Motivation
Spring 2007 Motivation 1
Motivation
• Definitions
• Content models
• Process models
Spring 2007 Motivation 2
What is Motivation?
• “Willingness to exert effort to reach
organizational goals”
• The force that starts, sustains, and directs
activity
Tension
Need
Reduction
Tension Sat.
Drive Search
Feedback
Spring 2007 Motivation 3
Why Does it Matter?
Ability Motivation
Performance
Spring 2007 Motivation 4
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation
• Where does our motivation come from?
• Extrinsic = external rewards
• Intrinsic = rewards from the task itself
• Application to domains of human activity
Type of
Activity Motivation Freedom Human Value
Work Extrinsic Constrained ???
Play Intrinsic Freely Chosen Distraction
Leisure Intrinsic Freely Chosen Self-Fulfillment
Spring 2007 Motivation 5
Content vs. Process
• Content
• What motivates us?
• Process
• How are we motivated?
Spring 2007 Motivation 6
Content Models
• Maslow
• Herzberg
• McClelland
• Theory X, Theory Y
Spring 2007 Motivation 7
Maslow’s Pyramid
Self-Actualization
Esteem
Socia
l
Safety
Physiological
Spring 2007 Motivation 8
Herzberg’s Two Factor Model
• Ideas developed through work with engineers and
scientists
• Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are separate, not
two ends of a single scale
• One group of factors prevents dissatisfaction, but does
not cause satisfaction
• Another group of factors cause satisfaction
• Question: does satisfaction lead to performance?
• Traditionally, we said Yes
• However, performance may cause satisfaction
• But, satisfaction is related to turnover
Spring 2007 Motivation 9
Hygiene vs. Motivators
Hygiene Motivators
Quality of Career Advancement
supervision Personal growth
Rate of pay Recognition
Company policies Responsibility
Working conditions Achievement
Relations with others
Job security
Lack of these results in These result in
dissatisfaction satisfaction
Spring 2007 Motivation 10
McClelland - Needs
• Three basic human needs
• Achievement
• Power
• Affiliation
• N Ach performance
• Tested on large scale basis
• N Ach (children’s stories)
• National performance (utility usage)
Spring 2007 Motivation 11
Theories X and Y
Theory X Theory Y
Little ambition Self-directed
Dislike work Enjoy work
Avoid responsibility Accept responsibility
Spring 2007 Motivation 12
Motivating with Money
• Does money matter?
• According to Herzberg, no
• But…..
Spring 2007 Motivation 13
Process Models
• Behavior modification
• Goal setting
• VIE
• Equity Theory
• Job Characteristics Model
Spring 2007 Motivation 14
Behavior Modification
• Basic psychological theory
• Pavlov
• Skinner
• Behavior is a function of its
consequences
• Some say….assumes that people have
little free will
Spring 2007 Motivation 15
Basic Terms
• Positive reinforcement
• Negative reinforcement
• Extinction
• Punishment
Shaping:
Reward close approximations, then closer
approximations, until desired response is
achieved
Spring 2007 Motivation 16
How it Works
Consequence
Reward Punishment
Apply Positive Punishment
Reinforcement
Contingency
Negative
Withhold
Extinction Reinforcement
Spring 2007 Motivation 17
Schedules of Reinforcement
FIXED INTERVAL
Reinforcement occurs at fixed intervals of
time: the bimonthly paycheck.
VARIABLE INTERVAL
Reinforcement occurs at random intervals of
time: the supervisor visits the employee, on no
fixed or set schedule, to praise at that time.
FIXED RATIO
Reinforcement occurs after a set number of
behaviors: piece rate pay.
VARIABLE RATIO
Reinforcement occurs after a random number
of behaviors: gambling, especially slot
machines.
Using Reinforcement
• If workers are positively reinforced for their high
performance, they will work harder.
• If workers receive immediate reinforcement for their
hard work, they will work harder than if their
reinforcement is delayed.
• Frequent reinforcement of positive behavior and
infrequent reinforcement of negative behavior results in
higher performance.
Spring 2007 Motivation 19
More on Using Reinforcement
• Workers will work harder if their reinforcements for work
are somewhat random.
• If a positive work behavior is never reinforced, it will be
extinguished.
• Reinforcements may be of several different kinds and
must be tied to the individual worker.
• If workers are rewarded for even small increases in
performance, then greater performance may result.
Spring 2007 Motivation 20
Goal Setting
• Goals lead to performance
• Specific goals lead to higher performance than
general goals
• Performance increases in proportion to goal
difficulty -- but goals should be attainable
• Goals must be accepted
• Goals should be linked to feedback and rewards
Spring 2007 Motivation 21
What is a Good Goal ?
• Specific
• Measurable
• Attainable
• Rewarded, realistic
• Timely
• Feedback
• Integrated, Intermediate
• Challenging, clear
Spring 2007 Motivation 22
Using Goal Setting
• Workers work harder if they have goals to strive for.
• Workers work harder if they have goals that are high and
challenging, rather than easy or unattainable.
• If goals are clear and understandable, workers will work
harder.
• If workers have a chance to participate in setting goals, they
will be more committed to attaining those goals.
Spring 2007 Motivation 23
More on Goal Setting
• If larger goals are broken down into short-term goals,
workers will receive more frequent feedback about goal
accomplishment and, thus, strive harder to meet those
goals.
• If employees know what the consequences of goal
accomplishment are (for themselves and the
organization), they will strive harder to meet those goals.
Spring 2007 Motivation 24
Yet More…
• If individual goals are integrated with organizational
goals, workers will work harder.
• If progress toward goal accomplishment is measurable
and feedback is given, the workers will strive harder to
meet those goals.
• Workers work harder if goals are specific, rather than
general or “do your best”.
Spring 2007 Motivation 25
The Complex Model….
V Perceived
Equity of
Value of Skills, Abilities Extrinsic Rewards
Reward and Traits Rewards
E2
Effort Performance Goals Satisfaction
E1
Role Intrinsic
Perception Rewards
Perceived
Effort-Reward
Probability
A Simplified Model
Individual
Effort
Individual
Performance
Expectancy
Organizational
Rewards
Individual
Goals
Spring 2007 Motivation 27
Equity Theory
• Employees must believe they are treated fairly, or
motivation will wane. Equity theory maintains that
employees evaluate their inputs (IS) in relation to
their outcomes (OS) as compared to the inputs (IO)
and outcomes (OO) of others to determine fairness.
Is IO
Os OO
Spring 2007 Motivation 28
Responses to Perceived Inequity
• Change perception of own outputs
• Change perception of own inputs
• Change own outputs (ask for raise)
• Change own inputs (work less)
• Change perception of others’ inputs or outputs
• Choose a different referent
• Withdraw from situation (quit)
Spring 2007 Motivation 29
Job Characteristics Model
Core Job Critical Personal and
Dimensions Psychological States Work Outcomes
Skill Variety Experienced High Internal
Task Identity Meaningfulness Work Motivation
Task Significance of the Work
High-Quality
Work Performance
Experienced
Autonomy Responsibility for
Work Outcomes High Satisfaction
With the Work
Knowledge of the
Feedback Actual Results of the Low Absenteeism
Work Activities And Turnover
Strength of Employee Growth Need