Tutorials
Kuo En Chang
Department of Information and
Computer Education
National Taiwan Normal University
Multimedia for Learning:
Methods and Development 1
Initial
You will learn the design factors for
tutorial program
You will know the types of tutorial
program.
You will know the rules of question
design and response judgments.
Multimedia for Learning:
Methods and Development 2
Factors to Tutorials (Fig. 4.1)
Introduction of the tutorial
Questions and responses
Judgment of responses
Feedback about responses
Remediation
Organization and sequence of
program segments
Learner control in tutorials
Multimedia for Learning:
Methods and Development 3
Introduction of the Tutorial
Presentation of Objectives
Behavioral objectives (Examples)
After this lesson, you will be able to
multiply two-digit numbers.
At the end of this lesson, you will be
able to state the causes of the Civil War.
This lesson will teach you to determine
whether a painting is of the Classic,
Impressionist, or Modern period.
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Methods and Development 4
Introduction of the Tutorial
Presentation of Objectives
Behavioral objectives
A statement of conditions under which
the behavior should occur
A description of the behavior
A criterion for acceptable performance
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Methods and Development 5
Introduction of the Tutorial
Presentation of Objectives (Fig. 4.2)
Non-Behavioral objectives
After this lesson you will understand
the events that led up to the Civil War.
You will learn to distinguish and
appreciate paintings of different periods.
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Methods and Development 6
Introduction of the Tutorial
Presentation of Objectives
Addressing
Use of nonbehavioral objectives
Present objectives not all tutorials
Objectives are difficult to write for
some subjects.
Objectives can serve as motivating
learners.
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Methods and Development 7
Introduction of the Tutorial
Stimulating Prior Knowledge
People learn more when they can relate
new information to what they already
know.
The introduction of a tutorial should
provide a brief synopsis of related
information studied previously.
Although prior knowledge should be
applied throughout a lesson, starting that
process in the introduction may increase
motivation by showing relevance.
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Methods and Development 8
Introduction of the Tutorial
Stimulating Prior Knowledge
New knowledge may be connected
to prior knowledge by
Giving common examples of the new
knowledge.
The use of extended analogy.
Anchored instruction
• A rich natural context brings much more of
the learners’prior knowledge to bear, thus
facilitating learning outcomes.
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Methods and Development 9
Introduction of the Tutorial
Pretesting
Pretesting outcomes
The learner is not ready for this
program.
The learner is ready for and should
study this program.
The learner already knows some or all
of the information and should skip
those sections of the programs.
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Methods and Development 10
Introduction of the Tutorial
Pretesting
Alternatives
Put a pretest in a separate program to
be used before the tutorial program.
Put the pretest in the tutorial program
with an option for an instructor to turn
it on or off.
Provide the option to take or skip the
pretest for mature learners.
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Methods and Development 11
Introduction of the Tutorial
Pretesting
Purposes
To assess knowledge of prerequisites
To asses knowledge of the final
objectives
To assess both prerequisites and final
objectives
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Methods and Development 12
Questions and Responses
The Function of Questions
Provide interaction
Keep attention
Provide practice
Deep process
Assessment
Provide program sequencing
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Methods and Development 13
Questions and Responses
Frequency of Questions
Questions should occur frequently
with interspersed in presentation.
Electronic book with a final quiz is
not tutorials.
Four-part cycle
Present-question-judge-feedback
Question-judge-feedback-present –
Socratic dialog.
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Methods and Development 14
Questions and Responses
Types of Questions
Alternate-response questions – learner
chooses the correct response or
responses from a list.
Also called recognition questions and
objective questions.
Four kinds: Multiple-choice, Marking, True-
false, Matching questions.
Easier to program and require little typing to
respond.
Testing for recognition.
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Methods and Development 15
Questions and Responses
Types of Questions
Constructed-response question –
learner produces rather than select
a response.
Essay, completion, or short-answer
questions.
Be easier to write and may reduce
guessing.
Testing for recall.
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Questions and Responses
Types of Questions
Multiple-Choice Questions (Fig. 4.3)
Use the mouse for responding.
The incorrect alternatives of a multiple-choice question
must be plausible.
Three or four alternatives should usually be given.
The correct answer should not be revealed by irrelevant
features of the alternatives.
The stem of the question should be a complete
sentence.
Provide only one correct answer among the alternatives.
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Methods and Development 17
Questions and Responses
Types of Questions
Marking Questions (Fig. 4.4 and Fig. 4.5)
Require learner to respond by marking parts
of the display.
Marking questions are easiest to answer using
the mouse, rather than the keyboard.
True-False Questions (Fig. 4.6)
Assess higher-order skills such as
comprehension.
Learners can respond quickly.
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Methods and Development 18
Questions and Responses
Types of Questions
Matching Questions (Fig. 4.7)
Be useful for certain types of learning, such as
concept learning and visual-verbal
associations.
Use drag-and drop method as a way to
respond to question.
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Methods and Development 19
Questions and Responses
Types of Questions
Essay Questions
It is impossible for a computer program to
analyze an essay response.
It is possible to store a learner’s essay
response for later judgment by an instructor.
Ask learner to write an extended response to
a question, and compared the response to
that of an expert.
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Questions and Responses
Types of Questions
Complete Questions (Figs. 4.8 to 4.10)
Only words of significance should be blanked
out.
A question should not contain too many
blanks.
The blanks should be near or at the end of the
question.
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Methods and Development 21
Questions and Responses
Types of Questions
Short-Answer Questions (Figs. 4.11 to 4.13)
A single-word response is easier for a
computer program to judge than the multiple-
word response.
The length of expected responses in short-
answer questions should be reasonably short,
both to prevent typographical errors and to
facilitate judging.
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Methods and Development 22
Questions and Responses
Factors affecting quality of questions
Assessing comprehension
Many questions are merely statements from
the text rephrased into question form.
(verbatim question)
Paraphrase questions rephrase statements in
the presentations using synonyms.
New-application questions require learner to
apply a rule or principle to a new situation.
Categorical questions require learner to apply
rules or principles to subordinate or
superordinate classes.
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Methods and Development 23
Questions and Responses
Factors affecting quality of questions
Reading level
Readability formulas provide an estimate of
question adequacy in this regard.
Abbreviations
Generally increase the difficult of a question.
Negative words
Figs. 4.14 and 4.15.
Scrolling
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Methods and Development 24
Questions and Responses
Use of Graphics in Questions
Graphics as the context. (Fig. 4.16)
Graphics as a prompt. (Fig. 4.17)
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Methods and Development 25
Questions and Responses
Placement of Questions
Pre-Questions
Post Questions
Questions in information
Presentation.
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Methods and Development 26
Questions and Responses
Mode of Response
Keyboard (Fig. 4.18)
Constructed-response questions
Mouse (Fig. 4.19)
Alternate-response questions
Speech
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Methods and Development 27
Questions and Responses
Response Economy
Pointing devices like the mouse tend
to facilitate response economy.
The amount of typing can still be
kept to a minimum.
Short response prevent input errors
and are easier to judge.
Longer responses may be improved
by splitting them into parts.
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Questions and Responses
Response and Typing Prompt
A response prompt signifying that
computer is waiting for a response.
A typing prompt identifies where
typing will appear.
A line or two below the response
prompt and near the left margin (Figs.
4.20 and 4.21).
Make the selection areas obvious (Figs.
4.22 and 4.23).
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Methods and Development 29
Questions and Responses
Other Interaction
Allowing learners to ask questions, to
take notes, to construct diagrams, and to
generate analogies.
Allowing two learners working together
and promote interactions between the
learners.
Computer ask an open-ended question,
have one learner answer it, and have the
other learner judge.
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Methods and Development 30
Judgment of Responses
Judging is the process of evaluating
a response
to give feedback
to make program sequence decisions
to store performance data.
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Judgment of Responses
Types of Judgments
The response is correct.
The response contains an expected
error.
The response contains an
unexpected error.
The response is partially correct.
The response is neither right or
wrong.
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Judgment of Responses
Judgment to Response Types
A single selection
The responses is compared to the answer and is either
correct, incorrect, or improper.
An example of an improper response is using the
keyboard when the mouse should be used or entering a
numeral instead of a letter.
Multiple selections
The response may be correct, incorrect, improper, or
partially correct.
A partial correct response means that, although some
correct selections were made, either some incorrect
selections were included or not all correct selections
were made.
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Judgment of Responses
Judgment to Response Types
A numeric response
The response is judged by comparing it to the
correct number and optionally to one or more
anticipated incorrect numbers.
Responses may be correct, expected incorrect,
unexpected incorrect, partially correct, or
improper.
Numeric questions sometimes allow a
tolerance.
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Methods and Development 34
Judgment of Responses
Judgment to Response Types
A single-string response
Does the correct string appear in the response?
Does a synonym for the correct string appear
in the response?
Is the response string spelled correctly?
Is the case (upper or lower) of the string
correct?
Do any expected incorrect strings appear in
the response?
Are there any unnecessary words?
Is there any punctuation in the response, and
if so, does it affect correctness?
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Methods and Development 35
Judgment of Responses
Judgment to Response Types
A multiple-string response
Synonyms may or may not be considered for
either correct or expected incorrect strings.
Word order may be considered.
A numeric-plus-string response
Distinguishing the numeric and the string
parts of response and must allow for both
parts to be correct or incorrect, or one part
correct and one part incorrect.
Tolerance and equivalent may be considered.
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Judgment of Responses
Judgment to Response Types
Dragging and drawing
An essay
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Judgment of Responses
General Judging Considerations
Length
Time limits
Help and escape options
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Feedback About Response
Feedback is the reaction of a
program to the learner’s response.
In the form of text messages and
graphic illustrations.
Should encourage the learner to
improve thinking and
comprehension.
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Methods and Development 39
Feedback About Response
Feedback following format errors
(Fig. 4.24).
Feedback following correct
responses (Fig. 4.25).
Feedback following neutral
responses.
Feedback following content errors.
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Methods and Development 40
Feedback About Response
Positive and Corrective Feedback
Feedback should be positive
Avoid negative statement, sarcasm, and
should never demean the learner.
Joke should not be made at the learner’s
expense.
Feedback should be corrective
It should provide the learner with information
to improve future performance.
A potential danger of providing interesting
feedback following errors is that it may
increase the rate of errors.
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Methods and Development 41
Feedback About Response
Timing of Feedback
Immediate and delayed feedbacks
Immediate feedback is not always more
beneficial than delayed feedback, but is
almost always better than no feedback.
The proper timing of feedback depends
on the nature of what is being learned
and how it is being learned.
Immediate feedback always be used in
multimedia programs.
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Methods and Development 42
Feedback About Response
Timing of Feedback
Delayed feedback has generally been
demonstrated for propositional knowledge.
Immediate feedback is more likely to
enhance learning procedural knowledge.
Learners believe the computer is not
working properly when feedback is
delayed.
Immediate feedback works best in
tutorials.
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Methods and Development 43
Feedback About Response
Hints
Rewording the question or problem.
Showing the solution for a similar
problem.
Giving the learner part of the correct
answer.
Giving the learner information that
helps generate the correct answer.
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Feedback About Response
Types of Feedback
Text feedback
Graphic feedback (Fig. 4.26)
Encourage further analysis and thinking.
Audio and video feedback
Dual coding theory
Markup feedback (Fig. 4.27)
Special symbols indicate errors and missing information.
Error-Contingent Feedback (Fig. 4.28 to Fig.
4.33)
Feedback tailored to the nature of learner’s error
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Methods and Development 45
Feedback About Response
Subsequent Attempts
After a response error and feedback, the learner
may be given another chance to answer the
question.
A tutorial should give the correct answer after a
reasonable number of attempts, should provide
assistance such as hints, and should permit the
learner to request the answer.
Being unable to produce a correct response is
discouraging and may cause the learner to quit
the program.
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Methods and Development 46
Feedback About Response
Remediation
Refers to the more extensive presentation
of information for learners who are
consistently not learning the material.
To repeat information already seen.
To provide restatements of information with
new and simpler wording.
To take more examples, pictures, sample
problems, or practice with simpler parts or the
material.
To have the learner use other media or work
with a live instructor.
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Methods and Development 47
Organization and Sequence
Types of Information Organization
Verbal information
Relationship
• Temporal: do A after you do B
• Causative: A causes B
• Categorical: A is a member of B
• Exemplary: A is an example of B
• Characteristic: A is a property of B
• Comparative: A and B are compared
Organizational summaries
• Textual (Fig. 4.34)
• Pictorial (Fig. 4.35)
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Organization and Sequence
Types of Information Organization
Conceptual information
Concrete concept, defined concept, or social
concept.
Organizational presentation
• Teach the characteristics that define the concept.
• Simple instances of the concept are given.
• Simple noninstances of the concept are given for
contrast.
• Difficult instances and noninstances are introduced.
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Organization and Sequence
Types of Information Organization
Rules and Principles
Rule-Example Method
• The rules or principles and their foundations are directly
stated and then demonstrated, after which the learner is
guided in their application.
• It works better for most learners.
Example-Rule Method
• Demonstrates applications and leads the learner to infer
or discover the rule or principle.
• It leads to better understanding.
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Organization and Sequence
Types of Information Organization
Skills
Skills are taught using step-by-step descriptions,
demonstrations, and modeling of the activity to be
learned.
Most skills can be broken down into component
subskills.
Designing procedural learning
• Perform a path analysis to determine steps, sequence,
and decision.
• Begin with a simple example of the procedure.
• Provide help on the difficult steps.
• Give an overview or summary of the steps.
• Teach the principles that underlie the procedure.
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Organization and Sequence
Types of Information Organization
Organizations
Hierarchical (Fig. 4.36)
Web (Fig. 4.37)
Classification matrix (Fig. 4.38)
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Organization and Sequence
Linear Tutorials (Fig. 4.39)
This structure does not take advantage of
the computer, does not adapt to
individual learners, and is not very
creative or interesting.
Sequence types
hierarchical sequence.
Familiarity and difficulty.
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Organization and Sequence
Branching Tutorials (Fig. 4.40)
Amount of branching
Criteria for branching
Individual information
Cumulative performance
Learner choice
Direction of Branching
Forward branch (Fig. 4.40)
Backward branch
Sideway branch
Tutorial that assess learner level and adjust
difficulty level (Fig. 4.41).
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Methods and Development 54
Learner Control in Tutorials
Paging
Page controls should always be obvious and
easy.
Page controls should be consistent in position
and method.
To avoid timed pauses for paging.
Review
Program menus
Text search
User definable bookmarks
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Methods and Development 55
Learner Control in Tutorials
Help
On program operation
On content
Asking for answer
• Require at least on try before the hint or answer
option is given.
• Provide feedback on the percentage of interactions
attempted and correctly answered.
• Provide hints and answers in steps.
• Keep track of the number of times answers are
requested and give advice if the user requests
answers too frequently. Learning:
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Methods and Development 56
Ending
Select a subject, and demonstrate the
presentation flow of branching tutorial.
Design an evaluation form of tutorial
program.
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Methods and Development 57