, styloid septum
HE= Development of the oral cavity, pharyngeal pouch, microscopic structure of the tongue
and salivary glands
P= The composition and physiological singnificance of salivary secretion
Sucking, swallowing
C= Digestive processes occuring in the oral cavity. Specificity of -amylase. Comparison
between polysaccharide cleavage in the gastrointestinal tract and in the cell. Isoenzymes.
Immunological importance of the saliva. Glycoproteins.
6. Teeth
A= General anatomy of the tooth, deciduous and permanent dentition, dentition as a whole,
splanchnocranium, muscles of mastication, pterygopalatinal and ingratemporal fossa
HE= Development of dental lamina and its components, microscopic structure of the tooth
P= Chewing and swallowing
C= Calcium and phosphate metabolism. Collagen. Metabolic functions of vitamin C.
7. Oesophagus and stomach
A= General structure of the oesophagus, its blood supply (part of portocaval anastomoses)
and topography, general structure of the gastric wall (three layers of muscles and pyloric
sphincter), blood vessels of stomach, lymphatic drainage, topography of stomach
HE= Development of the foregut microscopic structure and histophysiology of the
oesophagus and stomach
P= Functions of the stomach
Composition of the gastric juice, its secretion, physiological significance and regulation
Vomiting
C= Digestive processes performed in the stomach. Importance and regulation of secretion of
hydrochloric acid in the stomach. Intrinsic factor, vitamin B12 and its metabolic relationships
with folate. Nutrient absorption in the stomach.
8. Duodenum
A= General structure of the duodenal wall, duodenal blood supply, fixation and topography,
its relation to the biliary ducts and to the pancreas
HE= Development of the supramesocolic parts of abdominal cavity, microscopic structure
and histophysiology of duodenum
P= Significance of the duodenum for digestion
C= Composition of pancreatic juice. Activation and specificity of pancreatic enzymes.
General ways of enzyme activation. Nutrient absorption in the small intestine and the fate of
absorbed compounds.
9. Pancreas
A= General structure, blood supply, fixation and topography of pancreas
HE= Development, microscopic structure and histophysiology of pancreas
P= Pancreatic secretion, composition and physiological significance
C= Hormones of the pancreas. Insulin secretion, C-peptide. Influences of insulin and
glukagon on the intermediary metabolism.
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10. Liver. Bile ducts
A= Intra – and extrahepatical biliary ducts, gall bladder, hepatoduodenal ligament,
cystohepatical triangle, peritoneal recesses
HE= Microscopic structure and histophysiology of bile ducts and of gall bladder
P= Physiological significance of the bile
Excretory, metabolic and detoxicative functions of the liver.
C= Function of the liver in the intermediary metabolism. Metabolic pathways specific for the
liver. Biochemical markers of liver damage.
11. Small intestine
A= General anatomical structure of jejunum and ileum, fixation, blood supply, lymphatic
drainage, topography, Meckel´s diverticle, radix mesenterii
HE= Development of the inframesocolic part of the abdominal cavity, microscopic structure
and histophysiology of the small intestine
P= Secretion of the intestinal juice, its significance, composition and regulation
Absorption of elementary nutrients
Absorption of water and ions
Resorption in small intestine (facilitated diffusion, pinocytosis, active transport)
C= Brush border of the enterocyte: digestion and absorption into enterocyte. Digestive
processes in the cytosol of enterocyte. Transport through the basolateral membrane.
Metabolism of enterocyte.
12. Large intestine and peritoneum
A= General structure, fixation, blood supply, lymphatic drainage, in details: vermiform
appendix and rectum (position and projection)
Parietal and visceral peritoneum, fixation of abdominal organs, topography of the
supramesocolic and inframesocolic part of peritoneal cavity, lesser sac (omental bursa) and
other recesses
HE= Development of the hindgut, microscopic structure of the large intestine, inborn defects
P= Function of the large intestine, defecation
C= Types of dietary fibre and their function. Biochemical importance of bacteria in the GIT.
13. Vitamins
A= Macroscopic and topographical anatomy of the small and large intestine
HE= Histophysiology of the intestinal epithelium
P= Physiological importance of vitamins
C= Relationships between vitamins and coenzymes, their role in metabolism.
14. Metabolism of water and minerals
A= Lungs, kidney, skin - participation of their morphology on the water and minerals
metabolism, topographical anatomy of kidneys and mediastinum
HE= Structure and histophysiology of nephron, sweat glands and large intestine mucosa
P= The distribution of water in the body
The electrolytes in extracellular and intracellular fluids
pH of the body fluids and its control
Regulation of water metabolism
Physiological importance of Na, K, Mn, Pb, As, Ba, Zn, Se, Mo, F, I, Cu, Fe, Mg
C= Internal environment: maintainance of pH, ionic composition and volume of extracellular
fluid.
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15. Blood – contents and function
A= Systemic and pulmonary blood circulation, morphology of the microcirculatory bed, fetal
blood circulation
HE= Morphology of the blood elements
P= Physiologically important properties of blood (specific weight, viscosity, ratio between
blood cells and plasma, total blood volume)
Erythrocytes and their functions, hemolysis and its types
Leukocytes, their types and functions
Functions of thrombocytes
Most important components of blood plasma and their physiological significance
Blood groups, Rh factor
C= Plasma proteins and their function. Electrophoresis of serum proteins. Non-enzymatic
glycation of proteins. Erythrocyte metabolism and its antioxidative mechanisms. Oxidative
burst of neutrophiles.
16. Hemoglobin – function, importance, degradation (tetrapyroles)
A= Systemic and pulmonary blood circulation, spleen, system of portal vein, bile ducts,
cystohepatic triangle, mediastinum
HE= Development and structure of erythrocyte, Kupffer´s cells, microcirculation and red pulp
of spleen
P= Hemoglobin and its function, derivatives of hemoglobin, blood transfusion
C= Heme synthesis and degradation. Structure and function of hemoglobin. Erythrocyte
metabolism. Transport of blood gases.
17. Hematopoesis
A= Morphology of the bone medulla, lymphatic nodes and spleen, topographical anatomy,
lymph drainage of organs
HE= Development of hematopoesis and basic morphologic characteristics of developing
blood elements
P= Regulation of hematopoesis
Hemostasis – external and internal factors of hemocoagulation
Factors of the anticolaguation
C= Hemoglobin synthesis and degradation. Iron metabolism. Role of Ca, vitamin K and
eikosanoids in blood clotting. Difference between plasma and serum.
18. Immunity (including spleen, thymus and lymphatic system)
A= Macroscopic anatomy of the spleen (inner structure, function, topography), anatomy of
the thymus and lymphatic nodes, lymph drainage of organs, mediastinum
HE= Development, microscopic structure and histophysiology of immunocompetent cells
and lymphoid organs
Development of organs in the dorsal mesogastrium, microscopic structure and
histophysiology of spleen, thymus and lymphatic nodes
P= Specific and non-specific immunity, inborn and acquired immunity
Physiology of the cellular and humoral immunity
Clinical use of immunity, autoagressive (autoimmunne) deseases
C= Immunoglobulins – relationship between structure and function. Types of
immunoglobulins. Complement. Acute phase proteins. Neutrophil metabolism. Histamine.
Heparin. Leukotrienes.
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19. Connective tissue – proper connective tissue, cartilage, bone
A= Anatomical definition of proper connective tissue, cartilage and bone
Types of cartilage, examples of their presence in the body, connections of bones, general
anatomy of the joint, types of joints
General organization of bone, bone as an organ - periosteum, primary and secondary bone,
desmogenous and chondrogenous osteogenesis, growth of the bone into the length and width,
blood supply of bone, topographical spaces and fossas of the skull
HE= Development, structure and histophysiology of proper connective tissue, individual
types of cartilage and bone tissue, regeneration
P= Physiological significance and regulation of Ca and P exchange, the functions of
parathyreoidal gland
C= Collagen and elastine. Proteoglycans and glycoproteins – structure, synthesis and
function. Calcium and phosphate metabolism. Solubility product. Laboratory markers of bone
metabolism (Ca, P, alcali phosphatase - izoenzymes).
20. Respiration
A= Basic morphology of the respiratory system including the pleural cavity, principal and
auxiliary respiratory muscles, mediastinum, interscostal space
HE= Development, structure and histophysiology of the respiratory system, air-blood barrier
P= Ventilation of the lung, primary ventilation volumes, dead space, vital capacity of the lung
Gas transfer within the lung composition of atmospheric and alveolar gas mixture,
alveolocapillary gas diffusion
Hypoxia, its types and sequelae, physiology of hypoxia adaptation (mountain desease)
Hyperoxia. Effect on elevated atmospheric pressure (keson disease)
Partition of respiration on the maintainance of acid – base balance
Function of the pulmonary blood circulation – hemodynamic values of blood distribution in
lungs,
Ventilation – perfusion ratio
Physiology of the space flights
C= Oxygen transport in the blood, the dissociation curve of oxyhemoglobin. Blood transport
of CO2, its types, releasing of CO2 in the lungs. The relationship between partial gas pressure
regulation (O2, CO2) and a maintenance of acid-base balance. Biological oxidation (oxidases,
oxygenases). Oxygen – an electron acceptor – importance for the cell and metabolism.
Respiratory chain. Reactive oxygen species and antioxidants.
21. Nasal cavity, larynx
A= Definition of the nasal cavity walls, structure of the nasal mucosa, vascular and blood
supply, paranasal sinuses. Olfactory tract. Structure of the larynx: cartilage’s, ligaments,
joints, muscles, innervation. Functions of vocal cords. Topography of larynx and anterior part
of neck, cervical fasciae.
HE= Development of the face, microscopic structure of mucosa of upper respiratory ways,
olfactory region
P= Respiratory defence reflexes, periodical respiration
C= Proteoglycans – structure, synthesis and function. Elastin.
22. Bronchi, lungs
A= Trachea and bronchi – basic structure and topography, anatomical background of
tracheotomy, macroscopic anatomy of lungs, lobes and segments of lungs, pulmonary blood
circulation (nutritive and functional), pleura, pleural cavities, projection of pleura and lungs
on the thoracic wall, contents and topography of mediastinum, topography of the thoracic
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wall, diaphragm
HE= Development, microscopic structure and histophysiology of lower respiratory ways
P= Mechanics of inspiration and expiration, inspirium, expirium, intrapulmonary and
intrathoracic pressure
Outer presentations of the ventilation (breathing movements and sounds)
Compliance of the lungs and chest, retractive force of lungs, alveolar surface pressure,
respiratory load
Pneumothorax and its types
Ventilation of the lung, primary ventilation volumes, dead space, vital capacity of lungs
Pulmonary blood circulation
C= O2 and CO2 - transport in the blood. Blood buffer systems. Acid-base balance regulation.
Oxygen as an electron acceptor – respiratory chain. Factors with influence on hemoglobin
saturation.
23. Kidneys
A= Basic morphology of the kidney, its vascular system, structure of the nephron
HE= Development, structure and histophysiology of the urinary system
P= Glomerular filtration, composition of glomerular filtrate
Active and passive tubular transport, glucose tubular transport
Role of different parts of nephron in the resorption of salts and water
Counter-current concentration mechanism
Regulation of renal functions
C= Biochemical functions of kidneys. Energy substrates for kidneys. Glutamine.
Gluconeogenesis. Nitrogen-containing compounds in urine – origin and importance.
24. Urine – origin, composition, estimation
A= Functional morphology of the nephron, calices, renal pelvis, ureter, bladder, urethra –
innervation and mechanism of miction, topographical anatomy of the urinary system
HE= Microscopic structure and histophysiology of the nephron
P= Survey of the urine formation, composition of urine, glomerular filtration, tubular
secretion and resorption
Composition of glomerular filtrate
Regulation of glomerular filtration
Functional tests of kidneys - clearance
Physiology of the renal collecting system
C= Chemical composition of urine. Overview of main metabolic by-products, which are
routinely investigated in urine and their relations to intermediary metabolism.
25. Acid – base balance, homeostasis, role of lungs and kidneys in their maintenance
A= Functional morphology and topographical anatomy of lungs and kidneys, their vascular
systems, mediastinum, renal covers
HE= Microscopic structure and histophysiology of the nephron, air – blood barrier
P= pH of blood and body fluids and their regulation
C= Blood plasma buffers. Role of kidneys and lungs in acid-base balance maintainance.
Correction and compensation. Monitoring of internal environment.
26. Heart
A= Macroscopic anatomy of the heart - surface, ventricles, valves, coronary arteries and
veins, pericardial sac, topography of the heart
HE= Development of heart and aortic arches, inborn defects, microscopic structure of the
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myocardium, regional differences, endocardium, epicardium, pericardium
P= Physiology of the heart. Coronary circulation of blood
C= The origin and utilization of energy substrates for the heart muscle (ketone bodies, amino
acids, fatty acids, glucose). Biochemical markers of myocardial damage and their functions in
metabolism.
27. Conducting system of the heart
A= Morphology of the conducting system, heart innervation, interaction of the atria and
ventricles, heart scelet, topographical anatomy of the heart
HE= Specificity of the microscopic structure of the conducting system
P= Electrophysiological characteristics of heart functions
Generation of action potentials of the heart, cardiac receptors
C= Influence of catecholamines on intermediary metabolism. Calcium as a second messenger
(calmodulin, troponin). Biochemistry of the cardiomyocyte.
28. Haemodynamics
A= Arteries of elastic and muscular type, arterioles, microcirculation, functional morhpology
of the veins (venous valves, muscular pump, pelvic venous plexuses, morphological
background of pulmonary embolisation)
HE= Microscopic structure and histophysiology of the blood vessels
P= Blood flow through the circulatory system, blood flow velocity
Blood pressure relationships in different parts of the circulation
Measurement of blood pressure
C= Biochemistry of smooth muscle contraction. Nitric oxide (nitrogen monoxide). Osmotic
and oncotic blood pressure.
29. Arterial system
A= General structure of arteries, functional importance of arteries of elastic and muscular
type, systemic and pulmonary circulation, topographical anatomy of arteries
HE= Development of circulation, microscopic structure of the arterial wall
P= Significance of arterial elasticy for the hemodynamics
Arterial blood pressure, determination of blood pressure, its normal values and physiological
variance. Arterial pulsation, arterial pulse curve
C= Elastin. Biochemistry of smooth muscle contraction. Nitric oxide (nitrogen monoxide).
Oxygen – function in metabolism. Transport of cholesterol in the blood.
30. Venous system
A= General anatomy of veins, system of superior and inferior vena cava, portal vein,
portocaval and cavocaval anastomoses, venous systems of the upper and lower extremity,
topographical anatomy of veins
HE= Development of venous system, microscopic structure of the venous wall, pulmonal
veins
P= Blood flow through veins, venous pulsation, venous pulse curve
C= High-and low molar mass compounds of blood plasma. Factors influencing oxygen
binding to hemoglobin.
31. Lymphatic system
A= General structure of individual parts of lymphatic system, structure of lymphatic node,
lymphatic drainage of head and neck, upper extremity, breast, lungs, stomach, small and large
intestine, uterus and lower extremity
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HE= Microscopic structure and histophysiology of lymphatic system
P= Physiological importance of the lymphatic nodes, production of lymph
C= The lymph and its role in lipoprotein metabolism. Classification of lipoproteins
(according to the specific weight) and their importance. Immunoglobulins – structure and
function.
32. Microcirculation
A= Morphological parts of microcirculatory bed, functional importance of arterioles,
capillaries and venules, arterial and arterio-venous anastomoses
HE= Vasculogenesis and angiogenesis, microscopic structure of arterioles, venules and that of
typical and atypical capillaries
P= Microcirculation
The blood flow from arterioles toward veins, function of capillaries and production of lymph
plasma
C= Gas exchange in tissues. Role of capillary endothelium in lipoprotein metabolism. Nitric
oxide (nitrogen monoxide). Oncotic blood pressure and its importance.
33. Blood circulation in the foetus
A= Morphology of the foetal heart and foetal peripheral blood circulation (including
placenta), ligamentum teres hepatis
HE= Development of the blood circulation after implantation and in the fetoplacentar unit
P= Physiology of the foetal blood circulation
C= Structure and function of hemoglobin, foetal hemoglobin.
34. Skin and its derivatives
A= Basic morphology of the skin, skin muscles, facias (generally and examples), skin
derivatives, sensitive skin innervation, sensitive tracts
HE= Microscopic structure and histophysiology of the skin and its appendages
P= Physiological functions of the skin
C= Collagen: structure, properties and metabolism. Vitamin D and C – metabolism.
Melanin.
35. Mammary gland
A= Mammary gland – basic morphology, topography, lymphatic drainage, fascias and
muscles of the thorax
HE= Development, microscopic structure and histophysiology of the breast in the individual
periods of women life
P= Lactation and its regulation
C= Breast (maternal) milk composition, important substrates required for synthesis of the
components. Interconversions of hexoses in the human body. Synthesis, elongation and
desaturation of fatty acids. IgA.
36. Thermoregulation
A= Structure of the skin and its vascularisation (why are testes suspended in the scrotum?),
fascias (generally and examples), anatomically defined adiposal bodies
HE= Microscopic structure and histophysiology of white and brown adipose tissue
P= Production of heat and body temperature, homoiothermy, poikilothermy
Physical and chemical thermoregulation
Shivering and non- thermogenesis
Control of the body temperature
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Adaptation, aclimatisation and aclimation.
Hyperthermia, hypothermia.
C= Respiratory chain. Theory proposed by Mitchell. Role of high-energy phosphates. Aerobic
phosphorylation. Uncoupling proteins - principle of their function, their role in thermogenesis.
37. Endocrine regulations
A= Structure, blood supply and topography of the hypophysis, thyroid gland, pancreas and
suprarenal glands
HE= Development, structure and histophysiology of the endocrine system
P= Classification of hormones and mechanism of their effects, hormonal receptors, the role of
cyclic AMP, biofeedback
Control of endocrine glands
Hypothalamic-hypophyseal system, release and regulatory hormones
C= The relationship between hormone structure and mechanism of its effect. Endocrine
regulation after feeding, during fasting and exceptional situations (aerobic and anaerobic
stress, starvation).
38. Hypothalamus, hypophysis
A= Macroscopic description of diencephalon, hypophysis and its vascular supply, 3rd
cerebral ventricle
HE= Histophysiology of the hypothalamic-hypophyseal axis
P= Functions of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland
C= Synthesis and general mechanisms of effect of peptide hormones; second messengers.
Hormones of hypophysis. Growth hormon - metabolic effect. Antidiuretic hormone – the
function and mode of effect.
39. Thyroid gland, parathyroid glands
A= Structure and topography of the thyroid gland, its vascular supply, macroscopic anatomy
of the parathyroid glands, fasciae and topography of the neck
HE= Development, microscopic structure and histophysiology of the thyroid and parathyroid
glands
P= Functions of the thyroid gland and its control, function of the parathyroid glands and their
control
C= Synthesis of thyroid hormones and their influence on metabolism. Maintenance of
calcium homeostasis.
40. Suprarenal glands (cortex and medulla)
A= Structure, topography and blood supply of the suprarenal glands
HE= Development, microscopic structure and histophysiology of the suprarenal glands
P= Functions of adrenal cortex and their regulation
Function and regulation of adrenal medulla
Disturbances of the suprarenal glands in clinical practice
C= Glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids - structure, key steps of synthesis. Their blood
transport, degradation and excretion. Synthesis and degradation of catecholamines.
Metabolism during the exceptional situations: stress and physical loading.
41. Male genital organs
A= Structure of the testis, its sheaths, vascular supply, epididymis, deferent duct, prostate,
seminal vesicles, bulbourethral glands, structure of the penis, mechanism of the erection and
its nervous control, inguinal canal, spermatic funicle
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HE= Development, structure and histophysiology of the male genital system, inborn defects
P= Function and control of the male genital organs
C= Androgens (testosterone, DHEA) - key steps of biosynthesis, blood transport, degradation
and excretion. General mechanisms of steroid hormones effect.
42. Female genital organs
A= Basic morphology of the ovary, ovarian tube and uterus, their blood supply and
topography, planes and diameters of the pelvis, muscles of the pelvic and urogenital floor
HE= Development, structure and histophysiology of the female genital system, inborn defects
P= Functions of the ovaries and their control
Menstrual cycle and its regulation
C= Estrogens and progesteron - key steps of biosynthesis (aromatase), blood transport,
degradation and excretion.General mechanisms of steroid hormones effect.
43. Uterus, pregnancy, delivery (labour)
A= Structure and topography of uterus, its blood supply and lymphatic drainage, vagina,
muscles of the pelvic and urogenital floor, female external genital organs, ischioanal fossa
HE= Development, microscopic structure and histophysiology of the female genital organs,
menstrual cycle of the endometrium
P= Physiology of the delivery
C= Biosynthesis of eicosanoids. Changes and specific aspects of metabolism in pregnancy.
44. Foetal membranes and placenta
A= Macroscopic anatomy of the pregnant uterus (umbilical vessels, heart, ductus, chordae)
HE= Implantation, trophoblast expansion, the origin of chorion, amniotic cavity and
disappearance of the uterine cavity during pregnancy, the importance of the yolk sac and
allantois in man, placental structure and the umbilical cord and their anomalies
P= Placental hormones
C= Energy fuel delivery for foetus, immunity and metabolism of the foetus. Foetal
hemoglobin.
45. Foetal and perinatal period. Markers of maturity of the new-born
A= Skull of the new-born, descensus testis et ovarii and their blood supply, inguinal canal
HE= Measuring of the foetus, prenatal growth and its deviations (IUGR), milestones of foetal
development, uterus during pregnancy and childbed, phases of labour, markers of the mature
new-born
P= Lactation and its regulation
C= Foetal hemoglobin. Differences in newborn’s digestive system. Neonatal jaundice.
46. Muscular tissue
A= Morphological and functional differences between smooth, myocardial and cross striated
muscular tissue, their motor (alpha and gamma motoneurones) and proprioceptive
innervation, muscle spindle
General anatomy of the skeletal muscle, classification of muscles according their shapes and
functions, fasciae, tendons and their sheats, synovial bursae.
Suboccipital triangle, lumbal triangles, topography of the upper limb (axilla, cubita, canals,
hand) and lower limb (spaces, femoral triangle, popliteal fossa, canals, foot)
HE= Development, structure and histophysiology of the structural units of the muscular tissue
P= Physical and physiological properties of the skeletal muscle
Afferent and efferent innervation of skeletal muscle
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Muscle and tendon receptors
Action potential of skeletal and smooth muscle
C= Biochemistry of muscle contraction. Muscle cell - metabolism, biochemical markers of its
damage.
47. Synapse and neuromuscular junction
A= Basic anatomy of the cranial and spinal nerves and supplied muscles, alpha and gama
motoneurones, proprioceptive pathways, basis cranii externa et interna
HE= Microscopic structure and histophysiology of synapses and motor end-plates
P= Functional connections between neurons (structure of synapses, synaptical functions and
transmitters)
Presynaptic and postsynaptis receptors
Neurotransmitters and neuromodulators
C= Amino acid decarboxylation. Formation of monoamines. Choline, acetylcholine,
phospholipids.
48. Nervous tissue
A= General organisation of the brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerve
Definition of nervous nuclei and pathways, spinal and cranial nerve.
Vertebral canal, rhomboid fossa, axilla, femoral triangle, supra- and infrapiriform opening
HE= Development, structure and histophysiology of the nervous tissue
P= Functional organization of neurons, neuronal theory, interstitial part of CNS
Electrical manifestation of nervous tissue - resting and action potential, distribution of ions on
membrane propagation of impulse, changes of excitability during impulse, chemical and
thermal manifestation of impulse
Reflex and its principal characteristics - types of reflexes
Functional organisation of neurons in CNS (summation, occlusion, reverbation)
Practical use of electrophysiology in medical diagnosis
C= Tyrosine and phenylalanine metabolism. Energetical sources for the brain. Ammonia
detoxication in the human body. Composition of nerve cell membrane.
49. Motor and sensitive innervation of upper and lower extremities
A= Muscular groups of the upper and lower extremity, brachial, lumbar and sacral plexus.
topography of the upper limb (axilla, cubita, canals, hand) and lower limb (spaces, femoral
triangle, popliteal fossa, canals, foot)
HE= Development of extremities and their innervation
P= Physiology of the neuromuscular plate
C= Muscle contraction - mechanism, energy sources and their metabolism. Role of muscle
tissue in the intermediary metabolism.
50. Cranial and spinal nerves
A= Nuclei on the floor of the rhomboid fossa, survey of the cranial nerves. Scheme of the
origin and branching of the spinal nerve, ventral and dorsal ramie of the spinal nerves,
principles of the neural plexuses, radicular and nervous areae, innervation zones of Head.
Vertebral canal and topographical spaces of the skull.
HE= Development of the components of spinal nerve and its microscopic structure
P= Lability and parabiosis
Electrophysiology of the CNS (unit activity, DC potential, impedance)
Electrophysiology of the CNS - evoked activity
Electrophysiology of the CNS - spontaneous activity
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C= Impulse propagation. Neuromediators.
51. Spinal cord, spinal meninges, vertebral canal
A= Macroscopic anatomy and inner structure of the spinal medulla, most important spinal
tracts, spinal meninges and blood supply of spinal cord, vertebromedullar topography,
punction of cerebrospinal fluid
HE= Development of neural tube and its wall, inborn defects, origin and structure of
meninges, encephalic liquor and its morphogenetic function
P= Spinal cord and its functions (spinal nerves, spinal shock)
C= Metabolism of inhibitory amino acids (glycin, GABA). Cerebrospinal fluid - composition
and function.
52. Subcortical areas
A= Macroscopical description of oblongate medulla, pons and mesencephalon, their basic
inner structure on cross sections, nuclei of cranial nerves, reticular formation, basic tracts of
brain stem.
Basic characteristics of cranial nerves (morphological differences between sensitive, motor,
autonomous and sensory nerves). Functional morphology of the brain stem, thalamus and
basal ganglia. Subarachnoideal cisterns, fourth ventricle.
HE= Development of the individual parts of the CNS. Origin and microscopic structure of the
grey matter of the CNS and that of basal ganglia.
P= Physiology of the oblongate medulla, pons, mesencephalon, thalamus, hypothalamus,
basal ganglia.
Functional organisation of the reticular formation
C= Monoamines (biogenic amines).
53. Cerebellum
A= Structure of cerebellar cortex its nuclei, functional connections of the vermis, paravermal
cortex and hemispheres in the regulation of motor functions. Topography, blood supply and
covers.
HE= Microscopic structure and histophysiology of cerebellar cortex
Development of cerebellum
P= Cerebellum and its functions
C= Ethanol metabolism. Influence of ethanol on intermediary metabolism.
54. Cerebral cortex
A= Morphology of the cerebral cortex, functionally specific regions, relationships between
thalamus, cortex and basal ganglia, survey of most important nervous pathways. Covers,
subarachnoideal cisterns, lateral ventricle, blood supply
HE= Development of pallium, its types and microscopic structure of basic types of brain
cortex
P= Primary projecting, associative and effector areas of the brain cortex
Cortical localisation of speech . Prefrontal areas of brain cortex
C= Glutamine metabolism. Detoxication of ammonia in the brain. Excitatory amino acids
(glutamate, aspartate) and their metabolism.
55. Cerebral ventricles, cerebrospinal fluid, meninges
A= Macroscopic description of ventricles, principles of cerebrospinal fluid origin and
circulation, cerebral arteries and veins, cisterns craniocerebral topography
HE= Microscopic structure of ependyme, chorioid plexus and hemato – encephalic barrier
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P= Barrier mechanism of brain, cerebrospinal fluid, brain metabolism
Cerebral blood circulation
C= Cerebrospinal fluid - composition, function and importance in diagnostics. Mechanisms of
active and passive transport.
56. Motor regulation
A= Proprioceptive tracts, participation of the cerebellum, thalamus, basal ganglia and frontal
cortex in motor regulation, pyramidal and extrapyramidal tracts, cranial and spinal motor
nerves
HE= Microscopic structure and histophysiology of the muscles receptor, motor end-plate,
structure and histophysiology of the cerebellar cortex
P= Pyramidal and extrapyramidal systems (cerebral cortex, thalamus, basal ganglia)
Proprioceptive system (classification and organisation of proprioreceptors)
Physiology of the motor system and its regulation
C= The way from nerve excitation to muscle contraction. Coupling of glycogenolysis and
muscle contraction.
57. Sensory perception (taste, gustatory, sensitive)
A= Topography of the nasal and oral cavity, distribution of the taste buds, the olfactory and
gustatory tracts, skin receptors, spinothalamic and spinobulbar tracts, sensory inervation of
the skin
HE= Microscopic structure and histophysiology of the peripheral receptors
P= Olfactory and gustatory systems (function and organization)
Somesthetic system (perception of the pressure and temperature)
C= Biochemistry of sensory perception.
58. Vision
A= Morphology of the eye ball, the accessory visual apparatus (eye ball muscles, nerves and
vessels of the orbit, eyelids, lacrimal apparatus) visual tract, orbita
HE= Development, microscopic structure and histophysiology of the eye, and its accessory
organs
P= Visual system (formation of the picture on the retina and its synthesis in the brain)
C= Biochemistry of vision - light reception on molecular level. Metabolism of cornea, lens
and retina.
59. Auditory and vestibular systems.
A= Functional anatomy of the external, middle and inner ear, auditory and vestibular tract
HE= Origin, microscopic structure and histophysiology of the auditory and vestibular organ
P= Auditory and vestibular systems (functions of the external, middle and inner ear)
Perception of sounds, mechanism of their conduction, hearing disorders
C= Impulse propagation (generally).
60. Pain
A= Skin receptors, sensitive innervation of inner organs and skin, Head zones, spinothalamic
tract and its cortical projection. General structure of the cranial and spinal nerve
HE= Peripheral sensorical receptors
P= Physiology and pathophysiology of pain
Therapy of pain on the basis of physiological knowledge and principles
C= Endogenic opioids. Eicosanoids. Serotonin.
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61. Autonomic (vegetative) nervous system
A= Overview of sympathetic system, their brain stem and spinal nuclei, mediators, ganglia,
innervation of the effectors and course of fibres.
HE= Origin and microscopic structure of autonomic ganglia
P= Functions of autonomic nervous system
C= Role of vegetative nervous system in metabolic pathway regulations (lipolysis,
maintenance of glycemia), hormone secretion (suprarenal medulla, pancreas) and in a
regulation of organ perfusions.
62. Behaviour, emotions
A= Rhinencephalon, limbic system, frontal cortex, domination of the hemisphere
HE= Development of CNS in fetal and perinatal period, critical periods
P= Function of the limbic system
Prefrontal areas of the brain cortex
Involuntary actions (motivation, emotions, instincts)
C= Effect of chemical compounds on human behaviour.
63. Learning and memory
A= Frontal cortex, limbic system, basal ganglia (amygdala)
HE= Kinds of neuronal connections, basic scheme of neocortical layers
P= Formation and types of conditioned reflexes
Types of inhibition
Localisation of temporal connections (memory traces), morphological, biochemical and
electrophysiological manifestation
Physiology and development of learning and memory
C= Choline, acetylcholine, glutamate.
64. Consciousness, sleep, chronobiology
A= Pineal body, frontal cortex, limbic system, dominance of brain hemispheres
HE= Microscopic structure and histophysiology of pineal body
P= Chronobiological rhythms
Physiology of sleep (basic phases, rhythms and mechanismus of sleep)
Functions of the melatonin
C= Serotonine - synthesis and degradation. Melatonin.
65. Biotransformation, xenobiochemistry
A= Macroscopic anatomy and topographical anatomy of liver, their blood supply
HE= Microscopic structure of hepatocyte and morphological substrate of detoxicative
enzymes
P= Detoxicative function of the liver
C= Basic principles of xenobiochemistry. Mixed-function oxidases. Synthesis of glucuronate.
Degradation of heme and metabolism of bile pigments. Conjugated and unconjugated
bilirubin, laboratory assay and its diagnostic use.