During the Middle Ages [approximately 500-1500 A.D.]drama developed along different lines throughout
Europe. It is impossible to positively track this development because few records exist. The earliest evidence of
drama in the Middle Ages is a partial manuscript from a western European liturgical drama dating to the 10th
century. The erudite nun, Hroswitha of Gandersheim, wrote six moral plays “after Terrence,” the texts of which
are still in existence.
However, bans established by the Roman Catholic church against secular [worldly] drama suggest the
existence of other performances: acrobats, mimes, and dancers, rope walkers, animal trainers, and musicians.
They performed at fairs, in market places, at crossroads, and – if they were lucky – in the great halls of castles.
Often they were beaten, jailed, and driven from town to town. The horizontally divided medieval society was
exceedingly fond of minstrelsy, and the jongleurs [traveling juggler or trickster] were welcomed by peasants,
clergy, and nobility [society’s three levels], not only because they provided entertainment; but, also because
they brought news of other places. Most socially acceptable of these traveling entertainers were the minstrels
who sang gestes.
The liturgical drama of this time was definitely influential in the development of drama, but did not direct the
course of later secular plays.
The Liturgical drama first came into existence as a question-and-answer song performed by monks on Easter.
These “plays” were sung in Latin, and the performers eventually included priests, choirboys, and, later, nuns.
One part of the Mass was the singing of “Alleluia” by the choir at various intervals. Some time about the turn of
the ninth century, an anonymous monk-musician, thinking to add more beauty to the service [or simply to
relieve the monotony], hit upon the idea of holding the last syllable of the “Alleluia,” and singing it to more
music. These wordless sequences, called sequentiae, developed in time into elaborate, beautiful, and melodious
tunes for each particular feast day. Notker Balbulus of St. Gall used passages from the Bible suited to the
special significance of the particular Mass, and for the first time music and words were paralleled on the basis
of one note to a syllable. These worded sequences or tropes did indeed make the music easier to remember. It
was in this way that the theatrical element of dialogue was introduced.
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Another element was scenic representation. This was already present in the Mass, for in order to teach its
parishioners the important aspects of the faith the Church had pictures and statuary as well as pantomime by the
priests conducting the services.
The only element lacking was impersonation, and it soon followed. One of the most popular of the tropes was
that sung at the Easter Mass, the so-called Quem Quaeritis trope, the earliest manuscript of which comes from
Limoges and dates back to about 923. This is essentially a drama having three parts: the question by the angels,
the answer of the three Marys, and the reply to the Marys’ answer. Quem Quaeritis means “Whom do you
seek.”
Soon after the rise in popularity of the Easter service, the Sepulchrum, liturgical dramas became a Christmas
tradition also. The Christmas play was known as the Praesepe and was expanded by three scenes: The
Annunciation, the birth of John the Baptist, and the scene depicting Joseph’s doubts about the Virgin Mary – a
most popular theme in medieval times.
As the occasions for performances grew, the dramas were translated from the Latin into the language of the
region and members of the congregation were allowed to perform in the plays. Saint and Mystery plays became
popular forms of church drama. Saint plays (Miracle Plays) are based on legends of saints [the most popular
were St. Nicholas and the Virgin Mary] , and Mystery plays are based on biblical history. The Passion Play,
which addresses the last week of Christ’s life, is a well-known liturgical drama performed for the Easter service.
The Passion Play, written in the medieval mystery play tradition is still performed in Europe at
Oberammergau, Germany, by the citizens of the Bavarian village where it was first performed in 1634. It has
been produced every ten years since 1760.
The early Saint and Mystery plays were staged in the churches on platforms called mansions. These mansions
represented biblical settings such as Heaven, Hell, and the Sea of Galilee. As the popularity of these dramas
increased, they were moved out of the church to the town square where the mansions were placed in a straight
line. Some of these stages were permanent, but evidence exists that the players toured from city to city using
these settings.
By the late 14th century, the medieval craft guilds had taken over the presentation of the Saint and Mystery
plays in England. Most were performed during the festival of Corpus Christi, which had been officially
instituted in A.D. 1311. Even though these guilds were secular, the members were associated with the church.
Each guild presented one part of the story; for example, the shipwrights presented the Noah pageant.
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The craft guilds would tour through the country and present the liturgical plays on pageant wagons, which were
stages on wheels. The pageant wagons were divided into two levels: the upper level was a platform stage; the
lower level was a dressing room. Each guild had it pageant wagon decorated according to which play in the
cycle – a series of short plays depicting religious history from creation through doomsday – they presented. The
guilds moved through the town as they presented their plays.
This is the century of three innovations: the first signed pieces by Hilarius of both French and English
background [a Lazarus and a Daniel], the first play in the language of the people [the Beauvais Daniel], and the
first play directed to be played out doors [the Anglo-Norman Mystery of Adam, whose stage directions indicate
production on the church porch].
The 13th and 14th centuries are the years of the great cycles, covering the whole plan of salvation.
Four complete cycles survive: one of 48 plays from York, one of 25 plays from Chester, one of 32 plays from
Wakefield [sometimes called the Townley cycle], and one of 42 plays from Coventry. The Townley cycle has
been called the most notable for its literary style, and its Second Shepherd’s Play has been performed most
successfully in recent times.
While the liturgical dramas were developing, the secular dramas, called folk dramas, were developing
simultaneously. The first record of a folk play comes from 12th century England. Folk dramas usually took
place during planting time, harvest time, and Christmas and were staged outdoors. These plays were presented
for folk festivals, which often coincided with Christian holidays. Out of these performances arose the famous
Robin Hood plays [c.1300], with the hero stealing from the rich and giving to the poor. An increasing amount of
secular material, especially humorous incidents, made it into the liturgical performances. Also, the secular
actors began presenting the popular liturgical dramas.
Since the popularity of drama was increasing by the 15th century, the church began presenting plays that were
not for a specific holiday celebration. These Morality Plays were educational in nature, teaching the difference
between right and wrong in the context of the devil and God battling for souls. These plays usually took the
form of allegories dramatized by symbolic characters presented abstract qualities, such as the title character
who represents humankind in Everyman, the only Morality play still performed.
Since the church did not approve of the secular presentations of the traditional liturgical drama, the secular
dramatists began presenting Morality plays, which evolved into Moral Interludes by the early 16th century.
Moral Interludes were shorter than the traditional Morality Play, and they included more humorous characters
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and incidents. The sotie was essentially a comedy played by fools in their characteristic costume, and was
marked by clever repartee and a tendency to satirize, such as in Gringore’s Play of the Prince of Fools.
These secular dramatists became the first acting companies, and eventually came under the patronage of the
nobility. Under the influence of the nobility, forms of drama evolved even further to include chronicle plays,
productions based on historical events, and masques, highly artistic spectacles glorifying the nobility for which
they were written and performed.
The Middle Ages was the heyday of the amateur. In the early stages the cycle plays were entirely in the hands
of the clergy; they not only prepared the scripts but acted in them, taking the women’s parts as well as the
men’s. As the plays expanded in text and the cast increased in number, laymen (guilds) were invited to
participate. Direction, however, remained in the hands of the clerical regisseur, who moved about in full view
of the audience, prompt book and staff in hand. Whatever type of producing organization – professional,
amateur, religious, guild – a high degree of skill was expected from the performers. The behavior of the actors
was strictly regulated: they were not to drink before, after, or during a performance; to eat only what was
provided; not to leave the theatre during the rehearsals or the performances; to pay fines for any infringement of
the rules.
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